EPU Research Papers Issue 02/08

STOPPING THE USE OF CHILD SOLDIERS. A GLOBAL PERSPECTIVE

Editor: Ronald H. Tuschl Author: Magdalena Czyz

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1.Introduction....................................................................................................... 3

2.TheCurrentSituation ....................................................................................... 3

3.RootCausesofChildrenBeingUsedasSoldierstheContradictions ............. 5

4.RecruitmentStyles ........................................................................................... 6

5.PersonalandSocietalFactorsAffectingChildrensDecisiontoEnlist.............. 8

6.ConsequencesofParticipation....................................................................... 12

7.ThePositiveSideofMilitaryParticipation....................................................... 15

8.ChallengesFacingDemobilizationandReintegrationEfforts......................... 15

9.Recommendations:ApplyingtheABCConflictTriangle................................. 16

10.Conclusion.................................................................................................... 25

!"+.!% % !$%)%!("Wemustnotcloseoureyestothefact thatchildsoldiersarebothvictimsandperpetrators.Theysometimescarryout themostbarbaricactsofviolence.Butno matter what the child is guilty of, the main responsibility lies with us, theadults.Thereissimplynoexcuse,noacceptableargumentforarmingchildren." ArchbishopDesmondM.Tutu(Brett&Stohl,2004)

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Overthepasttwentyyears,morechildrenhavebeendirectlyaffectedbyarmedconflict thaneverbefore. Inpastwars,up to90%ofallcasualtiesconsistedofadult soldierswhereas today over 80%of the victimsarewomenand children(Brett & Stohl, 2004). Because of their direct participation in violent strife,hundreds of thousandsofchildrenaround theworld arebeingstrippedof theirchildhood. According toUNICEF,more than500 000 children are involved inarmed conflict, 300 000 of whom are serving as soldiers at any given time(CoalitiontoStoptheUseofChildSoldiers,2004).UNICEFhasdefinedachildsoldieras:Any child girl or boy under the ageof 18,who is part of any kind ofregular or irregular armed force or armed group, including, but not limited to,combatants, cooks, porters, messengers, and anyone accompanying suchgroups other than as family members. It includes girls and boys recruited forsexualpurposesorforcedmarriage.(Brett&Stohl,2004)Child soldiers are used in over thirty countries, including Myanmar (Burma),Colombia, Uganda, Ethiopia, Sudan, Somalia, Liberia and the DemocraticRepublicofCongo.While theproblemexists inseveralAsiancountriesaswellas parts of Latin America, Europe and theMiddle east, it ismost prevalent inAfrica, where some 100 000 children have been estimated to be involved ininternalarmedconflictsin2004.Whilemostchildsoldiersarebetween14and18yearsofage,someasyoungas five yearsoldhavebeen recruited to takeuparms. (Human Rights Watch, 2004) Such was the case in Liberia, whereinnocent five year old boys fought as combatants in the socalled small boysunits.(Brett&Stohl,2004)

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Children involved in violent conflict are oftenmanipulated by adults into takingpart in acts that hold longterm repercussions which are far greater than theycouldeverimagine.Mostchildsoldiersarerecruitedbyarmedpoliticalfactions,eitherthroughdirectforceortheuseofpersuasionandintimidation.Groupsthatrecruit young combatants include government supported paramilitary forces,militias and units of selfdefence working in conflict areas. Others consist ofarmed forcesopposed to thecentralgovernmentaswellasgroupscomprising

primarilyethnic religiousminoritieswho fightagainst the government andeachotheraliketosecurelandandresources.Oncetheyarerecruited,childrenaresubjecttosomeofthemostatrociousactsof violence. They are coerced into taking part in highly dangerous activities.Some of these include using weapons on the front lines of battle, laying anddetecting mines or explosives, transporting supplies, taking part in suicidemissionsandactingasspiesormessengers.Childreninvolvedinarmedconflictarefrequentlykilledorinjuredduringcombator while carrying out other tasks. They are usually forced to live under harshconditionswith insufficient foodand little or no access to healthcare. They arealmostalways treatedbrutally,subjected tobeatingsandhumiliating treatment.Punishmentsformistakesordesertionareoftenverysevere.Manychildrenareheavily drugged as a means of control to keep them fearless, brutal andemotionally detached from the act of killing. Some children are given moraleboosters which include cocaine, marijuana and alcohol. While recounting hisexperiences in Sierra Leone to the International Education and ResourceNetwork (iEARN), a child soldier revealed that he was doing all this not with[himself] but with the morale booster that [he] took before leaving for thebattlefield.Anotherchildsoldierconfessed:IwasinjectedwithcocaineandthengivenanAK47 rifle tocarry. I startedgoing to front lineskillingpeople, rapinganddoingallsortsofbad things.Yetanotherexample is thatofa15yearoldboywhofoughtfortheoppositiongroupintheDemocraticRepublicofCongo.Herevealed: Theywouldgiveus chavre [cannabis]and forceus tokillpeople totoughenusup.SometimestheybroughtuswomenandgirlstorapeLtheywouldbeat us if we refused. The examples given above are only three of countlessinstances in which child soldiers are given drugs to better perform in battle.(iEARN)Girlsarealsousedassoldiersinmanypartsoftheworld,especiallyinColombiaand Ethiopia, where they comprise one third of the child soldier populations.Femalerecruitsareparticularlyatriskofrape,sexualharassmentandabuseaswellasbeinginvolvedincombatandothertasks.InsomecountrieslikeAngola,Sierra Leone and Uganda, rebel leaders sexually abuse young girls andforcefully take themas their wives. InNorthernUganda,HumanRightsWatchreportedrebelcommanderstohaveimpregnatedyoungfemalesoldiers.(HumanRightsWatch,2006)Upongivingbirth,thegirlswereforcedtotietheirbabiestotheir backs and continue with their regular military duties, which includedshooting at National Security forces. A 13year old Burundi girl interviewed byAmnestyInternationaloncestatedIdontknowhowmanypeoplehadsexwithme. A man would come, and then another and another. You couldntrefuseLtheysaidtheydkillyouifyouranaway.(Cohn&GoodwinGill,1994).

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Therearemanyreasons forwhichchildren living inconflictzonesarerecruitedas soldiers. For one, they are easy targets due to their psychological andphysicalimmaturity.Also,becauseoftheirlackofindependence,childrenarenotequipped for making informed decisions and can, thus, be more easilymanipulatedbytheiradultcounterparts.Ignorantoftheirrights,theyarehelplessand particularly vulnerable to being taken advantage of. They are especiallyvaluable in combat as they rarely analyse the risks, easily adapt to violentsettings, require less food thanadult fightersandaremucheasier to train andforce into becoming aggressive. They also cost very little and make obedientsoldiers. Because of their age and inherent innocence, they are naturallyperceivedas less threatening,which isuseful in confusing theadversaries.Assuch,childrenserveashighlyeffectivespiesorinformants.Thesocioeconomicsituationthataccompaniesanyviolentconflictincreasesthechancesofchildrenbeingrecruitedassoldiers,andisthus,akeycontradiction.Some major factors that contribute to childrens involvement in armed conflictincludepoverty,unemployment, lackofaccesstoeducation,domesticviolence,exploitation and abuse. Conflicts result in children and youth being displacedfromtheirhomes,separatedfromtheirfamiliesandleftorphanedinthestreets,allofwhichrendersthemattractiverecruitsforguerrillagroupsfranticallyseekingoutcombatants.Intimeswhenconflictisprolonged,childrenareusedtosustainlarge numbers of soldiers following heavy casualties, thus strengthening theforceofanarmedgroup.Whenoneorbothparentsdieorareawayfighting inwar, many children take on the role as head of the household, a task thatinvolvesmore responsibility than they can handle.During conflict, children areleft with little to do, as the activities they would normally carry out in times ofpeacearehinderedby theviolence.Schools inwhich theyused tospend theirdaysareeithershutdownordestroyedandthelandtheywouldhelpcultivateisofflimitsduetowarfareormines.Childrenareoftenabandonedandlefttofendfor themselves, as their familymembers, friends and neighbours are arbitrarilyarrested, humiliated, abused and even tortured. The loss of their families andfriends as well as the deterioration of social structures leaves children poor,illiterateandstrandedinruralareas.Alltheseconditionscausethemtobemostatriskforrecruitment.CountriesinwhichseveresocioeconomicconditionshaveresultedinchildrenbeingforcedtofightincludeAfghanistan,Burundi,Colombia,IndonesiaandthePhilippines.(Cohn&GoodwinGill,1994)Onereasonforwhichchildrenbecomesuchattractivetargetsforarmedgroupsisthat,intheirdesperation,theybecomeeasilypersuadedbymilitaryideologicalpropagandathatencouragesthemtoenlist.Moreoftenthannot,agunequalsamealticketandjoininganarmedgroupseemslikeamoreappealingalternativetosittingaloneathomeinutterfearandhelplessness.Insomewartornregions,manychildrenviewenlistmentas thesolemeansofsurviving.Manyalsoenrolafter witnessing their parents and siblings tormented or murdered by armedoppositiongroupsandgovernmentforces.

Inadditiontopsychologicalpersuasion,akeyreasonforwhichchildsoldierusehasbeenmadepossibleoverthelasttwodecadesisthatarmstechnologyhasbecome so advanced that even little boys and girls can nowmanage to carrysmallweapons,includingM16andAK47assaultrifles.Notonlyarethesearmseasytohandle,buttheyarealsoverycheap,somecostingaslittleas10poundsapiece.

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Thereareseveralwaysinwhichchildrenwindupfightingforarmedforcesandguerrilla groups. They range from forced and coerced recruitment to voluntaryinvolvement.Thereisafinelinethatseparatestheseformsofenlistment,asitisvery difficult to determine at what precise age a child or youth is capable ofvolunteering in the same way that is accepted of an adult.While no one iscompletely free of outside influence when making a decision, children areparticularly prone to different forms of pressure coming from people and othersocialfactorsintheirenvironment.Thefirstformofchildmobilizationtobediscussedisforcedrecruitment.Itentailsthe threat or actual violationof the physical integrity of the youth or someoneclose to him or her, practised by both armed opposition groups and nationalarmedforces.(Cohn&GoodwinGill,1994)Evenincountrieswhereenlistmentis under legal control, forced recruitment continues to occur, with underageteenagersandyoungmenbeingroundeduponadailybasis.Untiltheearly1990s,armedforcesinElSalvadorandGuatemalawouldfill theranksbysnatchingadolescentmalesfrombusesandcars,roundingthemupinmarketplacesandchurchesorsimplykidnappingthemonthestreet.Becauseofgovernmental corruption, neither country fully upholds its conscription laws, soknowingonesrightsdoesnotnecessarilypreventsomeonefrombeingforcefullyenlisted.Manypeasantsdonotpossessidentificationcardscertifyingtheirbirthdate,becauseeither:a) theirdateofbirthwasneverofficiallyregistered,b)theregistryofficehasbeendemolishedinthewarorc)thegovernmentfailstoissuethem identification cards until they reach 18 years of age. As such, victims ofrecruitment roundups seldom have a way of proving their age or that theybelongtocategoriesexcusedfromenlistment,includingstudentsandonlysons(thatis,ifanyoneisactuallywillingtolistentothem).Newconscriptsaretransportedfromtrainingquarterstostationsfarfromhome,making the search for an abducted son or husband extremely difficult andexpensive,especially for ruralpeasants.Sometimes familymembersprotest tono avail outside training centres and barracks. Even if they get a hold ofdocumentsrequiredforaconscriptsreleaseandimpartthemtotherightofficial,theyhavenoguaranteeoftheirlovedonebeingreleased.Assuch,theymayrisklosing importantpaperswithout receivingwhat theymerited. In fact, it isnearly

impossibleforsuchfamiliestogainanysortoflegalassistanceinthesearchandevenbribesareoflittleaid.Also,asrecruitsbecomemoreandmoreinvolvedinthesystem,militaryofficialsbecomeincreasinglyreluctanttoliberatethem.Until 1992, two major reasons for forced recruitment in El Salvador were theshortage ofmanpower and class discrimination. During the countrys civil war,thegovernmentnevermadeanyeffortstoenforcelegislationforsystematicandfairconscription.Peoplehadverylittlemotivationtoenlist,asarmysalarieswereextremelylow,especiallyinproportiontotheenormousrisksinvolvedinbeingasoldier.Assuch,evenpoorpeoplewererarelyattractedbytheoptiontoenlist,thus lowering military numbers. Unfortunately, members of the lower classbecamethemaintargetofrecruitmentdrivesastheyweremosteasilyspottedinpublic areas.Wealthier young men were less likely to ride the country buseswhere recruitment sweeps would take place. In the rare cases that theyhappenedtobetakingpublictransport,theycouldalwaysescaperecruitmentbypaying bribes or unofficial fines, in exchange for a younger brother or son.Between1980and1986,forcedrecruitmentbyElSalvadorsarmedfactionwasreportedtobeatitsworst.Inmanyvillages,especiallyinthenortheastpartofthecountry,childrenbetween6and12yearsoldwereobliged toattendguerrillasschools;thosebetween12and15wererequiredtogothroughmilitarytraining;andanyonebetween16and40wasforcedtoperformmilitaryservice.Assuch,countless Salvadorans fled their towns to protect their children from beingrecruited.(Cohn&GoodwinGill,1994)Population control is another source of forced conscription. It was the reasonbehind whichmuch of the recruitment of young indigenousMayan villagers inGuatemalatookplace.Childrenasyoungas14wereforcefullyrecruitedbytheparamilitarycivildefencepatrols(PACsorPatrullasdeAutodefensaCivil).Eventhough the PACs is described as voluntary organizations by article 34 of theGuatemalan constitution, military authorities would justify their acts to theMayansbyarguing that since thePAC isaprodemocratic system, refusing tojoin the organization is a clear sign of antidemocratic attitudes. Therefore,anyoneresistingenlistmentmustbelongtoarivalcommunistguerrillagroupandshould be disposed of. This left the young Guatemalan (orpeasants)with no choice but to enlist.Participating inPACwould only requireoneday ofwork perweek (thuscosting a dayswageofwork), but exemptionfromdutywouldresult inafinemuchhigherthanadayswage.Furthermore,arefusaltoenlistcouldcostthemtheirlife.Assuch,enlistingseemedlikethebestalternativegiventhechoices.Another form of forced recruitment is that of coercion and abuse. It includesthose circumstances where there is no proof of direct physical threat orintimidation,but the evidencesupports the inferenceof involuntaryenlistment.(Cohn&GoodwinGill,1994)

While force and coercion are sometimes used in recruiting children to join thearmy, most young soldiers join as a result of elaborate persuasion done onbehalf of the military. Children are all too often manipulated into becomingsoldiers through subtle pressures andmotivations,which are actually farmoredifficult to resist than obvious forced recruitment. A general image of the childsoldierinaparticularconflictzonemayservetoexplainwhysomechildrenfightandothersdonot,butitishardertomakebroadgeneralizationswhenitcomestounderstandingvoluntaryparticipation,asthemotivatingcausesaresodiverse.For example, in studies conducted in El Salvador, children from urban uppermiddle class familiesand those frompoor rural communitieshadverydifferentreasonsforvolunteeringfortheFMLN.Whileeachsituationisdistinct,itcanbepossible todetermine theunderlyingcausesofchildrenvolunteering to fightbydetermining the nature of the child soldier in the particular conflict at hand.Assuch, gaining this understanding can be a catalyst for helping reduce, if noteliminate,thecausesthatleadchildrentovoluntarilytakeuparms.

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As demonstrated by the aforementioned case of El Salvador, children varywidely, both within and across conflict zones. They differ not only in theirpersonalities, but also in the environments of their prewar and warrelatedexperiences. Studies carried out in diverse conflict zones point out that manychildren and youth join armed factions as a direct result of their personalexperiences and living conditions, and within the framework of their subjectiveevaluationofdecidingtovolunteer.The of daily life has a strong influence on a childsdecisiontojointhearmy.Someaspectsofmilitarizationincludearmedpoliceorsoldiersguarding thestreetsorpublic institutionssuchasschools;militarystaffholdingtoppositionsingovernment;militarycontrolofsociallife;publiccurfews;and armed checkpoints on roads. Evenwhen outright violent conflict does noterupt,militarizationcontinuestobeapartofchildrenslives.SuchwasthecaseinElSalvadoraroundthe1980s,and,untilrecently,continuedtobethecaseinthe mountainous regions of Guatemala and the cities of South Africa. In SriLanka, the militarization of education by the LTTE (Liberation Tigers of TamilEelam) continues to be of particular concern, especially since its dramatic risein1987, when manpower was low and fighting was escalating. The LTTE hasbeen reported to air violent Rambotype movies on TV, which included livecombat as well as military training. They have also been known to organizeparades of child soldiers in front of school children leaving classes, performmilitary training routines within school grounds, and give school presentationsexpressing the need for young combatants. There is even one school in theLTTEcontrolled area which has a memorial hall combined with a playground.Theareaisrepletewithphotosofchildrenwhodiedfightingincombat,andthe

seesaws have toy guns mounted unto them. In addition, every day Tamilchildrenspendatleastonehourperdaydiggingtrenchesasawayofcompletingtheirmilitarizedcivicduty.Withallthismilitaryinundationatschool,childrenareeventuallyrequiredtojointheLTTE.AsimilartypeofeducationalmilitarizationhasbeentakingplaceinPeru,wheresome 60% of school children live in zones partly controlled by the SenderoLuminoso, a national guerrilla group. In such areas, the curriculum includesmilitarystyle callisthenicsand laboureducation,wherein children learn tosewbandages, backpacks and uniforms. Classes are often cut short for popularassemblies,somecoursesarebanned,studentsarerecruitedforthearmyandteacherswhodonotteachinaccordancewiththeSenderoLuminososdemandsarepunished.(Cohn&GoodwinGill,1994)Childrens lives outside of schoolarealso often influencedbymilitary thinking,particularly in refugee camps. This is because refugee camps are located inareas open to combat and are centerfields for political exploitation. Manyhumanitarian aid organizations deliverweapons to refugee sites,whereunderagedyouthendupusingthem.In1992,over2000Sudanesedisplacedchildrendisappeared from a refugee camp in Kenya and are suspected to have beenrecruitedintotheSudanPeoplesLiberationArmy.(Cohn&GoodwinGill,1994) Inadditiontolivinginmilitarisedenvironments,theexperienceofdirectphysicalor structural violence also leads children to join armed factions. Children whohaveeitherpersonallyenduredorwitnessedabductions,executions,massacres,torture,sexualabuse,arbitraryarrest,deportation,andbombingsoftheirhomesorother property, often later choose tobecomesoldiers.This isbecausesuchsufferings tend to create feelings of revenge and a sense of responsibility forcontinuingtheeffortsoftheirmurderedlovedones.Girlsmayjointhemilitarytorunawayfromdomesticslaveryorforcedmarriageortofleedomesticviolence,exploitationandabuse.Violentexperiencesmayoftenproducetheconvictiontoreplaceadevastatedfamilyorsocialstructureandtheneedtotakecontroloverthecircumstancesaffectingonesplight.!"Socialandeconomicinequalitiesalsoinspirebothchildrenandadultstotakeuparms,eitherinhopesofbringingaboutchangeorsimplygettingsomefoodtogetthem through the day. Forces that recruit children often promise that they willfulfiltheirbasicneeds,includingfood,shelterandprotectionfromotheropposinggroups. They also offer minimal financial incentives. As such, some childrenvolunteer for recruitment to gain a subsistence wage. They may even bepressuredbytheirparentsto join in instanceswherewagesarepaiddirectlytothefamily.Thisoccursmostlywhenfamiliesareindesperatesituations,livinginpoverty and dying of hunger. In situations where survival is the driving force,childrenareunlikely to leave the ranksuntil theirbasicneeds,or thoseof their

families,aremet.Suchcasesweredocumentedby theRedCross inLiberia in1990,wherechildrenasyoungas7werepickinguparmsbecausethosewithgunscouldeat.(Cohn&GoodwinGill,1994)Suchcasesalsodemonstratehowlarge gaps in socioeconomic status can often be the root causes of childrentaking uparms. Social injustice leads to indiscriminate poverty,which leads toinsurgence,which in turn reduces the fulfilmentofpeoplesbasicneeds,whichgivesrisetovolunteerismamongyouthforarmedfactions.Finally,girlsmaybepressuredinto joining if theirparentsfeel that theytheirmarriageprospectsarepoor.Childrens individual perceptions of reality are shaped by their developmentalprocesses, as well as their environments. Childrens parents, families, friends,schools, religious communities and other communal institutions, can allpotentiallyplayaroleinsendingmessagesandputtingforthpressuresthatdirectthem towards takingpart in violence.Peoplewithin their communities canalsoinfluence the manner in which children assess the decision to get involved inaggressionornot.Childrens developmental stages intrinsically affect their appraisals of objectiveincidents, and can thus stimulate them to react to particular experiences byjoining armed factions. Likewise, developmental processes influence a childsassessmentofthechoicetojoin.Forexample,duringthestageofadolescence,in which identity formation is themain process, youth are likely to join armedfactions, as they offer them a sense of belonging. Adolescents are alsoparticularlyprone to joining thosearmedgroups thatappeal todifferentethnic,religious, or political ideologies. Under certain circumstances of societalinstability, young adults are inclined to create a false sense self by practicallyreplacingtheiridentitywithnationalistideology.Insuchcases,youthdevelopanexcessivesenseofnationalism,whichisoftentheonlythingremainingthatgivesmeaningtotheirlives.Inrefugeecamps,thefightforreclaimingoneshomelandserves as motivation for living when all else in the environment seems todeteriorate ones sense of purpose. For example, the Palestinian intifada (thenational resistance movement) provides a source of meaning and power toPalestinian refugees who would otherwise become utterly depressed andhopeless if they were to stay in the camps. It has also been noted thatPalestinians typically establish their identity based on their association withgreaterpoliticalgroups.Theimportancethatadolescentsattachtodifferentrolespresented in conflict, including soldier, victim, hero or leader, can alsoaffecttheirchoicetojoinarmedgroups.Atthisstageofdevelopment,choosingaparticular role in the conflict can also give youth a sense of control over theirfutures.Childrensattributionalstylesarealsomajorcontributorstothedecisionmakingprocess. For instance, those who naturally attribute the source of negativeincidents to external issues may be more apt to take up arms in the aim of

seekingrevenge.Childrenwhoviewoutsideinfluencesasbeingresponsiblefortheirdegreeofwellbeingaremorelikelytoreactthroughphysicalforce.Iffamilyandcommunityviolenceareprevalent,achildsrationaldecisionmakingprocess may become jaded, overriding his/her ability to nonviolently react toconflict.Assuch,childrenmayseeviolenceastheonlyoption inrespondingtothe structural and political troubles of their countries. Dr. Martin Baro, aSalvadoranpsychologist,proposedtheideathattoomuchmilitarizationwithinasociety results in mental militarization, wherein hostile responses to societaldifficultiesareseenasthenorm.(Cohn&GoodwinGill,1994)Childrenarealsoprone to picking up conflicting messages from adults. For example, in thePalestinianterritoriesoccupiedbyIsrael,somePalestinianparentsareproudoftheirarmedchildren,albeit theyconstantly fear for their safety. Likewise, inSriLanka, some Tamil families support the LTTE while at the same time doingeverything possible to protect their ownchildren fromgetting involved.Prior to1990, during their peak timeof popularity, the LTTEwere highly respected fortheir discipline, including prohibiting the use of alcohol, as well as their fairpracticesoftakingmoneyonlyfromthosewhocouldaffordit.Becausechildrenrecognized these qualities as ones valued by their communities, they wereprobablymorelikelytojointheLTTEratherthanothermilitaryTamilfactions.Peer pressure is extremely persuasive in children joining armed forces. Forcountless Palestinian children and youth to throw a stone is to be one of theguys, to hit an Israeli car is to become a hero and to be arrested and pleadinnocent is to be a man. In Liberia, children are also among the first to joinarmed groups due to peer pressure. The phrase everyone is doing it iscommonlycitedbyLiberianchildrenwhohavevolunteeredtojoinarmedforces.In fact, peer pressure is so pronounced in Liberia that Charles Taylor had nodifficulty recruiting children to join his military units. Similarly, my friends arejoiningisacommonreasonforwhichTamilchildreninSriLankaclaimtohavejoined the LTTE. A clever, though immoral, strategy used by the LTTE inrecruiting child soldiers involves taking boys out of schools, training them andthenreturningthemtotheirdailylives.Theboysthenspendtheirdaysatschoolravingaboutguns, inspiringothers to join thisglamorousmilitary training theykeephearingabout.#$%Childrenshopes,inadditiontofeelingsofempowermentandcapability(orlackthereof)alsoinfluencetheirdecisiontovolunteerforcombat.Whenchildrenfeelhelpless, theyperceive joiningarmedgroupsasawayofescapingdangerandgainingsomesortofsecurity.Theyalsoviewitasanoutlet for feeling trapped,defenceless and voiceless, thinking that being part of an armed force willsomehowhelptheminfluencetheissuescontrollingtheirlives.Suchsentimentsareprominentinrefugeecampswhereanatmosphereofpowerlessnesstendstoprevail. Around the 1980s, when El Salvadors death squad was carrying out

masskillings,manyyouthbetween15and25yearsoldjoinedtheFMLN(FrenteFarabundo Mart para la Liberacin Nacional) in hopes of evading abduction.Similarly,SriLankanyouthwhoareplaguedbyhopelessnessandseebutafutilefutureworkingonprivatisedteafields,alsoseriouslyconsider joiningtheLTTE.Inconflictsituations,feelingsofhelplessnessarealmostalwaysaccompaniedbyfeelings of vulnerability, which are another root cause of child soldiervolunteerism.

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Childrenwhohaveservedassoldiersfacevariouspsychosocialconsequences,whichcanbebothpositiveandnegative.Thissectionwillfocusonthenegativeimpactsthatdirectinvolvementinwarhasonchildren.Eachchildsexperienceinviolentconflictisdistinct,includingthenatureanddegreeoftheirparticipationinhostilities. These unique experiences, thus, produce varying psychosocialconsequences for different children. The economic and social conditions ofchildrens pre and postwar environments aswell as their uniquewarrelatedexperiencesplayarole inthewaychildrenrespondtoconflict.This isbecauseeach child subjectively processes these experiences in a distinct fashion. Assuch,similarexperiencesmayendupaffectingchildrenverydifferently.Onesevereconsequencethatchildrenfacefollowingtheirinvolvementinarmedconflict is thatofemotional trauma.Childrenwhohavebeenvictimsofwar (aspart of civilian casualties) are often able to regain a considerable level ofpsychosocial health. However, those who have served as soldiers and havethemselves beenperpetrators of violence find it farmore difficult to recuperateandtorecovertheirmentalstrength.Suchwasthecasewitha15yearoldboywhospentfourgruesomeyearsservingintheKhmerRougearmyofCambodia.After having spent one month in a camp in Thailand, he began hearing twovoicesthatwerequarrellinginsidehishead.ThefirstvoicewasthatofaKhmerRougeleader,whowasangrywiththeboyforhavingleftthearmy.ThesecondwasthatofaBuddhistpriestwhosaidtheboywouldbepunishedforhisactionswhen hedies. In another case of a formerKhmerRouge cadre, a 13yearoldboy had recurrent visions of one of his victims intestines transforming intosnakesandstranglinghim.(iEARN)During clinical sessions with child soldiers in such parts of the world asGuatemalaandEthiopia,itwasfoundthatchildrensmentalturmoilbecamemostsevere once they gave up their guns and tried to reintegrate into their formercommunities.Theirpsychologicalsufferingseemedtobeprovokedbytheirbeingremindedofkillingasamoralwrongdoing,andnotjustaphysicalactofinflictingpain.SimilartraumawasexperiencedbyMozambicanexchildsoldierswhohadescaped from rebel forces. Thousands of such children reported experiencingflashbacks in which past events of their combatant days would unexpectedlycomefloodingbacktohauntthem.(Cohn&GoodwinGill,1994)

Childrenwhohavebeenusedtokillingnotonlymembersofopposingforcesbutalso their friends and relatives, including their own parents, undergo intensefeelings of guilt. Girls who have been raped and forced into prostitution areparticularly prone to suffering guilt in addition to feelings of confusion,depression,anger,lossoftrustinothersandextremelylowselfesteem.Notonlydo children feel blameworthy for having committed atrocities but they are alsoafraidofbeingrejectedbytheirowncommunitiesorsubjecttophysicalorlegalretribution.Sometimes,thesefeelingsmaybesubjectivereactions,whileatothertimes they are a legitimate reaction to these childrens brutal realities. Someyoung excombatants are so fearful of being discovered for the crimes theycommitted that they resort to changing their names and even their personalhistories. Thismayoccur to such anextent that these childrenmay risk goingthroughanidentitycrisis.Amoreevident impactofwaronchildsoldiers is thatofphysical injury. Itmayincludeanythingfromthelossoflimbs,eyesandotherbodypartstosuperficialscars. The types of injuries suffered are innumerable andmay be distinct foreach conflict. For example, Liberian children who fought in Charles Taylorssmallboysunitshadahighincidenceofhernias,whichmostprobablyresultedfromcarryingarmsthatwerefartooheavytobesupportedbytheirlittlebodies.Girls who took part in war and were forced to perform sexual favors oftencontracted sexually transmitted diseases, HIV/AIDS, or were impregnated.Pregnancies may subsequently result in young girls giving birth or havingabortions, which are often dangerous and even lifethreatening given the poorqualityofhealthcareinwartornareas.Another importantconsequenceofchildrensparticipation inwar is itseffectontheireducation,inparticular,lostschooltime.Whilemanychildrenaredeniedtheopportunity to go to school even when there is peace, participation in combatmay completely eliminate their prospect of ever studying. In wartime, schoolsmay be closed or even destroyed, leaving children stranded without anopportunity to further their education, even after the war is over. In the Israelioccupied territories, Palestinian childrens schooling suffers for two reasons.Either the rebelling leaders may order strike days or persuade youth intoparticipatinginrelatedeventsduringschoolhoursorsecurityforcesmayclose down schools for security reasons. Public schools in this region havebecome the hub for PLO (Palestinian Liberation Organization) and extremistIslamicmeetingsaswellasconventioncentres forstudents involved in violence.Theschoolshaveevenservedascentresforbothforcedandvoluntaryrecruitment. On several occasions, PLO activists have interrupted classes,forcingstudentstoleavetheclassroomandjoinstreetriots.Forthisreason,theIsraeli government decided to close down schools for the childrens safety.However,closingdownschoolscreatedanotherdangerofchildrenroamingthestreets during periods of political upheaval. It also caused many adolescents,whowerefrustratedandgoingthroughanemotionalanddifficultperiodinlife,tojoinalternateorganizationslikemilitarygroups.

Childrens participation in combat also holds serious repercussions for theirfamilies,communitiesandevenentiresocieties.IntheIsraelioccupiedterritories,Palestinians were faced with houses being destroyed or barricaded, publiccurfews,arbitraryarrestsaswellasmassdeportations.Inthe1980s,some500000peopleweredisplacedand forcedoutofElSalvadordue to the militarysefforts todrain the fish from thesea.At thesame time,army roadblockswereimposed to prevent food from reaching communities believed to have beenharbouringFMLN(FrenteFarabundoMartpara laLiberacinNacional) troops.InPeru,thegovernmentssecurityforceswipedoutentirecommunitiesandbothkidnapped and assassinated countless individuals on the mere suspicion thatsomeamongthemfavouredthecountrysrebelgroup,theShiningPath.Active youth participation in war also affects societies by increasing juveniledelinquencyanddiminishingdisciplineamongchildren.FollowingElSalvadorsarmedceasefire in1992, juveniledelinquencyhas reportedly increased.Somespeculatethatthisisaresultofamplifiedmediacoverage,whileothersattributeitto the increase in highway armed robberies after soldiers became aware thattheir release from duty was nearing. In the same year,RENAMO (ResistnciaNacionalMoambicana) forces inMozambiquewere struggling tomanage the8000boycombatantswhowere freely roaming ruralareas,armedandhungry.Liberia is also experiencing an unsafe future, as humanitarian aid workers arepredicting an increase in juvenile delinquency among former Liberian childsoldiers.Onereasonfortheriseinrebellionamongexcombatantsisthatmanychildren feel frustrated being trapped working for armed forces, without anyauthentic control over their circumstances. Also, parents who live in violentsocietiesbecomeoverwhelmedbythedailyproblemstheyarefacedwithand,asaresult,tendtoraisetheirchildreninamoreauthoritarianfashion.Likewise,civilstrife, suchas thePalestinian , oftendisrupts family structures,whereintheauthorityoffathersandgrandfathersdiminishes.Thisoftenforceschildrentotake on the authoritative roles in the household, placing less importance onobedience to their parents. In Northern Ireland, children raised in violentenvironments are considered to have been stripped of their sense of fear andanynotionofpeace,thusbecomingdifficulttodiscipline.Wartorn societies which use child soldiers are also burdened by the greatnumber of orphaned children. In Uganda, for example, where the LordsResistanceArmy recklessly recruits child soldiers, communities are facedwiththeproblemofhousingandcaring for thoseyoungones thathavebeen left tofendforthemselves.Asimilarsituation istakingplaceinMozambique,Somaliaand Liberia.While there are more orphaned child victims than soldiers, thoseorphans that have fought in war are much more difficult to find homes for,consideringtheirtraumatizedbackgrounds.

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While taking up arms and joining a violent conflict has countless detrimentaleffects on the children involved, there is also a positive side to participation.Manyyoungpeoplewhoarenotforcedintoparticipationtakeuparmsbecausetheyperceivetohavegreaterpersonalsecuritywithin,ratherthanoutsidearmedfactions. They feel safer being united with other orphans, refugees and streetchildren who have also been recruited to fight. By being a part of an armedgroup, theycannotbe against itand therein lays their senseof safety.Often,militaryunitsmayserveassortsofsurrogatefamiliesfororphaned,waraffectedchildren.

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There are enormous challenges facing the demobilization and reintegration ofchildsoldiers intosociety.Theseprocessesofachievingasustainablesolutionarelongandcomplexandmustbegivenextracareduetothedelicatenatureoftheproblem.Oneof themain issues thatmustbeaddressed is the reactionofthe returning soldiers home communities. These reactions vary fromcompleterejectiontothefalseassumptionthattheexcombatantswilleffortlesslyreturntotheir previous lives. Child soldiers often dread coming back to their villagesbecauseof theatrociousacts theywere forced tocommitagainst their familiesandcommunitiesat the timeof recruitment.Thesestrategicactswereusedbyarmiespreciselytopreventthechildsoldiersfromeverbeingwelcomedbackintotheirhomecommunities.Assuch,childrenfearbeingdeniedandblamedbytheirown communities for the crimes they were coerced into committing. Childsoldiers return home carrying heavy burdens resulting from being so brutallyexposed towar.Havingsufferedextremeabuses,childcombatantscomebackwithextensiveemotionalscarsandphysicalinjuriesthatrenderthereintegrationprocessahighlydifficultone. Girlscarry theadditionalweightofsexualabuseinvolvingrapeandforcedprostitution.Thosewhohaveconceivedchildrenoutofwedlock afterbeing rapedby rebel leaders face the addedstigma imposedonthem by traditional societies. Not only are they looked down upon for bearingillegitimate children, but they are also disgraced for having been targets ofsexualabuse.Manygirlssuffersuchstrongfeelingsofshamethattheybecomereluctanttoseekinganytypeofmedicalassistanceoremotionalsupportforfearofbeinghumiliated.Theparticularcircumstancesofreturningfemalesoldiersareseldom properly dealt with, nor are they given sufficient attention indemobilizationandreintegrationprograms.Girlsoldierswhohaveservedassexslaves and commanders wives are frequently hidden from humanitarianworkers,makingitextremelydifficulttotrackandeducatethem.A serious problem faced by all returning child soldiers is diminished economicopportunity.Childrenserving inwarmayspendyearsaway from their families,andschoolsaswellasjobtrainingopportunities.Ratherthanreceivingeducationand professional training, they have developed skills in the area of combat,includingfighting,killingandotherwarrelatedtasks.Becauseof theirrestricted

skills, they are pressured into quickly adapting to substantial changes in everyaspectoftheirlivesinordertoprotectthemselvesfrombeingrecruitedagainintoanother armed force. Returning soldiers are often attractive targets for rerecruitment as they are likely to lose patience during the long and arduousreintegrationprocessandresorttoalifeofviolence.Becauseoftheirfrustrationanddissatisfactionwiththereintegrationprogramsaswell as their previous military training, young exsoldiers are at a high risk ofbeingsweptupbyarmedforcesforasecondorevenathirdtime.Theyarealsolikely to turn to crime for employment. Another difficulty in the successfulreintegrationofexchildsoldiersarisesincaseswherechildrenhaveundergoneareligiousconversionduringtheirmilitaryterm.Forexample,inSudan,ChristianchildsoldierswhoconvertedtoIslamwereofparticularconcerntotheleadersoftheir primarily Christian communities during demobilization and reintegrationprocedures. In fact, these Christian village chiefs are taking into account thepossibilityofreconvertingthechildrentotheiroriginal faith inordertomaintainsocietalstability.(Cohn&GoodwinGill,1994)

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Inthissection,thepeacebuildingmodelknownastheABCConflictTrianglewillbeusedtobetterunderstandandcomeupwithviablesolutionstotheproblemofchild soldier use. The triangle, which was formulated in the 1960s by theNorwegian peaceresearcher Johan Galtung, depicts the key aspects within aconflictas(A)attitudes,(B)behaviorsand(C)contradictions.Inthemodel:

A)Attitudes

B)Behaviour C) C)Contradiction (JohanGaltung,1969)&refertoassumptions,cognitionsandemotionsthatonepartymayhaveabout the other. A common attitude in conflicts is one of superiority and selfrighteousness,refusingtoputoneselfintheshoesoftheother.Inotherwords,itisfailingtomakeanefforttotaketheotherpartiesviewsintoaccount.Suchanattitude contributes to the growing rift in the relationship. The peaceful optionwould be to work with the attitudes of the parties and their relation with eachother. This entails encouraging the different sides to take on an attitude ofempathybycreatingconstructivedialoguebetween them.Thiscanbedonebybuilding on common interests and identities so as to humanize the parties in

eachotherseyesandtoguidethemoutofastateinwhichtheyperceiveeachotherasenemiesincapableofdialogue.'() refer to the mental, verbal or physical expressions put forth in aconflict. Inother terms, theyare the thoughts,wordsandactionsdemonstratedwhen a contradiction occurs. Violent behaviors include anything that revealshatred,oralackofrespecttowardtheopposingparty.Thismaycomeintheformofverbal insults,physicalabuseor theoutrightdenialofpeoplesbasichumanrights.Behavioristheonlyfeatureofthetrianglethatisvisible,asitisanovertaction.Themain focusof the peaceful approach is to stopviolentbehavior bycreating nonviolent thoughts, words and actions in order to achieve a lastingsolutiontotheconflict.*

are the incompatibilityorclashingofgoalsbetweentwoormoreparties.Thecontradiction is therootconflict. It is thecore issuethat iscausingtheviolentattitudesandbehaviors.Aconflictofinterests(bothwithinoneselfandbetweenparties)cancauserepressionoffeelings, leadingtofrustration,stress,andotherviolentoutcomes.Peacefulapproachestocontradictionsincludetakingastepbackand figuringoutwhat theconflict isactuallyabout.Namely,askingthequestion:Whataretheunderlyingrootcausesthatarefuelingthedisparityingoalsandpointsofview?Byfirstunderstandingtheconflictonadeeperlevel,partiescanthenproceedtocomeupwithcreativesolutionstotranscendit.As illustrated in the abovedefinitions, eachof the features triggering a conflict(attitudes,behaviorsandcontradictions)canalsoserveaspossiblegatewaystoinfluence the conflict peacefully andwork toward a resolution. The above alsosuggests that each of these elements influence one another. While attitudesinfluence both behaviors and contradictions, the opposite can occur, withbehaviorsandcontradictionsaffectingattitudes,andalsoeachother.Becauseofthe interconnectednessamong these threeaspectsofconflict, it is important toaddresseachoneinordertoreachasustainablesolution.Addressingattitudesis important as it helps people become aware of and better understand thecontradictions.Themoreprofoundlyacontradictionisunderstood,theeasieritistocomeupwithcreativesolutionstoovercomeit.Addressingbothattitudesandcontradictions, in turn, influences changing behaviors. Finally, behaviors alsoaffect attitudes. More concretely, the behaviours of people working towardpositivechangeinfluencetheattitudesofthosewhomtheyaretryingtoreachouttoandcandeterminehowsuccessfultheyareindoingso.While demobilizing, disarming and reintegrating children involved in war isextremely long and difficult, the process be undertaken to prevent thecontinuingplightofchildsoldiersaroundtheworld.Thisisdoneprimarilythroughtheadjustmentandimplementationoflawsaimedatfulfillingchildrensbasichumanneeds.TheUnitedNationsConventionontheRightsoftheChildstatesthatallchildrenhavetherighttospecialprotectionin

timeof conflict andshouldnot takeadirect part inhostilities. In recent years,severalstepshavebeen taken tocreatea legalandpolicystructureaimed fortheprotectionofchildreninvolvedinviolentconflict.InMayof2000,theGeneralAssemblyoftheUnitedNationsadoptedTheOptionalProtocoltotheConventionontheRightsoftheChild(alsoknownastheChildSoldiersTreaty)concerningthe participation of children in armed conflict. Officially entering into force onFebruary13,2002,thetreatyaimstostrengthenthelegalprotectionofchildrenandtopreventandabolishtheiruseinarmedconflict.Specifically,theProtocol:Requiresstatepartiesto"takeallfeasiblemeasures"toensurethatmembersoftheirarmedforcesundertheageof18yearsdonotparticipateinhostilities;Prohibitstheconscriptionofanyoneundertheageof18intothearmedforces;Requiresstatestoraisetheageofvoluntaryrecruitmentfrom15andtodepositabindingdeclarationoftheminimumageforrecruitmentintoitsarmedforces;andProhibits therecruitmentoruse inhostilitiesofchildrenunder theageof18byrebelorothernongovernmentalarmedgroups,andrequiresstatestocriminalizesuchpractices.(Stohl,2002)While111countrieshavealreadysigned theagreement, only46haveactuallybegunimplementingitandhavemadeobligatorylegalcommitmentstoupholdit.While the Optional Protocols ratification is an important step in protectingchildrenshumanrights,itisnotadequateforendingtheuseofchildrenassoldiers. In order for it to have a greater impact, it must be universalized tosupporttherisinginternationalstandardthatchildrenareentitledtoprotectionintimes of conflict. States must be closely monitored by international bodies toensuretheircompliancewiththeOptionalProtocol.Also,emphasisonchildrensrightsmustbeplacednotonlyduringviolencebutalsoafteritceases.Inadditionto thecontinuedsupport andspreadof the treaty, longterm,allencompassingprogramsofdemobilization,disarmamentand reintegrationmustbecarriedoutin waraffected societies. Just as important is the inclusion of preventativemeasuresinareaswherechildrenareatriskofmilitaryrecruitment.+)(,*("

Prevention strategies must take into account the various ways in which youthwindupparticipating inarmedconflict.Theymustattendto thegeneralconflictissues,aswellas thesubjective,personalexperiencesof thechild. In termsoftheABCmodel,preventionstrategiesinvolvechangingthecontradictionsoftheconflict, while altering childrens attitudes toward the issue. One way ofreinforcing the local capacity to prevent the use of child soldiers is by raisingcommunity awareness of the national and international laws regulating theminimum recruitment age. This can be done through massive educationcampaigns targeting both affected and nonaffected communities. Factors thatcontributetoforcedandvoluntaryrecruitmentmustbediminishedoreliminated.In other words, to achieve the sustainability of efforts, contradictions must bedetermined and handled appropriately. Issues thatmotivate forced recruitmentincludepopulationcontrol,aswellasethnic,racialandclassdiscrimination.Most

childrentakenassoldiersareyoung,vulnerable,poor,undereducatedandcomefrom indigenous, rural communities. Aspects contributing to the generation ofconflict, such as social injustice and discrimination are mirrored in the forcedrecruitment strategies of governments and armedgroups. As such, in order toreduce forced recruitment, the rootcausesofconflictsmust firstbeaddressed.Onesteptowardsthisisorganizinggrassrootsinterventionsormovementsthatpressurelocalgovernmentsintostoppingtherecruitmentofchildren.Thesecanthenserveascatalyststowardsaddressinglargerissuessuchaspovertyandacultureofmilitarism.In1992,anindigenousNGOwascreatedintheregionofSolola,Guatemalatodeal with human rights violations related to forced recruitment. The initiativeconsistedofopenmeetingsindifferentvillagesandthegatheringofsome9,845signatures for a petition declaring that mandatory military service infringes onculturalandhumanrights.Thepetitionproposedsocialserviceasanalternativetomilitaryduty,andrequiredputtinganendtotheintimidationandpunishmentofindigenouspeoplewhorefusedthedraft.Italsospecifiedthatlocalmilitaryunitswouldbeheldaccountableforanyharminflictedonyouthrefusingconscriptionor on people who signed the petition. The petition was distributed to the localgovernorandmayoraswellas theFederalCongress, theMinistryofDefence,the President and the Human Rights Regulator. Within a year, a settlementbetween the indigenous people and the human rights commission wasnegotiated,guaranteeingtheabolitionofrecruitmentintheSololaarea.SimilarsuccesseshavebeenreportedinElSalvador,GuatemalaandParaguay,whereethnicgroupsandmothersofyoungsoldiershaveunitedtopressureauthoritiesinto discharging underage combatants and ending compulsory militaryenrolment.Inthesecases,behavioursandcontradictionswereaddressedatthesame time and a change in one correlated with a change in the other. Moreprecisely, grassroots movements aimed at directly and immediately alteringbehaviours simultaneously dealt with the sources of the problem (orcontradictions)toachieveasustainablesolution(i.e.thecompleteabolishmentofchildrecruitment).Inadditiontomassprotestsandcommunityorganization,legalmethodsarealsonecessaryandhaveprovenuseful inpreventingviolentbehaviours incountrieslike Guatemala. In cases where children have no identification cardsdocumenting their age, advocates ought to demand the recruits personalappearance and insist that the minors underage status be fully respected.NGOs have served an important function by providing alternate forms ofcommunity service to potential recruits. Theyhave also initiated campaigns forlegal reform and are encouraging popular resistance to emerging recruitmenttechniques. With regards to the PACs, local activist groups are raisingawarenessas towhy the factionexistsandhow itabuses thehuman rightsofthosewhomitforcesintoparticipation.Itdoessothroughtheuseofpamphlets,communitybasededucationcampaigns,marchesandpetitionstoadministrativeauthorities. In addition, the CERJ (Council of Ethnic Communities) has been

translating article 34 of the Mayan Constitution into Mayan languages anddistributingitonamassscale.Thearticlegrantspeoplefreedomofassociationand protection from forced involvement in the civil defence patrols. TheCERJalsoprovidesseminarsonhumanrightsforcommunityleadersofapproximately120villages,educatingandsupportingindividualsinactivelydefendingtheircivilandpoliticalrights.Furthermore,theNGOisofferinglegalassistancetofamilieswantingtobereleasedfrommilitarydutyandtominorsservingwiththePACwhoarelegallyexemptfromservice.The above deals with interventions to eliminate recruitment by governmentforces.However,itisalsoimportanttodeterminepreventionmeasuresforforcedrecruitmentbyarmedopposition forces. While thesenongovernmentalgroupsarenot legallyentitled to institutingadraft, theymuststill complywithnationaland international law.Sometimes,negativepublicity in themediacanpressurearmed groups into following international recruitment standards. In the aims ofgaining legitimacyandapositive image,armedforcesmaysometimesconformtoevenstricterregulations.LocalNGOs,religiousassociationsandcivilsocietyleadersshouldestablishethicalframeworks(includinglocalcustoms,valuesandtraditions) thatdeemtheuseofchildsoldiersunacceptable.Appealsshouldbeformulated based on this moral agenda and presented to leaders of theopposition.Thisapproachprovedsuccessful inPeru,where forced recruitmentdecreasedsignificantly inareaswhereparishchurchescondemnedtheactivity.Thismethod isalsoparticularlyusefulwhenarmedgroupsstronglydependonthe civil society for support and protection. In such cases, the changing ofbehaviours is largelydependentonthealteringofattitudes.Asillustratedintheexamples,changingpeoplesattitudessuchthattheyceasetoaccepttheuseofchildrenassoldiersleadstoachangeinbehaviouramongthoseresponsibleforrecruitment. Because society can often be a primary supporter of the violentactionscarriedoutbytheperpetratorsofcrime,changingitsattitudestowardtheinvolvementofchildren inwar isboundtoresult inbehaviouralchangeson thepartofrecruiters.Societyoftendictatesthatwhichispermissible.Consequently,changingitsviewsofwhatisacceptabledeterminesthetypesofbehaviourthatwillbecarriedoutbyitsmembers.Liketheimmediate,localsociety,foreignaiddonorswhosupportarmedgroupsalsopossessalotofpowerineliminatingtheproblembybeingabletopressuretheir clients into stopping child soldier use. Donors could place sanctions onthosewho fail toadhere to international law through thesuspensionofmilitaryassistanceorweapons. In fact, theUN iscurrently lobbying tostrengthen lawsonsellinggunstopreventthemfromattainingcombatzoneswherechildsoldiersarefighting.Campaignsexposingtheuseofchildsoldierscouldbecarriedoutincountriesinhabitedbyexpatriatesupportgroupsofthearmedgroupathand.Forexample,lobbiesexposingtheuseofchildrenintheLTTEcouldbepublicizedincountries likeNorway, France, theUnitedKingdomandAustralia,where thereare many Sri Lankan emigrants who support the armed force. (Cohn andGoodwinGill,1994)However,suchanattemptcouldberiskyas itcouldcreate

tensions between different ethnic groups (in this case, theSinghalese and theTamils,whoareonoppositesidesoftheissue).Advocacymustalsobecarriedoutincountrieswheretensionsarelowandwhichhaveastronginfluenceonthedevelopments of the UN in afflicted areas. For example, World Vision hasintroduced a campaign in Canada which urges the government to use itsdiplomaticandpoliticalpowertoinfluencetheUNintakingappropriateactionforhelpingchildsoldiersinNorthernUganda.TheCanadianpublicisencouragedtowrite letters and make phone calls to the federal government to demonstratesupportforthecause,ensuringthemessageisloudandclear.Inadditiontothiscampaign,WorldVisionhasbeenpromotingandorganizingtheGuluWalk.Itisan internationalMarch for Peace whose aim is to raise awareness about anddemonstrate solidarity with the 50 000 children which commute from theGuludistrictofNorthernUgandatoavoidbeingabductedbyrebel forces.Manywalkasfaras11kmeverynighttoseekrefugewhiletheysleep.Thedemonstrationhasproventobetremendouslysuccessful.InOctober2005,15000peoplein40citiesaroundtheglobefloodedthestreetstowalkthesamedistanceasanightcommuter(abouttwohours).Manywentoutwithsignsshowingsupport for thechildren, and urging the government to take action. (Lejtenyi, 2006) Themorepressure Canadians put on their own government in these types of advocacycampaigns,themoreauthoritieswillfeelcompelledtoinfluencethedecisionsoftheUNinurgentlyassistingchildreninvolvedinwar.IfeachcountrybelongingtotheUNwere toadoptoneorseveralnations thatusechildrenassoldiers,andwere to carry out similar advocacy campaigns, the UN, along with thegovernmentsof theaffectedstateswouldbeundersignificantpressure to trulydo something about the problem! This demonstrates that, although individualsliving inpeacefulnationsmay feelvery far removed from those living inviolentsocieties, they actually have a significant impact on the fate of those who aresuffering, including the way they are treated by their governments andinternational governing bodies. As such, changing peoples violent behavioursby changing their attitudes (throughadvocacycampaigns) is crucial inbringingaboutsustainable,positivechange.Protecting the basic human rights of child refugees could also significantlyreducetheuseofchildrenassoldiers,astheyareoftenthemaintargetofforcedrecruitment. Most often, protecting children involves addressing thebehavioursaspectoftheABCmodel.Inotherwords,itconsistsofchangingtheviolent behaviours of those who carry out crimes against children. In 1987,UNHCR(UnitedNationsHighCommissioner forRefugees)beganpayingextraattentiontoviolationscommittedagainstrefugeechildrenandtookradicalstepsinaddressingtheproblem.Inadditiontocondemningtheuseofchildsoldiersasan infringement on human rights (i.e. addressing attitudes), UNHCR called fornational and international action, which included the creation of special needsandeducationprograms.InAugustof1988,UNHCRcameupwithGuidelinesonRefugee Children, which guaranteed the organization to intervene withgovernments to ensure they were protecting the safety and freedom of youngrefugees.Inaddition,theguidelinessanctionedtheorganizationtotakeactionif

a breach of policy was detected. UNHCR regional offices were directed topromotepositivecampconditions,suchassettingupcampsfarenoughfromtheborder so as to defend refugee children from being attacked and forcefullyenlisted. This action, in the context of the ABC model, involved tackling acontradiction,whichconsistedoftheunsafelocationofrefugeecamps.UNHCRwasalsoinstructedtorecordallincidentsofrecruitmentbygovernment,guerrillaandrebelforcesandreportthemtotheofficialsoftheasylumcountryaswellastheUNHCRheadoffice.(CohnandGoodwinGill,1994)According to theABCTriangle, preventativemeasures that dealwith voluntarychildrecruitmentmust,aboveall,addresstherootcausesofarmedconflictandstrife.Prioritymustbegiventothedeepstructural inequalitiesandviolencethatbring about societal instability. Childrens environments as well as theirassessment of the decision to participate need to be targeted. This involvesencouragingparentstoseethenegativeconsequencesofchildrensinvolvementin conflict andhelping themovercome the preconceivednotion that the use ofchild soldiers is inevitable and that the dangers are overshadowed by thepressing nature of the conflicts root causes. Psychologists in the Philippineshaveunderlinedthenecessitytostrengthentheextendedfamilyandcommunitythroughmaterialandemotionalmeans.This,inturn,servesasasupportnetworkfor adults, who have a huge influence on childrens capacities to cope withtraumatic events. The ways in which adults react to childrens questionsregardingissuesofsocialandeconomicinjusticeoftendecideshowthechildrenwilldealwiththeirsituations.Therefore,itisessentialtochangetheimportancethatsomeadultsplaceoninvolvingyouthinhostilitiesasawayofrespondingtosuchissues.However,evenifthisisdone,adultscanstillassesstheobjectivesof a conflict as prevailing over the dangers posed to children involved in war.Perhapsachangein,orenforcementoflawscanalteradultsviewsontheuseofchildsoldiers.The illegalityofchildsoldierscouldpressuremilitary leaders intostopping recruitment of underaged youth as they would be held lawfullyaccountablefortheiractions.Whiletighteningofregulationsisnecessary,valueadvocacy could also prove highly beneficial. Campaigns based on moralagendas that encompass culture, religion and/or history could be set up inviolenceaffected communities to spread ethical principles. People who havecontrolover territoryareheldresponsible to thegeneralpopulationandshould,thus (despite their own plans), protect children as a way of upholding basichuman rights. This type of value promotion should be carried out prior toviolence,asitisverydifficulttodoonceconflicthaseruptedduetothesurvivalmechanismthatemerges inpeople.At thisstage,oftenonlypractical restraintsonmilitarytacticshavethepotentialofbeingobeyed.Assuch,providingmilitaryleaders with evidence that using young soldiers is disadvantageous to theirmilitarystrategiescouldbeeffectiveinreducingchildsoldieruse.Thechangingof attitudes (through value advocacy) would lead to a change in behaviour (ofmilitary leaders) and would eventually result in the eradication of somecontradictions,suchasthecultureofviolence.

Toacertaindegree,theABCmodelcanalsobeusedtochangetheattitudesofvictims,inhopesofattainingasustainablesolutiontotheconflict.Empoweringchildrenbyreinforcingtheir feelingsofsecurity,competenceandstrengthcouldcontributetodecreasingvoluntaryenlistment.However,becauseoftheseverityof the problem, changing childrens attitudes is not sufficient. What must bechanged are childrens violent environments through the removal of violentbehaviours.Childrenaffectedbywarfeelhelplessandvulnerablenotbecauseofindividual perception problems, but because that is their reality. Thus, the onlyway to trulymake a child feel empowered andsafe is by actually ending theiroppressionandimprovingtheirpersonalsecurity.Thismaybedonethroughtheuse of international condemnation or pressure on governments that areresponsible for kidnapping, torturing, and intimidating children. It can also beaccomplished by strengthening international monitoring to increase security inconflict zones as well as other affected areas like refugee camps. Part of thesolutioncouldbetopresentchildrenliving inwarareaswithalternateactivities.Forexample,schoolscouldcontinuetooperateandrecreationalactivitiescouldbeprovided.Assuch,youthwouldbemoreoccupiedandwouldfeellessbored,frustrated or desperate for change. By simply keeping schools open, childrenwould be safe in the classroom, rather than aimlessly roaming the streets justwaitingtoberecruited.Themorevaluethatisplacedoneducationinasociety,thelessattractedchildrenmaybetojoiningarmedforces.+-)&.*("

Apressingpriorityistodemobilizeallsoldiersunder18yearsofagefromarmedfactions. In light of the ABCmodel, the demobilization of soldiers is a form ofstoppingviolentbehaviour.This isadifficult task,becauseevenwhenchildrenregrethavingvolunteeredtofight,theyfinditnearlyimpossibletosafelyescapeanarmedforce.TakingSriLanka,forexample,childrenservingintheLTTEarenot permitted to pass from the northern Tamil parts of the country to thesouthern, predominantly Singhalese areas. Children trying to escape the rebelfactionriskbeingdetainedbythepoliceastheyattempttocrosstothesouth.Inaddition, those simply showing interest in leaving, face the danger of beingbeatenandtorturedinfrontoftheothertroops.Thesafedemobilizationofchildsoldiers requires national and international intervention that puts pressure onbothgovernmentsandrebelgroupstoreleasetheiryoungcombatants.Failingtodososhouldresultindireconsequences,includingdetainmentofmilitaryleadersand the imposition of economic sanctions. Successful demobilization can onlytake place if children are guaranteed security in the repatriation process. Asillustrated, there are many factors that must be considered in the process ofchangingbehaviours.Ifeffortsaremadetochangebehaviours,andyetchildrencontinuetoliveindanger,suchattemptswillremainfutile.Fromthisfollowsthatchangingbehaviourscanbeaverydelicateprocessandmusttakeintoaccountoutsideenvironmentalfactorsinordertobeeffective.The ABC model often proposes to change contradictions as a means towardconflict prevention. Appropriately reintegrating children into society could serve

as a successful method of changing certain contradictions. It would involvechanging those factors that lead children to being recruited in the first place.Reintegration procedures must assist exchild soldiers in creating a newgroundwork for their lives. Providing ways in which children can restorerelationshipswith their families and communities is vital. This is because childsoldiers have been raised far from their parents and have been denied theopportunity for physical, emotional and intellectual development. Newreintegrationprogramsmustbesetupandexistingonesmustbestrengthenedtopromotehealthandnutrition,aswellaspsychosocialwellnessandeducation.Suchprogramsmust take intoaccount theuniquecircumstancesgeneratedbyviolent conflict. These include children and their families forced to flee theirhomes, being displaced within their countries or traveling across borders asrefugees. Special attention must be given to those who are most at risk in aconflict, yetoften forgotten.Childrenandwomenaremost likely tobesexuallyhumiliated, raped and forced into prostitution. Therefore, demobilization andreintegration programs must be sensitively designed so as to appropriatelyrespond to the needs of vulnerable populations, particularly girl soldiers. Thespecialrequirementsofadolescentswhoareintheprocessofformingidentitiesand ideologiesmustalsobe attended to. In2004,WorldVisionsetup aChildMothers Centre in Uganda. The institute is aimed at fulfilling the physical andemotionalneedsofyoungwomenandgirlswhohavebeenimpregnatedbyLRArebel leaders. It assists girlswhoare still pregnant aswell as thosewhohavealreadygivenbirthandare facing thechallengesofmotherhood.At thecentre,thegirlsaretaughtvitalskillsforsupportingandcaringfortheirchildren.(WorldVision, 2006) More establishments such as this one are required in nationswherefemalesarelikelytoberecruitedintoarmedforces.An importantaspectofassistanceprograms isproviding returningsoldierswitheducational and vocational opportunities. This can prove useful, not only inhelping them readapt to civilian life and increasing their families economicsecurity, but also in preventing children from rejoining armed units. Educationandskillstrainingrenderschildrenmoreequippedforfindingemployment,whichalso contributes to making them feel more accepted and included in theircommunities.Educationalopportunitiescanalsoassist innormalizingchildrenslives and giving them the chance to create an identity apart from that of thesoldier.One challenge to reintegrating soldiers into schools is thatmany havefallenbehindintheireducationduringmilitaryserviceandmay,thus,windupinclasses with students far younger than themselves. To address this concern,specialclassescouldbesetup for formerchildcombatants,whichcouldserveasa transition for reentering the regularschoolsystem.Once theyarecaughtup,theycanreentertheregularschoolsystemandattendclassesappropriatetotheirage.Withineducationprograms,exsoldiersshouldbeencouraged tousetheirenergies, ideasandexperiences inpositivewayswhencontributing to therenewal of postviolence societies. The emphasis should be placed onchannelling childrens energies into positive actions. This is because theirgraduallyincreasinginvolvementinatrocitiesdesensitizesthemtoafflictionand,

consequently,makesthemmorepronetobeingviolentthemselves.Asaresult,childrenadopttheideathatviolenceisanacceptablemethodofreachingonesgoals. Governments and civil society, thus, have an important role to play inaltering this ideology and helping children transform their negative values intoconstructiveones.Theprocessesofdemobilizationandreintegrationare longandcomplex.Whilethey are being carried out, concrete practical steps must be taken towardsslowing down the recruitment of children forwar.Otherwise stated, immediatesteps must be taken to prevent violent behaviour from continuing to run itscourse.Sincetheproliferationoflightweightweaponsisenablingmilitaryleaderstoarmchildren,theUNandotherinternationalbodiesshouldmakeitaprioritytodraft stricter global standards for limiting the small arms trade. Also, countriesproducing small weapons should immediately stop exporting them to areaswhere theuseofchildsoldiers isprevalent.Without thesupplyofmanageablearms,rebelgroupsandarmedgovernmentforceswillnotbeabletoprovidetheiryoung combatants with the equipment they need for killing. The sooner armsmanufacturingcountrieswillceasetoexport theirweapons,thequickertheuseofchildsoldierswillbecomeathingofthepast.Assuch,itistheresponsibilityofmanyEuropean and other technologically advanced countries to help stop theexploitationofchildreninsomeofthemostremoteareasoftheworld.

/;"%&!"

Waraffectseveryone.Unfortunately,toooftenitisthemostvulnerable,innocent,and weak members of society that are most severely affected by violence.Thosemembershappentobechildren.Theyreaptheconsequencesofwar,andyethavenothing todowith itsbeginnings: theyarenot in the least responsiblefor its eruption. Because of their low status in society, children are forced tosuffer the consequences of the most destructive of actions carried out byauthorities and governments. Not only do children undergo physical andemotionaltormentbecauseofarmedconflict,buttheyarealsofrequentlydirectlyinvolvedinbattleassoldiers,messengers,spies,andwivesofarmedleaders.Regardless of the type of involvement, taking advantage of children in such away iscompletelyunacceptableandgoesagainst their rightsasoutlined in theConvention on the Rights of the Child.Whether they be forced or persuaded,recruitingchildrenintojoiningarmedfactionsdestroystheirinnocence,senseoflove,andevensenseofself. It tears themapart fromtheir familiesandcausesthem to commitoneof themostbarbaricactsknown toman:murder. Inotherwords,itcrudelystripsthemoftheirchildhoodandturnsthemintoperpetratorsofviolence.Thismustbestopped

.Awarenessmustbe raisedaboutthe atrocities that are carried out against children by involving them in armedconflicts.More thaneverbefore,attentionmustbegiven to thesubjectofchildsoldiers,especiallywith the increase insmallarms trade.NGOs,governments,civil society as well as the international community need to coordinate theirefforts to prevent the recruitment of children as soldiers, secure their

demobilisationandensuretheirproperreintegrationintosociety.Asevidencedinthis chapter, oneway to do this isby applying the basic conceptsof theABCtriangle.Byaddressingpeoplesattitudesandbehavioursandtendingtotherootcauses of the conflict, significant changes can be made in creating a morepeaceful environment for children involved in war. Through the use of suchpeacebuilding tools as the ABC model, there remains hope for waraffectedchildrenwhofindthemselvesinthebleakestofsituations.

!)%!+-AmnestyInternationalUSAwebsite.May2,2006:http://www.amnestyusa.org/children/crnsummary.htmlBrett,RachelandStohl,Rachel.YouthAdvocateProgramInternational,2004.March15,2005:http://www.yapi.org/conflict/Cohn,IleneandGoodwinGill.Guy.ChildSoldiers:TheRoleofChildreninArmedConflicts:AStudyonBehalfoftheHenryDunantInstitute.Oxford:ClarendonPress,1994.CoalitiontoStoptheUseofChildSoldiersWebsite,2004.March15,2005:www.childsoldiers.orgChildSoldierUse2003:ABriefingforthe4thUNSecurityCouncilOpenDebateonChildrenandArmedConflict.CoalitiontoStoptheUseofChildSoldiers,2004.March13,2005:http://www.childsoldiers.org/document_get.php?id=691Galtung,Johan.TranscendandTransform:AnIntroductiontoConflictWork.London:PlutoPress,2004.HumanRightsWatch.StoptheUseofChildSoldiers.NewYork:HumanRightsWatch,2004(Updated:2006).March20,2005:http://hrw.org/campaigns/crp/index.htmHumanRightsWatchWebsite:Children'sRights,StoptheUseofChildSoldiers.March17,2005:http://www.hrw.org/campaigns/crp/index.htmiEARN.March14,2005:http://www.childsoldiers.org/ourwritings/03Brima.aspLejtenyi,Patrick.ExodusbyNight.ChildView:WorldVisionCanadaSpring2006:1621.UNACanadaWebsite:MonitoringtheUNSoldiers.March22,2005:http://www.unac.org/en/link_learn/monitoring/Childrights_solders.asp

!!%Tuschl,RonaldH.(ProjectCoordinator&Editor);Sabiiti,Stella(Supervisor);Czyz,Magdalena(Author):EPUResearchPapers,Issue02/08,EuropeanUniversityCenterforPeaceStudies(EPU),Stadtschlaining,Austria,2008.