Child Development Theories - EdUHK
Transcript of Child Development Theories - EdUHK
Child
Development
Theories Berk, L.E. (2005/2008). Infants,
children, and adolescents. Boston :
Allyn & Bacon.
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Periods of Development
Berk, 2005 (p.5)
• The prenatal period – from conception to birth(產前期)
• Infancy and toddlerhood – from birth to 2 years(嬰兒期)
• Early childhood – from 2 to 6 years(幼兒期)
• Middle childhood – from 6 to 11 years(兒童期)
• Adolescence: from 11 to 18 years(青年期)
• Emerging adulthood: from 18 to 25 years(成年).
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Domains of Development
Berk, 2005 (p.6)
• Physical Development
身體 / 生理發展
• Cognitive Development
認知發展
• Emotional and Social Development
社群及情緒發展
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身體各方面的變化: • Body size 身體尺寸 • Proportions 比例 • Appearance 外觀 • Functioning of body systems 身體系統的運作 • Perceptual and motor capacities 感知和運動能力 • Physical health 身體健康
Physical Development 身體發展
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Emotional and Social
Development
Changes in : • emotional communications
表達情緒、分享感受
• Self-understanding 自我認識
• Knowledge about other people
了解其他人
• Interpersonal skills 人際交往能力
• Friendships 友誼發展
• Intimate relationships 親密關係
• Moral reasoning and behavior
道德推理和道德行為
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Cognitive Development 認知發展
Changes in Intellectual
abilities including :
• Attention 注意力,
• Memory 記憶力,
• Academic and everyday
knowledge學術和日常知識,
• Problem solving 解決問題,
• Imagination 想像力,
• Creativity 創造力, and
• Language 語言發展
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Basic Issues
發展的基本性質
Berk, 2005 (p.6-7)
• Theories describe, explain and predict behaviour
理論描述,解釋和預測行為。
(e.g. “A researcher will see the simple act of a child’s helping
his or her father, for example, very differently depending on whether the researcher views the behavior through the filtering lens of a psychoanalytic, behavorial, or ecological theory).
• A theory’s continued existence depends on scientific verification.
一個理論的繼續存在依賴於科學的驗證
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Why is Childhood Crucial?
• Research has shown that early childhood may
be the most important life stage for brain
development.
• A baby’s brain is about one quarter the size of
an adults’.
• Scientists have found that babies’ brains
develop in response to stimulation.
– Arouses senses such as sight, sound, touch,
taste, and smell.
• Babies who are stimulated develop more quickly
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What is a theory?
• A theory should allow us to predict
and explain human behavior
• It should be stated in such a way
that it can be shown to be false
• It must be open to scientific
investigation
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Child Development
Theorists
• Although researches don’t always agree,
scientific researchers have agreed upon the
five following general rules.
– Development is similar for each individual
– Development builds upon earlier learning.
– Development proceeds at an individual
rate.
– The different areas of development are
interrelated.
– Development is a lifelong process.
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Psychoanalytic Theories:
• Freud’s Psychosexual Theory
• Emphasizes how parents manage their child’s
sexual and aggressive drives in the first few years
of life is crucial for healthy personality
development
– Personality has 3 parts
– There are 5 stages of psychosexual
development
– Oedipus complex allows child to identify with
same-sex parentOedipus conflicts for boy戀母
情結
– Electra conflict for girls戀父情結
– Fixation is an unresolved conflict during a
stage of development
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Three Parts of Personality
• Id
• ego
• And superego
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本我(id):
• Id Focuses on biological needs and desires
» The new born consists of a single operating component called the id (Thomas, 2005, p.57).
» The new born baby is seeking only to satisfy its needs for food, for drink, for warmth, for elimination of bodily wastes, for freedom from skin irritants, and for affection (Thomas, 2005, p.57).
– References: Thomas, R. M. (2005). Comparing theories of child development (6th ed.). Australia: Thomson Wadsworth.
本我(id):
1. 只求滿足生理需要(餓、渴、泠、暖、倦….)
2. 受享樂原則的支配 (包括本能衝動與滿足)。
3. 沒有價值觀、倫理和邏輯。
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自我(ego):
• The conscious, rational part of personality
• Emerges in early infancy to redirect the id’s impulses
(管制原始衝動), so that they are discharged in
acceptable ways (Berk, 2005). • The ego serves as a decision maker that tries to negotiate a satisfactory solution to the
conflicting demands that come on the side from the id (which says, “I want”) and on the
other side from the environment or “real world” (which says, “You’ll get it with a
minimum of cost or pain only under these conditions” (Thomas, 2005, p. 58).
• The ego operates on the reality principle, which can be stated as follows: “Recognize
the conditions and demands of the real world and then seek methods of fulfilling the id’s
needs that are acceptable in such a world.” (Thomas, 2005, p. 58).
1. 學習社會化,使本我(id)適應外界的要求。
2. 一方面管制原始衝動,一方面滿足本我的需要。
3. 能實際的、合理的、真正的滿足自己的需要。
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Examples
• For example, aided by the ego, the
hungry baby of a few months of age
stops crying when he sees his
mother warm a bottle or unfasten
her clothing for breast feeding.
• And the more competent
preschooler goes into the kitchen
and gets a snack on her own.
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超我(superego):
– Between 3 and 6 years of age
– The superego, or conscience(良心、良知) develops from interactions with parents, who insist that children conform to the values of the society.
– Parents produce babies’ good and bad feelings by manipulating the system of rewards and punishments she will experience.
– Superego has two aspects, the conscience (represents the “should nots”)and ego ideal (represents the “shoulds”)
• 人格中的道德成份。
• 代表理想。
• 對本我或自我有檢察的功能。
• 不符合良知,會有罪疚感。
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Superego
• The ego need to reconcile the demands of
the id, the external world, and conscience
(Freud, 1923/1974) • Example:
– Id: hitting a playmate to get an attractive toy
– Superego: Such behavior is wrong (conscience
punishes children with guilt, shame and fear when they
violate the rules; the ideal ego rewards children with
feelings of self-righteousness, self praise and pride
when they conform to the moral rules). (Thomas, 2005,
p.59-60)
– Ego: must decide which of the two forces will win this
inner struggle.
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Preschool years
• Freud
• The relations established between id,
ego, and superego during the
preschool years determine the
individual’s basic personality (人格發展).
• The ego has to negotiate a settlement among three conflicting sources of demands;
• 1) the id, which insists on immediate fulfillment of wishes;
• 2) the environment which sets conditions under which wishes can be satisfied
without punishments;
• and 3) the superego, which presses youths to live up to a set of moral values they
incorporated from their parents and from other significant people in their world.
(Thomas, 2005, p.60).
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Freud’s Psychosexual
stages
• Oral stage (Birth -2 year)口腔期
• Anal stage (1-3 years)肛門期
• Phallic (3-6 years)性器期
• Latency (6-11 years)性潛期
• Genital (adolescence)生殖期
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Phallic
Stage
Child’s
pleasure focuses on
genitals
Latency
Stage
Child
represses sexual interest
and develops social and intellectual
skills
Anal Stage
Child’s
pleasure focuses on
anus
Genital
Stage
A time of
sexual reawakening;
source of sexual
pleasure becomes someone
outside of the family
Oral Stage
Infant’s pleasure
centers on mouth
Freudian Stages
6 yrs to puberty
Birth to 1½ yrs
1½ to 3 yrs
Puberty onward
3 to 6 years
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佛洛依德Freud
Berk, 2005, p.16
• Highlighted the importance of family
relationships and early experiences for
children development
• Freud overemphasized the influence of
sexual feelings
• Had not studied children directly!!!
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佛洛依德Freud
Berk, 2005, p.16
• Highlighted the importance of family
relationships and early experiences for
children development
• Freud overemphasized the influence of
sexual feelings
• Had not studied children directly!!!
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Erikson’s theory (艾力克森)
• Psychosocial theory心理社會學說
• Ego does not just mediate between id impulses and superego demands.
• It is also a positive force in development.
• A t each stage, it acquires attitudes and skills that make the individual an active continuity member of society (Berk, 2005, p.16-17).
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• Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory:
– There are 8 stages of psychosocial
development
– Each has a unique developmental task
– Developmental change occurs throughout
life span
• Key points of psychoanalytic theories:
– Early experiences and family relationships
are very important to development
– Unconscious aspects of the mind are
considered
– Personality is best seen as a developmental
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• 8 stages of development from birth to old age
• A basic psychological conflict (危機),
• which is resolved along a continuum from positive to negative,
• Determines whether healthy or maladaptive outcomes occur at each stage.
• 處理危機的方式乃人格發展之轉折點。
• 積極的解決危機 健全的人格發展
• 社會環境決定危機是否得到積極解決。
Erikson’s theory (艾力克森)
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Erikson’s Stages Developmental Period Trust vs Mistrust Infancy (first year)
Autonomy vs shame & doubt
Infancy (1 to 3 years)
Initiative vs guilt Early childhood (3 to 5 years)
Industry vs inferiority Middle and late childhood
Identity vs identity confusion
Adolescence (10 to 20 years)
Intimacy vs isolation Early adulthood (20s, 30s)
Generativity vs stagnation
Middle adulthood (40s, 50s)
Integrity vs despair Late adulthood (60s onward)
Figure 2.2
Erikson’s Eight Life-Span Stages
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Erikson’s theory (艾力克森)
• Psychosocial theory心理社會學說
• Ego does not just mediate between id impulses and superego demands.
• It is also a positive force in development.
• A t each stage, it acquires attitudes and skills that make the individual an active continuity member of society (Berk, 2005, p.16-17).
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• 8 stages of development from birth to old age
• A basic psychological conflict (危機),
• which is resolved along a continuum from positive to negative,
• Determines whether healthy or maladaptive outcomes occur at each stage.
• 處理危機的方式乃人格發展之轉折點。
• 積極的解決危機 健全的人格發展
• 社會環境決定危機是否得到積極解決。
Erikson’s theory (艾力克森)
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艾力克森: 八個階段
Berk, 2005, p.17
1.Basic trust versus mistrust (Oral)
信任對不信任期。
• Birth – 1 year: Warm, responsive care, infants gain a sense of trust that the world is good.
• 零至一歲:父母、照顧者的育兒質素是重要因素。 • Trust = being able to predict and depend upon one’s own behavior
and the behavior of others.
• Id’s needs for food, exercising lips and gums and the sucking mechanism .
• Attachment figures: mother, father, caregiver quality of affectional relationships)
• An unsatisfactory infant-mother relationship during the first year of life can be repaired somewhat in later years by the child’s enjoying a particularly trustworthy social environment.
• An infant who establishes a secure attitude of trust during the first year may have this attitude shaken in later years by experience with undependable people who are significant to him (Thomas, 2005).
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2. Autonomy versus shame and doubt (Anal) 自主對害羞、懷疑期。
• 2 -3 years
• Autonomy(自主權)is fostered when parents permit reasonable free choice and do not force or shame the child.
二至三歲:自我意願與父母意願會有相互衝突。自主權?過度控制?
• Evacuating the bowels and bladder not only causes children to feel good but gives them a growing sense of power through control over the evacuation system.
• Developing a sense of autonomy, of being able to do things for themselves.
• Erikson proposed that parents who impose strict bowel training on the two-year-old may influence the child to develop basic sense of shame in self and doubt about his/her abilities. They may seek satisfaction by regressing to oral activities – thumb-sucking, whining and demanding attention (Thomas, 2005; Cook & Cook, 2005).
• In contrast, firm but gradual and kindly bowel training can aid the child in developing a sense of self-control without loss of self –esteem.
References: Cook, J. L., & Cook, G. (2005). Child development: Principles and perspectives. Allyn & Bacon.
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3. Initiative versus guilt 3-6 (Phallic) 自發對罪疚期 • 3-6 years • Through make-believe play, • Children develop a sense of ambition and responsibility
when parents support their child’s new sense of purpose. • Children need the guidance of parents and teachers who
understand the trials the child is facing (Thomas, 2005; Berk, 2005). Adults need to permit the “peaceful cultivation of initiative, a truly free sense of enterprise” (Erikson, 1959, p.82). (Allow children to initiate activities to meet larger goals, learn to take initiative and to set own goals, design projects, and interact with peers. If parents / teachers stop children from taking initiatives, children can learn guilt that own desires, conflict with those of parents (Cook and Cook, 2005).
• 三至六歲:幼兒開始有獨創的行為和想像力。會自發的活動。成人的態度很重要。
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4. Industry versus inferiority (Latency)
勤奮對自卑。
• 6-11 years
• At school, children develop the capacity to work and
cooperate with others
• Negative experiences at home/school/with peers may
lead to feelings of incompetence
六至十一歲:若無法從工作、學業中得到快樂,會失去信心和價值感。
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5. Identity versus identity confusion (Genital)
自我認同與角色混淆期。
• Adolescence
• Who am I?
• What is my place in society?
• Self-chosen values goals lead to a lasting personal identity
• The negative outcome is confusion about future adult roles.
• 十二至二十歲:
思考自己和社會各種信息,找尋自己的生活策略。
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• 6.Intimacy versus isolation (Emerging Adulthood) 親密對孤立。 二十至二十四歲:
• Quest for identity continues
• Young people work on establishing intimate ties to others
• Earlier disappointments may influence individual’s ability to form close relationships
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• 7. Gererativity versus stagnation 繁殖對停滯期。
• Feelings of accomplishment through child rearing, caring for other people or productive work.
• 二十五至六十五:
生兒育女?父母的角色?
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8. Integrity versus despair (Old age)
• Final stage
• Integrity results from feeling that life was worth living as it happened
• Fear of death results from being dissatisfied with their lives
• 六十五歲開始:自我統整對絕望。
人生感到美滿?不怕死亡?感到絕望?
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• A special strength of the
psychoanalytic
perspective is its
emphasis on the
individual’s unique life
history as worthy of study
and understanding (Emde,
1992)
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Psycholanalytic theory inspired
a wealth of research
• Emotional and social development
• Infant-caregiver attachment
• Aggression
• Sibling relationships
• Child-rearing practices
• Morality
• Gender roles
• Adolescent identity
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Piaget’s cognitive-
developmental theory
Discontinuous:
Cognitive development takes place in stages.
One course: Stages are assumed to be universal.
Both nature and nurture: Development occurs as
the brain matures and children exercise their
innate drive to discover really in a generally
stimulating environment.
Both early and later experiences are important.
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Cognitive theories:
• Piaget’s cognitive developmental
theory
– Stresses conscious mental processes
– Cognitive processes are influenced by
biological maturation
– Four stages of cognitive development
in children
– Assimilation and accommodation underlie
how children understand the world, adapt
to it, and organize their experiences
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• Children actively construct
knowledge as they manipulating
and explore their world
• Piaget proposed that children
represent what they understand
about the world in cognitive
structures that he called mental
schemes.
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Example
• An infant has an grasping scheme
• He understands how to grasp a small ball.
• What would happen, for example if he tried to grasp a
larger ball?
• Most likely, he would first try to grasp the larger ball
with one hand, as he had grasped the smaller ball
before (assimilation).
• But the one-hand-grasp scheme would not work.
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Cook, J. L. & Cookm G. (2009). Child Development:
Principles and perspectives (2nd
ed.). Boston, New York, San
Fransciso: Pearson Education, Inc. (p. 13).
Assimilation
• Assimilation is the process of bring new objects or
information into a scheme that already exists in the mind
– An infant has an grasping scheme
– He understands how to grasp a small ball .
– What would happen, for example if he tried to grasp a larger ball?
– Most likely, he would first try to grasp the larger ball with one
hand, as he had grasped the smaller ball before (assimilation).
– But the one-hand-grasp scheme would not work.
– To hold the larger ball successfully, the infant would need to use
trial-and error practice to learn to use two hands.
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Accomodation
• Accommodation is the process of adjusting or adapting a scheme so it better fits the new experience.
• Through accommodation the infant would learn that grasping sometimes requires two hands.
• Now the infant has a more powerful and flexible grasping scheme.
• He understands how to grasp smaller objects with one hand and larger ones with two hands
Reference: Cook, J. L. & Cook G. (2009). Child Development: Principles and perspectives (2nd ed.). Boston, New York, San
Fransciso: Pearson Education, Inc. (p. 13).
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• As children continue to gain new
experiences, they adapt their
cognitive structures, or schemes,
through a continual cycle of
assimilation and accommodation.
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Piaget believed that children’s cognitive structures develop through 4 major stages or phases of development:
•Sensorimotor, •Preoperational, •Concrete operational, and •Formal operational thought.
We will look more closely at these stages, and the rest of Piaget’s cognitive developmental theory, in later lessons.
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Preoperational Stage:
The child begins to represent the world with words and images. These words and images reflect increased symbolic thinking and go beyond the connection of sensory information and physical action.
Formal Operational Stage
The adolescent reasons in more abstract idealistic and logical ways.
Sensorimotor Stage:
The infant constructs an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences with physical actions: progressing from reflexive, instinctual action at birth to the beginning of symbolic thought toward end of the stage.
Concrete Operational Stage:
The child can now reason logically about concrete events and classify objects into different sets.
Figure 2.3
11–15 years of age
through adulthood
Birth to 2 years of age
2 to 7 years of age
7 to 11 years of age
Piaget’s Four Stages of Cognitive Development
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Vygotsky’s socio-cultural
theory
• Both continuous and discontinuous:
Language acquisition and
schooling lead to stagewise
changes.
• Dialogues with more expert
members of society also lead to
continuous changes that vary from
culture to culture.
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• Vygotsky’s sociocultural cognitive
theory
– Children actively construct their knowledge
– Social interaction and culture guide
cognitive development
– Learning is based upon inventions of
society
– Knowledge is created through interactions
with other people and objects in the culture
– Less skilled persons learn from the more
skilled
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Vygotsky’s socio-
cultural theory
• Both nature and nurture:
• Heredity, brain growth, and
dialogues with more expert
members of society jointly
contributed to development. Both
early and later experiences are
important.
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Vygotsky:
Zone of Proximal
Development (ZPD)
• Refers to the gap between what a given child
can achieve alone, their potential development as determined by independent problem solving, and what they can achieve ‘through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers’ (Wood, & Wood, 1966)
• Vygotsky refers to what children can do on their own as the ‘level of actual development’
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Level of potential development
Zone of Proximal
Development (with help of adult or more competent peer)
Level of Actual Development
實際發展水準
發展水準之間的距離(由成人指導或與較有能力的同儕共同解決問題)
發展潛能
Contexts
• Unique combinations of
personal and environmental
circumstances that result in
different paths of change.
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Contexts
1. Personal characteristics:
2. Parental Relationship:
3. Social Support Outside the Immediate family (e.g. Grandfather, Aunt, teacher, peer)
4. Community life :Opportunities to participate in community life increase the chances that older children and adolescents will overcome adversity.
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A balanced point of View
• Some theories believe that both
continuous and discontinuous
changes occur.
• Development can have both
universal features and features
unique to the individual and his or her
contexts.
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Ask Yourself
1. Cite an aspect of your
development that differs from a
parent’s or a grandparent’s when
he or she was your age. How might
contexts explain this difference?
(Berk. 2005,p.11)
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Information-processing theory
Compares computers to the human mind
Thinking is information processing
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Information is taken into brain
Information gets processed, analyzed, and stored until use
OUTPUT INPUT
Information is used as basis of behaviors and interactions
Information-Processing Theory
math
history religion
geography
science
literature
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Environment Person
(cognitive)
Behavior
Bandura’s Social Cognitive Model
Figure 2.4 AW_Child development theories_2015
Social learning theory社會學習論
The most influential, devised by Albert
Bandura, emphasized modeling,
otherwise known as imitation or
observational learning, as a powerful
source of development.
班杜拉的社會學習論
指出個體在社會情境中,透過觀察別人的行為模式及其行為後果,從而獲得不同技能與能力。
Bobo doll experiment:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hHHdovKHDNU
PGDE_AW
Bandura’s Modeling/Imitation
Child observes someone admired
Child imitates behavior
that seems rewarded
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• Urie Bronfenbrenner’s ecological
theory:
– Environmental factors influence
development
– 5 environmental systems affect life-span
development
• Eclectic theoretical orientation:
– Selects features from other theories
– No one theory has all the answers
– Each theory can make a contribution to
understanding life-span development
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Exosystem Mesosystems
Macrosystem
Family School & classroom
Religion & groups
Peer group
Chronosystem
School system
Political philosophy
Figure 2.5
Bronfenbrenner’s
Ecological Theory
of Development
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Other factors, such as genetic
tendencies, poverty, and sociohistorical
circumstances Children’s lack of self-control
Permissive parenting
Children’s lack of self-control
Permissive parenting
Permissive parenting
Children’s lack of self-control
and
causes
both
cause
causes
Observed correlation: as permissive parenting increases, children’s self-control decreases
Figure 2.9
Possible Explanations for Correlational Data
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Group 2 Time playing video
games: 6 hours
each day
More aggressive
and antisocial
More playful
and sociable
Time playing video
games: 2 hours
each day
Group 1
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Other Influences on
Development
• Heredity
– Blood type, eye color, and hair color
• Environment
– Children also learn attitudes and
beliefs from their environments
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