Chemistry for Tomorrow’s World · 2014-09-10 · Chemistry for Tomorrow’s World | 4 4.2 Food 42...

Chemistry forTomorrow’s WorldA roadmap for the chemical sciences

July 2009

www.rsc.org/roadmap

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1 | Chemistry for Tomorrow’s World

About this Publication

The world is undergoing unprecedented change. With rising populations, and the realities of climate change, our

fragile environment and resources are being stretched beyond their limits. Over the past year, the Royal Society

of Chemistry (RSC) has gathered expertise and views from its members and the wider community from around

the world. Through a series of workshops and online consultation we have identified priority areas and

opportunities for the chemical sciences. This document presents the outcome of the consultations and identifies

the key challenges of immediate concern. These should drive the UK and international science agendas for the

next 5–10 years.

About the RSC

Since 1841, the RSC has been the leading society and professional body for chemical scientists and we are

committed to ensuring that an enthusiastic, innovative and thriving scientific community is in place to face the

future. The RSC has a global membership of over 46,000 and is actively involved in the spheres of education,

qualifications and professional conduct. It runs conferences and meetings for chemical scientists, industrialists and

policy makers at both national and local level. It is a major publisher of scientific books and journals, the majority of

which are held in the Library and Information Centre. In all its work, the RSC is objective and impartial, and it is

recognised throughout the world as an authoritative voice of chemistry and chemists.

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Chemistry for Tomorrow’s World | 2

Foreword

Having identified the vital role that the chemical sciences will play over the

coming decades in addressing the global challenges faced by society, the publication

of this report represents the beginning of an exciting time for the Royal Society of

Chemistry (RSC).

This is the distillation of a huge amount of information and views that have been

collected over the past year from a series of workshops and online consultations with

members, non-members and a range of stakeholders worldwide.

The RSC is extremely grateful for the breadth of valuable contributions it received.

Special thanks must go to all the enthusiastic people who have supported and taken

part in this project so far. A special mention should also be given to Alison Eldridge

who managed this project at the RSC.

As we move into the implementation phase, we hope that as many individuals and organisations as possible will grasp

the opportunity to work with us to promote and develop the chemical sciences for the benefit of society, and ensure

that action is taken to solve the challenges we face.

David Prest CChem FRSC

Chemistry for Tomorrow’s World Steering Group Chairman

Royal Society of Chemistry Member of Council

Managing Director, European Region, Emission Control Technologies, Johnson Matthey plc

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Contents

Foreword 2

Contents 3

Executive summary 6

Opportunities for the chemical sciences 7

Next steps for the RSC 21

Contacting us 22

1. Introduction 23

2. Creating a supportive environment 24

2.1 Engagement and trust 24

2.2 Appreciation of chemistry 24

2.3 Education, skills and capacity building 25

2.4 Opportunities for all 25

2.5 Encouraging innovation 26

2.6 Regulatory environment 26

3. Underpinning science 27

3.1 Areas of underpinning science 27

3.2 Examples of critical future developments 28

4. Challenges and opportunities for the chemical sciences 32

4.1 Energy 32

4.1.1 Energy efficiency 32

4.1.2 Energy conversion and storage 33

4.1.3 Fossil fuels 34

4.1.4 Nuclear energy 35

4.1.5 Nuclear waste 36

4.1.6 Biopower and biofuels 37

4.1.7 Hydrogen 38

4.1.8 Solar energy 39

4.1.9 Wind and water 40

Energy: Fundamental science case study 41

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4.2 Food 42

4.2.1 Agricultural productivity 42

4.2.2 Healthy food 44

4.2.3 Food safety 45

4.2.4 Process efficiency 45

4.2.5 Supply chain waste 46

Food: Fundamental science case study 47

4.3 Future cities 48

4.3.1 Resources 48

4.3.2 Home energy generation 49

4.3.3 Home energy use 49

4.3.4 Construction materials 50

4.3.5 Mobility 51

4.3.6 ICT 51

4.3.7 Public safety and security 52

Future cities: Fundamental science case study 53

4.4 Human health 54

4.4.1 Ageing 54

4.4.2 Diagnostics 55

4.4.3 Hygiene and infection 56

4.4.4 Materials and prosthetics 56

4.4.5 Drugs and therapies 57

4.4.6 Personalised medicine 58

Human health: Fundamental science case study 59

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4.5 Lifestyle and recreation 60

4.5.1 Creative industries 60

4.5.2 Household 61

4.5.3 Sporting technology 61

4.5.4 Advanced and sustainable electronics 62

4.5.5 Textiles 63

Lifestyle & recreation: Fundamental science case study 64

4.6 Raw materials and feedstocks 65

4.6.1 Sustainable product design 65

4.6.2 Conservation of scarce natural resources 66

4.6.3 Conversion of biomass feedstocks 67

4.6.4 Recovered feedstocks 68

Raw materials & feedstocks: Fundamental science case study 69

4.7 Water and air 70

4.7.1 Drinking water quality 70

4.7.2 Water demand 70

4.7.3 Wastewater 71

4.7.4 Contaminants 71

4.7.5 Air quality and climate 72

Water and air: Fundamental science case study 73

Appendices 74

A1 – Study methodology 74

A2-A8 – 41 challenges and the potential opportunities for the chemical sciences 75

A9 – Glossary of key terms 101

References 102

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

With global change creating enormous challenges

relating to energy, food and climate change, action is

both necessary and urgent. The Royal Society of

Chemistry is committed to meeting these challenges

head on and has identified where the chemical sciences

can provide technological and sustainable solutions.

The RSC is in the ideal position to enable solutions to the

world's problems by working in partnership with

governments, professional bodies, non-governmental

organisations, academics and industry, across the world.

We will help decision makers to generate policy which is

based on the best available evidence, and we will support

the science needed to tackle complex challenges.

Addressing global challenges means advancing

fundamental scientific knowledge, supporting excellence

in chemical science research and maximising the number

of future breakthroughs. It will require an interdisciplinary

approach and the RSC will build bridges between

chemistry’s sub-disciplines, and with other sciences and

engineering. The RSC’s internationally active networks will

be instrumental in implementing this approach.

This report presents the first stage of this initiative, which

started in January 2008, to address how the chemical

sciences can support society in a changing world.

We brought together over 150 internationally-renowned

scientific experts in seven workshops to discuss issues

facing today’s society, identifying seven priority areas

(see below). Within these seven areas, 41 challenges were

defined and the role that chemistry will play in providing

solutions was examined. In addition, the expertise,

attitudes and opinions of the wider community were

incorporated via a web based consultation. (A glossary of

terms defining the terminology used in this initiative can

be found in Appendix A9.)

Throughout this exercise, we have attempted to align the

RSC with existing strategies and priorities from a range of

partners, who were involved in the consultation process,

strengthening our relationships and the capacity for this

work to have real impact.

These seven priority areas have many areas of overlap,

with strong links between associated challenges.

The themes of sustainable development and climate

change underpin the majority of the challenges.

The seven priority areas are summarised as follows

and the key opportunities for the chemical sciences in

each priority area are highlighted in the subsequent

tables. Full details of the priority areas are outlined

later in this report.

Energy Creating and securing environmentally

sustainable energy supplies, and improving efficiency of

power generation, transmission and use

Food Creating and securing a safe, environmentally

friendly, diverse and affordable food supply

Future cities Developing and adapting cities to

meet the emerging needs of citizens

Human health Improving and maintaining

accessible health, including disease prevention

Lifestyle & recreation Providing a sustainable

route for people to live richer and more varied lives

Raw materials & feedstocks Creating and

sustaining a supply of sustainable feedstocks, by

designing processes and products that preserve resources

Water & air Ensuring the sustainable management of

water and air quality, and addressing societal impact on

water resources (quality and availability)

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OPPORTUNITIES FORTHE CHEMICALSCIENCES

PRIORITY AREA 1:

ENERGYCreating and securingenvironmentallysustainable energysupplies, and improvingefficiency of powergeneration, transmissionand use

5 Years

Biofuels and biopower

• Better ways of hydrolysing diversified bio-massand lignocellulose

Energy efficiency

• Increased strength-to-weight ratio for structuralmaterials, such as those used in transport,including use of nanotechnology

Nuclear

• Better understanding of the physicochemicaleffects of radiation on material fatigue, stressesand corrosion in nuclear power stations

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10 Years

Nuclear

• New and improved methods and means ofstoring waste in the intermediate and long termincluding new materials and radiation tolerance

Hydrogen

• More efficient water electrolysis

Fossil fuels

• Develop better coal gasification technology

Solar energy

• Develop third-generation photovoltaic materials

Wind and water

• Develop lightweight durable compositematerials, coatings and lubricants

15 Years

Energy efficiency

• Superconducting materials at highertemperatures

Energy conversion and storage

• Improve energy density of storage technologies

• Advance the fundamental science andunderstanding of surface chemistry

• Develop next generation fuel cells, batteries,electrolysers and superconductors

Fossil fuels

• Carbon capture and storage

• Enhance oil recovery (EOR)

• Saline aquifers

• Amine scrubbing

• Alternatives to amine absorption, includingpolymers, activated carbons or fly ashes

• Understand corrosion and long term sealing of wells

• Understand the behaviour, interactions andphysical properties of CO2 under storageconditions

• Maximise storage potential

• Conversion of CO2 to chemicals

• Integrate with combustion and gasification plants

Hydrogen

• Storage of hydrogen

Solar energy

• Mimic photosynthesis

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PRIORITY AREA 2:

FOODCreating and securing a safe, environmentallyfriendly, diverse andaffordable food supply

5 Years

Food safety

• Visible indicators to improve domestic hygiene

• Irradiation for removing bacterial pathogenspreventing food spoilage

Packaging

• Develop biodegradable or recyclable, flexiblefilms for food packaging – eg corn starch,polylactic acid or cellulose feedstock, able towithstand the chill-chain, consumer handling,storage and final use – eg microwave orconventional oven

• Develop functional – ie antimicrobial, andintelligent packaging films providing specificprotection from moisture, bacteria and lipidsimproving texture and acting as carriers forvarious components – eg nanotechnologies

• Recycle mixed plastics used in food packaging

Pest control

• Formulation technology for new mixtures ofexisting actives, and to ensure a consistenteffective dose is delivered at the right time and inthe right quantity

• Reduce chemicals in crop protection strategiesthrough wider use of GM crops

Natural resources

• Better yields of components for biofuels andfeedstocks through the use of modernbiotechnology

• Nitrogen and water usage efficiency – eg droughtresistant crops for better water management

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10 Years

Fertiliser synthesis

• Low energy synthesis of nitrogen andphosphorus-containing fertilisers – alternatives to Haber-Bosch

Supply chain sensors

• Harness analytical chemistry to design rapid, real-time screening methods, microanalyticaltechniques and other advanced detectionsystems to screen for chemicals, allergens, toxins,veterinary medicines, growth hormones andmicrobial contamination of food products and onfood contact surfaces

• Quality measurement and control: analyticaltechniques to detect pesticide residues,adulteration and confirm traceability

• Sensors to monitor food stuffs in transport

• Develop microsensors in food packaging tomeasure food quality, safety, ripeness andauthenticity and to indicate when the 'bestbefore' or 'use-by' date has been reached

On farm sensors

• Develop rapid in situ biosensor systems and otherchemical sensing technologies that can monitorsoil quality and nutrients, crop ripening, cropdiseases and water availability to pinpointnutrient deficiencies, target applications andimprove the quality and yield of crops

Raw material processing

• Extract and apply valuable ingredients from foodwaste – eg enzymes, hormones, phytochemicals,probiotics cellulose and chitin

• Develop milder extraction and separationtechnologies with lower energy requirements

• Secondary metabolites for food and industrial use

15 Years

Vaccines and veterinary medicines

• Develop new vaccines and veterinary medicinesto treat the diseases (old/new/emerging) oflivestock and farmed fish – ie zoonoses

Pest control

• New high-potency, more targeted agrochemicalswith new modes of action that are safe to use,overcome resistant pests and are environmentallybenign

• Pesticides tailored to the challenges of specificplant growth conditions – eg hydroponics

Formulation

• Better understand formulation technology forcontrolling the release of macro and micronutrients and removing unhealthy content in food

• Formulate for sensory benefit

Nutrition and food quality

• Formulation science to increase nutritionalcontent of food

• More nutritious crops through GM technologies

Food chemistry

• Understand the biochemical processes involvedin produce ripening and food ageing, enablingshelf-life prediction and extension

• Understand the chemical transformations takingplace during processing, cooking andfermentation processes, that will help to maintainand improve palatability and acceptance of foodproducts by consumers

Soil science

• Optimise farming practices by understanding the biochemistry of soil ecosystems, for example,the chemistry of nitrous oxide emissions fromsoil, the mobility of chemicals within soil, andpartition between soil, water, vapour, roots andother soil components

Nutrients

• Understand feed in animals: feed conversion vianutrigenomics of animals; bioavailability of nutrients

• Improve the understanding of carbon, nitrogen,phosphorus and sulfur cycling to help optimisecarbon and nitrogen sequestration and benefitplant nutrition

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PRIORITY AREA 3:

FUTURECITIESDeveloping andadapting cities to meet the emergingneeds of citizens

5 Years

Monitoring and improving air quality

• Catalysts for efficient conversion of greenhousegases with high global warming potential (in particular N2O, CH4 and O3)

• Develop low cost, localised sensor networks for monitoring atmospheric pollutants, which canbe dispersed throughout developed anddeveloping urban environments

• Improve catalysts for destroying pollutants, in particular CO, NOx, hydrocarbons, VOC,particulate matter

• Advance end of pipe treatment, includingseparation methods, catalysis and using plasmasurface etching etc

• Healthy buildings: air quality management and functionalised surfaces for decomposingVOCs in homes

Use of alternative energy sources

• More flexible low cost photovoltaics based on‘first generation’ silicon materials

Resources

• Increase the proportion of city waste to be recycled– eg improved processes for recycling plastics

Mobility

• Develop new recyclable materials for thelightweight construction of vehicles

• Eco-efficient hybrid vehicles will require newenergy storage systems (enhanced lithiumbatteries and supercapacitors)

• Improve the internal combustion engine

• New tyre technologies to reduce fuelconsumption and noise

• Improve sensor technologies for enginemanagement and pollution detection

• Reduce CO2 emissions from transport

Construction materials

• Develop functionalised building materials – ie self-healing and self cleaning nanocoatings

• Develop new high performance insulatingmaterials – eg aerogel nanofoams

• Develop self-cleaning materials

Public safety and security

• Early detection of potential pandemic diseasesthrough developing effective, rapid analyticaltechniques

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10 Years


• New solar panel production approaches, hybridmaterials, new electrodes, photovoltaic paints

ICT – Miniaturisation for device size and speed

• Integrate nanostructures in device materials

• Self-assemble biological and non-biologicalcomponents to produce complex devices such as biosensors, memory devices, switchabledevices that respond to the environment,enzyme responsive materials, nanowires, hybrid devices, self-assembly of computingdevices, smart polymers

• Polymers for high density fabrication: identifysuitable materials meeting resolution, throughputand other processing requirements

• Printed electronics

• High density, low electrical resistance,interconnect materials to enable ultra high speed,low power communication: metallic nanowires;metallic carbon nanotubes

Mobility

• Alternative catalyst technologies compatible with jet engines

• Catalysts for fuel quality and emissions control for ships

15 Years


• Biogas fuel cells

• Harness thermal energy – eg excess heat from car engines

• Harvest geothermal energy through improvedheat transfer and anti-corrosion materials


• Chemical and biological sensors: remote, rapidand reactive sensors: sensor networks; chemicalanalogue of CCTV; home security networks

Resources

• Reduce, recycle and re-use of materials used ininformation and communication technology


• Develop intrinsically low energy/low CO2

emission construction materials

• Recyclability and reduced dependence ofstrategic construction materials

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PRIORITY AREA 4:

HUMANHEALTHImproving andmaintaining accessiblehealth, including disease prevention*

* Health priority areas for the chemical sciences will

include cancer, cardiovascular disease, stroke, mental

health and well-being, infectious disease, respiratory

disease, obesity and diabetes, the ageing population as

taken from MRC strategic plan 2004 –2007

5 Years

Hygiene and infection

• Detect and reduce airborne pathogens – eg material for air filters and sensors

Diagnostics

• Develop sensitive detection techniques for non-invasive diagnosis

• Identify relevant biomarkers and sensitiveanalytical tools for early diagnostics

Materials and prosthetics

• Research polymer and bio-compatible material chemistry for surgical equipment,implants and artificial limbs

• Develop smarter and/or bio-responsive drug delivery devices

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10 Years

Ageing

• Improve understanding of the impact of nutritionand lifestyle on future health and quality of life


• Develop fast, cheap effective sensors for bacterial infection

• Improve the ability to control and deal quicklywith new antibiotic resistant strains

• Accelerate the discovery of anti-infective andanti-bacterial agents: therapeutics and safe andeffective cleaning/antiseptic agents

Drugs and therapies

• Chemical tools for enhancing clinical studies – eg non-invasive monitoring in vivo, biomarkers,contrast agents

Drugs and therapies: Effectiveness and safety

• Monitor the effectiveness of a therapy to improve compliance

• Improve drug delivery systems through smart devices and/or targeted and non-invasive solutions

• Target particular disease cells throughunderstanding drug absorption parameterswithin the body – eg the blood-brain barrier

• Develop toxicogenomics to test drugs at acellular and molecular level


• Develop tissue engineering and stem cellresearch for regenerative medicine

Diagnostics

• Develop cost effective, information-rich point-of-care diagnostic devices

15 Years

Drugs and therapies

• Design and synthesise small molecules thatattenuate large molecule interactions – eg protein-DNA interactions

• Understand the chemical basis of toxicology and hence derive 'Lipinski-like' guidelines for toxicology

• Integrate chemistry with biological entities for improved drug delivery and targeting (‘next generation biologics’)

• Apply systems biology understanding foridentifying new biological targets

Diagnostics

• Develop cost effective diagnostics for regularhealth checks and predicting susceptibility

• Produce combined diagnostic and therapeuticdevices (smart, responsive devices, detectinfection and respond to attack)

Personalised medicine

• Develop lab-on-a-chip and rapid personaldiagnosis and treatment

• Apply advanced pharmacogenetics topersonalised treatment regimes

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PRIORITY AREA 5:

LIFESTYLEANDRECREATIONProviding a sustainableroute for people to live richer and morevaried lives

5 Years

Creative industries

• Sustainable and renewable packaging coupledwith emerging active and intelligent materials –eg developing time, temperature, spoilage andpathogen indicator technologies

Household

• Continue to move formulation of household and personal care products from ‘black art’ to amore scientific basis

Advanced and sustainable electronics

• Advances in display technology – eg flat lightweight and rollable displays for a variety of applications

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10 Years


• Develop design concepts and new materials formicrosized batteries and fuel cells for mobile andportable electronic devices

• The ability to exploit the interface betweenmolecular electronics and the human nervoussystem – eg using the brain to switch on a light

Sporting technology

• Keeping sport and recreation accessible to thewider population, especially the ageing populationthrough advances in healthcare, notably developan array of new technologies for managingchronic illness and promoting active lifestyles

• Use of active (non-invasive) diagnostic andmonitoring to assist personal performance – eg hormone levels

Creative industries

• Develop new materials for use in architecture, indesigning new buildings and structures

Household

• Develop self-cleaning materials for homes

• Controllable surface adhesion at a molecular level – ie switchable adhesion – eg self-hanging wall paper

• Improve the understanding of the chemical basisof toxicology in new/novel household productsand their breakdown in the environment, to alevel where good predictive models can bedeveloped and used, such as computationalchemistry (safety assessment without the use ofanimals) for human and eco-toxicology

15 Years


• Further enhance information storage technology– eg molecular switches with the potential to actas a molecular binary code

• Develop biological and/or molecular computing

• Understand biomimicking self-assemblingsystems. Printable (allowing dynamic re-configuration) electronics based on new molecular technologies

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PRIORITY AREA 6:

RAWMATERIALSANDFEEDSTOCKSCreating and sustaining asupply of sustainablefeedstocks, by designingprocesses and productsthat preserve resources

5 Years

Conservation of scarce natural resources

• Recover metals from ‘e-waste’, contaminatedland/landfills

• Reduce material intensity through thrifting,substitution and applying new technologies – eg nanotechnology for improved battery design

Conversion of biomass feedstocks

• Develop bioprocessing science for producing chemicals

• New separation/purification technologiesinvolving membranes and sorbent technology,and pre-treatment methods

• Develop novel catalysts & biocatalysts for processing biomass

• Converting platform chemicals to value products will require oxygen and poison tolerant catalysts and enzymes, and newsynthetic approaches to adapt to oxygen-rich,functional starting feedstocks

Recovered feedstocks

• Process waste as a feedstock through novelseparation and purification technologies, and develop genuine, innovative recycling technologies

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10 Years

Sustainable product design

• Wider role of chemical science in design ofproducts for 4Rs (reduction, remanufacture, reuse, recycle)

• Manufacturing process intensification andoptimisation through atom efficiency, greenchemistry and chemical engineering, processmodelling, analytics and control

• Improved life-cycle assessment tools and metrics will require clear standards, methods to assess recycled materials and tools to aidsubstitution of toxic substances

• Improve the understanding of ecotoxicity

15 Years


• Activate small molecules to use as feedstocks:CO2; biomimetic conversion of CO2, N2 and O2 tochemicals and artificial photosynthesis/solarenergy conversion

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PRIORITY AREA 7:

WATER AND AIREnsuring the sustainablemanagement of waterand air quality, and addressing societal impact on water resources (quality and availability)

5 Years

Air quality and climate

• Develop low-cost sensors for atmosphericpollutants (ozone, nitrogen oxides, particulatesetc) , which can be dispersed throughoutdeveloped and developing urban areas for fine-scale measuring of air quality

• Develop novel analytical techniques for detectingcomplex reactive molecules, which affect airquality and are harmful to health

Drinking water quality

• Development low cost portable technologies for analysing and treating contaminatedgroundwater that are effective and appropriatefor use by local populations in the developingworld – ie for testing of arsenic contaminatedgroundwater

Water demand

• Household products and appliances designed towork effectively with minimal water and energydemands and include better water re-cyclesystems

• Efficient water supply systems and anti-corrosiontechnologies for pipework needed including the development of materials for leakageprevention and water quality maintenance (in the developed world)

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10 Years


• Develop space-borne techniques for measuringmajor pollutants, including particulate aerosol,with sub-20 km horizontal resolution and able toresolve vertically within the lower troposphere.Use geostationary satellites to providecontinuous coverage

Contaminants

• Studies into the breakdown of and transport ofsubstances in the aquatic environment, includingemerging contaminants such as pharmaceuticalsand nanoparticles

• Research into understanding the impact ofcontaminants on and their interaction withbiological systems

Waste water

• Develop processes for localising treatment andre-using waste water to ensure that appropriatequality of water is easily accessible. Standards forrainwater and grey water identified so thatcoupled to appropriate localised treatmentrain/grey water can be harvested and used forsecondary purposes such as toilet flushing orirrigating crops

Water demand

• Better strategies for using water and re-using for agriculture systems

15 Years


• Geo-engineering solutions to climate change,such as ocean fertilisation to draw down carbondioxide, or increasing the Earth’s albedo* byenhancing stratospheric aerosols


• Energy efficient point of use purification such asusing disinfection processes and novelmembrane technologies

• Energy efficient desalination processes developed

* The proportion of incident light reflected by the Earth

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Next steps for the RSC

This document identifies seven global issues of high

societal relevance with 41 associated challenges and

highlights where the chemical sciences, in conjunction

with other disciplines, are capable of playing an

important role in delivering solutions. To make a

significant contribution and secure progress, the RSC

must work with the scientific community and policy

makers to focus on a finite number of challenges.

The RSC has identified 10 of the 41 challenges as

priorities for the next 5-10 years. These were chosen

following consultation with the RSC membership. The

challenges, listed in alphabetical order, are as follows.

• Agricultural productivityA rapidly expanding world population,increasing affluence in the developing world,climate volatility and limited land and wateravailability mean we have no alternative butto significantly and sustainably increaseagricultural productivity to provide food, feed,fibre and fuel.

• Conservation of scarce natural resourcesRaw material and feedstock resources for bothexisting industries and future applications areincreasingly scarce. We need to develop arange of alternative materials and associatednew processes for recovering valuablecomponents.

• Conversion of biomass feedstocksBiomass feedstocks (whether they areagricultural, marine or food waste) forproducing chemicals and fuels arebecoming more commercially viable. In thefuture, integrated bio-refineries using morethan one biofeedstock will yield energy, fueland a range of chemicals with no wastebeing produced.

• Diagnostics for human healthRecognising disease symptoms and progressof how a disease develops is vital foreffective treatment. We need to advance toearlier diagnosis and improved methods ofmonitoring disease.

• Drinking water qualityPoor quality drinking water damages humanhealth. Clean, accessible drinking water for all is a priority.

• Drugs & therapiesBasic sciences need to be harnessed andenhanced to help transform the entire drugdiscovery, development and healthcarelandscape, so new therapies can be deliveredmore efficiently and effectively worldwide.

• Energy conversion and storageThe performance of energy conversion andstorage technologies (fuel cells, batteries,electrolysis and supercapacitors) needs to be improved to enable better use ofintermittent renewable electricity sourcesand the development/deployment ofsustainable transport.

• Nuclear energyNuclear energy generation is a criticalmedium term solution to our energychallenges. The technical challenge is for thesafe and efficient harnessing of nuclearenergy, exploring both fission and fusiontechnologies.

• Solar energyHarnessing the free energy of the sun canprovide a clean and secure supply ofelectricity, heat and fuels. Developingexisting technologies to become more costefficient and developing the next generationof solar cells is vital to realise the potential ofsolar energy.

• Sustainable product designOur high level of industrial and domesticwaste could be resolved with increaseddownstream processing and re-use. Topreserve resources, our initial designdecisions should take more account of theentire life cycle of a product.

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This process has highlighted a number of exciting and

important opportunities and will drive the scientific

agenda for the RSC and wider community over the

coming years.

For each one of the challenges listed, we will develop an

associated project, and for areas where the RSC has

already done major pieces of work – eg energy, food and

water – a process of careful review will take place.

In the short term, we will open a dialogue with a

number of key existing and potential partners, along

with RSC member networks, to produce a

comprehensive implementation plan. This process will

include a series of workshops to define critical gaps in

knowledge, which are limiting the technological

progress within the fields of the 10 key challenges.

Over the next five years, we will manage a

comprehensive programme of initiatives aligned with

these challenges and their associated opportunities for

the chemical sciences.

This work provides a great opportunity to build on the

RSC’s global networks and we must collaborate with

scientists around the world to take this work forward.

The RSC has international cooperation agreements with

seven other chemical societies. We are also supporting

links across Africa as part of the Pan Africa Chemistry

Network, and facilitating connections with India through

the Chemistry Leadership Network. Building on this, we

will establish a new electronic network for chemists in

industry and academia, which will enhance global

connections, and increase our potential to influence

policy makers around the world.

In order for this initiative to have real impact, and to

drive the science and education agendas in the future,

the chemistry community must act together. Support,

advice and expertise from chemists are needed in order

to continue to move forward with this programme.

There are many ways to get involved to help us inform

key stakeholders, disseminate and exploit new and

existing knowledge, as well as help to facilitate the

discussions that need to be had around the world.

CONTACTING US

For more on this important RSC initiative, and for updates as these projects evolve, please visit our website.

www.rsc.org/roadmap

To work with us and to find out about the latest events and projects in your region – please contact us at

[email protected] or at our Cambridge office on 01223 420066.

Alternatively, contact one of our specialists at the RSC.

RSC Science Policy

[email protected]

Industry and Business

[email protected]

Interest Groups

[email protected]

RSC Events and conferences

[email protected]

Education

[email protected]

International Development

[email protected]

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1. INTRODUCTION

Global change is creating enormous challenges for

humanity. By 2030 the world’s population is expected to

have increased by 1.7 billion to over eight billion,1 with

the majority of those people living in cities. Global

energy requirements will continue to increase as will the

pressure on the Earth’s natural resources to provide this

rapidly expanding population with enough food, water

and shelter. The newly industrialised countries of Asia

and Latin America are experiencing very rapid economic

growth that is bringing modern society's environmental

problems, including air and water pollution and waste

problems, to wider areas of the globe.

The ecological problems caused by human activity such

as climate change are worsening. At the same time, it is

estimated that more than one billion people now live in

poverty without sufficient food, water or adequate

sanitation and healthcare provision.2

Mitigation of these challenges will rely on adopting

sustainable development; the ability to meet the needs

of the present without compromising the ability of

future generations to meet their own needs. This

requires, increasingly, the eco-efficient processes and

products that the chemical sciences can provide.

The chemical sciences help to make our lives healthier,

safer and easier to live. They provide us with food,

potable water, clothing, shelter, energy, transport and

communication, while at the same time helping us in

conserving scarce resources and protecting the natural

environment in which we live.

Progress made in the chemical sciences will clearly be

critical to: future advances in environmentally benign

and more sustainable energy production, storage and

supply; increased food production with less demand on

arable land; advanced diagnostics and novel disease

prevention therapies based on exploitation of the

human genome; designing processes and products that

preserve resources; and the provision of clean accessible

drinking water for all. Advances in chemistry will also be

needed to develop functional materials to construct our

homes and buildings, and to develop lightweight

vehicles to make them more energy efficient and thus

reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

The chemical sciences, therefore, have a clear role in

pursuing sustainable development and in providing

technological solutions to the challenges facing society

today and in the future. The technologies that the

chemical sciences engender will improve the quality of

daily life, underpin prosperity and will increase our

readiness to face the challenges of the future.

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2. CREATING A SUPPORTIVE ENVIRONMENT

Progress in the chemical sciences is required to provide

the technological solutions needed by society, in order to

solve the global challenges in energy, food, health, water

and sustainability. Achieving this does not depend solely

on major research and technological advances in the

areas defined by this report. It requires developing a

supportive environment.

The supportive environment requires the supply of an

appropriately skilled and diverse scientific workforce,

investing in research, and a business and regulatory

framework that protects society and promotes enterprise.

This will also require engagement with key stakeholders,

ranging from industrialists, academics and educationalists

to governments, funding organisations and non-

governmental organisations. There is also a need to invest

in innovation – the translation of findings into usable

developments. Society and its leaders need to be clearly

aware of these issues and, in seeking to achieve this, the

role of education is critical.

The issues in this chapter are based on UK and European

data received for this report. Future activity of the RSC in

this area should look at these issues from a global

perspective.

2.1 Engagement and trustDeveloping a supportive environment will require

engaging with key stakeholders and with the general

public to ensure the successful introduction of new and

emerging technologies. This is a complex process that

often requires a sustained effort over a long period.

It often depends on effective stakeholder dialogue on

the costs, benefits and risks to consumers and/or the

environment of the technology concerned.

However, perceptions of risk differ widely within society

and with low public confidence in some parts of the

chemicals sector. There is often a perception of high-risk

and an excessive focus on the potential negative impacts

of new technologies.

The public is often unaware of the contribution the

chemical sciences already make to today’s society.

The benefits of the chemical sciences to essential

products are hidden and often inadequately

communicated. There is a need to understand where the

common ground is and how consensus can be

developed.3 To progress science and technology and

ultimately facilitate the uptake by society of new products

and processes it is therefore necessary to create an open

dialogue between stakeholders. This must be based on

knowledge and a common understanding of the health,

safety, environmental, social and ethical concerns.

To build trust amongst all stakeholders there must be a

clear understanding of the benefits and burdens of new

technologies, as well as the risks posed by failure to adopt

new technologies.

2.2 Appreciation of chemistryTo create a supportive environment, it is important to take

long-term action to foster an appreciation of the chemical

sciences and stimulate an interest in studying chemistry

and careers in science. Chemistry underpins our

understanding of all aspects of the world around and as a

result the subject has a role to play in everyone’s general

education. Our young people are the future of society.

They will live in a world that is influenced strongly by the

present contributions of research and development

based on the chemical sciences.

This means that chemistry has an important role in the

school curriculum not only in providing future scientists,

but also in developing a future society where the place of

chemistry is grasped in terms of its underpinning role in

tackling key global challenges. The early years of

secondary education are known to be critical and teaching

must focus on what is accessible at these ages. Research

has shown that this approach generates an increase in

demand amongst young people to study chemistry. It also

secures an excellent basis for enabling everyone to see the

role of chemistry in the way it can contribute in taking

society forward in addressing major challenges.

The majority of those who study the chemical sciences at

undergraduate or postgraduate level do so to pursue an

interest in the subject. It is therefore important that

children in primary and the early years of secondary

schooling are given the opportunity to see the real

excitement of chemistry either within their schools or

through other intervention programmes, where they can

access facilities that schools cannot provide. The earlier

these interventions take place the better. Early

impressions of science will stay with children longer.

However, it is equally important that those early messages

are reinforced throughout young people’s schooling with

other intervention programmes.

When students are approaching the point of making the

subject choices that will determine what they can study

later it is important that they are provided with

information about careers that they can follow by

studying subjects like chemistry.

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2.3 Education, skills and capacity building To ensure the long-term viability and innovative capacity

of the chemicals and other chemistry-using industries,

an adequate supply of appropriately trained scientists

and a broader technically-literate society with the

relevant knowledge and skills will be required.

The UK government has recognised the vital importance

of increasing the numbers of young people studying

science, technology, engineering and mathematics

(STEM) subjects and raising the level of STEM literacy

among those entering adult life.4 The supply of STEM

talent directly impacts on all areas of research and

development, innovation and hence the ability of the

science and engineering-based industries to play their

part in the economy. Despite the number of chemical

science entrants to UK university courses showing

significant signs of improvement (a 31 per cent increase

in the past five years), this only brings it back to the level

it was in 1997.

To overcome the global challenges facing society,

long-term and long-lasting input needs to be made in

the areas of education, skills and capacity building.

All levels of education have a crucial role to play in

creating a supportive environment. Primary and

secondary education’s role is to build the base for

scientific understanding and literacy, to raise young

people’s interest and curiosity in the sciences and to

stimulate interest in the further study of the chemical

sciences and careers resulting from science. There is a

need to identify and develop effective curriculum

material to support teachers. These teachers must be

trained and qualified in their subject and must be

supported in a school environment with modern facilities

for inspirational practical learning. In addition, there must

be a sufficient provision of university places to educate

the next generation of scientifically literate graduates and

researchers for a wide range of careers or further study.

In line with the findings of educational research,

primary schools should focus on the tangible and

descriptive aspects of the sciences. Secondary schools

should steadily move away from this towards the goal of

enabling students to begin to understand the world

around them in terms of the insights and

understandings that have been offered by chemistry.

Research in science education now offers clear

guidelines about the kinds of curriculum structures and

teaching and learning approaches that can match these

goals. Research has shown consistently that two of the

key factors are the actual curriculum approach along

with the quality and commitment of teachers. It is vital

that new curricula are designed in line with the clear

findings from research and that steps are taken to

ensure the supply of adequate numbers of teachers

fully qualified in chemistry.

Education and training institutions have an important

role in ensuring that there is a flow of people with the

skills required by the technology based industries of

tomorrow, but industry is crucial to further developing

these skills and competencies. Investment in in-service

training and life-long learning is needed to develop skills

at all levels to ensure the sector and individual

companies remain competitive. With the introduction of

new technologies, it will also be of commercial interest

for whole sections of the work force to keep their skills

and knowledge up to date and to ensure that new

technologies are mastered. With an ageing workforce

this will become particularly important in the future.

2.4 Opportunities for all The majority of the graduate population in the UK and

in most of Europe is now female. More women than

men have graduated from UK higher education

institutions for well over ten years. 57 per cent of

those who graduated in 2008 were female.

In the UK, women are under-represented in the majority

of STEM subjects, the biological sciences being the

exception. Women are less likely than men to choose to

read chemistry in the UK, where women make up

around 47 per cent of those graduating at

undergraduate level but 58 per cent of those graduating

from all disciplines. Recent increases in the overall

number of chemistry graduates may also be

counteracted by the relatively low retention rate of

women in comparison to men.

The attrition of women from chemistry is particularly

bad in comparison to most other STEM subjects and

it is therefore important to create an environment that

supports the career aspirations of both men and women

in academia and in industry. Looking to the future,

many businesses have already identified improving their

workforce diversity as a way of accessing a new labour

pool. For the chemical sciences, improving the culture to

attract more women to make their long-term careers in

research is equally important.

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2.5 Encouraging innovation The pace of technological development required

necessitates urgent investment in research and support

for innovation. This is especially true for the UK and

Europe. In general, European innovation performance has

been weak compared to competing regions in the world.5

The UK government has started to address this by

establishing a business-led Technology Strategy Board in

2004 and subsequently by establishing the Knowledge

Transfer Networks (KTNs). Chemistry Innovation KTN has

provided a focus for improved innovation in UK

businesses, increasing their ability to turn knowledge

and expertise into new technologies and products.

However, there are extensive structural, social and

political factors that significantly impact on the ability to

innovate successfully. Overall there is a need to ensure

increased and long-term commitment to innovation by

the leaders in key companies. These leaders are

ultimately responsible for generating the motivation and

employee behaviour that cultivates an environment

conducive to successful innovation. There are other well

documented challenges such as ensuring people in

addition to those working in R&D are actively involved in

the complete innovation process and offering direct and

visible support for new or different business models

such as those that rely on open innovation and external

collaboration.

In the higher technology areas of innovation, improving

the trust of chemical and biotechnology industries will

help towards the goal of achieving a better balance for

risk-benefit sharing amongst stakeholders. Industry’s

commitment to increased transparency will also help in

this process. However, this will need concrete, coherent

and continued public support via key governmental

institutions.

More effective interaction between companies and

their supply chains will also be essential for improving

innovation. Ultimately this will require using the existing

national, local and regional initiatives more effectively as

it is these that provide the most direct access to the

SMEs and future downstream customers. In general,

better cooperation along the supply chain should lead

to increasing the probability of successful innovation.

2.6 Regulatory environmentTo create a supportive environment for innovation and

to meet the challenges facing society it is necessary to

monitor developments in UK and EU Environment,

Health and Safety (EH&S) policy and related legislation.

A proactive approach needs to be taken in influencing

and informing policy makers so that chemicals control

legislation is scientifically sound, risk-based,

proportionate, workable and sustainable.

While it is imperative to protect health and the

environment, it is not possible to design-out all risks over

the life cycle of chemical substances and products.

Legislation needs to strike a balance between reducing

risk as far as is possible and the benefits to society of

chemicals. For a chemical to cause harm requires

exposure to its hazardous properties, so legislation based

solely on a chemical’s hazardous properties, and not on

the actual risk it poses, can and has led to a reduction in

chemical diversity, which in turn can impact negatively on

innovation. While organisations such as the RSC support

the search for safer alternatives it must be remembered

that chemical substances generally do not pose a single

risk and in fact have a risk profile. Therefore, in the search

for less harmful substitutes with equivalent functionality

and utility, care must be taken to ensure that a reduction

in one risk is not replaced by an increase in another.

Furthermore, the search for safer solutions should be

based on the principles of sustainability.

It is also necessary to monitor international chemicals

control policy to ensure that UK companies have a level

playing field regarding EH&S legislation. While

appropriate chemicals control policies do contribute to

increased safety and sustainability, and can be a source

of competitive advantage, policies which are not based

on scientific knowledge can create additional costs for

business that do not contribute to reducing risk.

Another very important area is green procurement,

where organisations take into account external

environmental concerns alongside the procurement

criteria of price and quality. Regulations requiring a

proportion of public procurement to be green could

create massive demand for green, sustainable products

and help foster innovation.6

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3. UNDERPINNING SCIENCE

3.1 Areas of underpinning scienceTo address the big global challenges mentioned in this

report and maintain the flow of future breakthroughs it is

critical to advance fundamental knowledge and to

support curiosity driven research. This will be achieved by

maintaining and nurturing areas of underpinning science.

The areas outlined in this chapter are not an exhaustive

list, but provide an indication of the critical role that

chemical sciences play in partnership with other

disciplines.

Analytical science

This ‘encompasses both the fundamental understanding

of how to measure properties and amounts of chemicals,

and the practical understanding of how to implement

such measurements, including designing the necessary

instruments. The need for analytical measurements arises

in all research disciplines, industrial sectors and human

activities that entail the need to know not only the

identities and amounts of chemical components in a

mixture, but also how they are distributed in space and

time’.7 Recent developments in this area have

underpinned huge advances in the biosciences such as

genome mapping and diagnostics.

Catalysis

‘Catalysis is a common denominator underpinning most

of the chemical manufacturing sectors. Catalysts are

involved in more than 80 per cent of chemical

manufacturing, and catalysis is a key component in

manufacturing pharmaceuticals, speciality and

performance chemicals, plastics and polymers, petroleum

and petrochemicals, fertilisers, and agrochemicals.

Its importance can only grow as the need for

sustainability is recognised and with it the requirement

for processes that are energy efficient and produce fewer

by-products and lower emissions. Key new areas for

catalysis are arising in clean energy generation via fuel

cells and photovoltaic devices. Biocatalysis is also

becoming increasingly important’.8

Chemical biology

This area focuses on a ‘quantitative molecular approach

to understanding the behaviour of complex biological

systems and this has led both to chemical approaches

to intervening in disease states and synthesising

pared-down chemical analogues of cellular systems.

Particular advances include understanding and

manipulating processes such as enzyme-catalysed

reactions, the folding of proteins and nucleic acids, the

micromechanics of biological molecules and assemblies,

and using biological molecules as functional elements in

nano-scale devices’.9

Computational chemistry

Computational chemistry plays a major role in providing

new understanding and development of computational

procedures for simulating, designing and operating

systems ranging from atoms and molecules to

interactions of molecules in complex systems such as cells

and living organisms. Collaboration between theoreticians

and experimentalists covers the entire spectrum of

chemistry and this area has applications in almost all

industry sectors where chemistry plays a part.

Materials chemistry

Materials chemistry involves the rational synthesis of

novel functional materials using a large array of existing

and new synthetic tools. The focus is on designing

materials with specific useful properties, synthesising

these materials and understanding how the composition

and structure of the new materials influence or determine

their physical properties to optimise the desired

properties.

Supramolecular chemistry and nanoscience

This involves ‘devising a framework to understand and

manipulate non-covalent interactions, and on the

physico-chemical engineering of nanoscale materials and

systems. Notable advances have been made in self-

assembled molecular and biomolecular systems, synthetic

molecular motors, biologically inspired nano-systems,

nano-structured surfaces, hierarchically-functionalised

systems and measurement at the nanoscale’.9

Synthesis

‘Synthesis is achieved by performing chemical

transformations, some of which are already known and

some of which must be invented’.7 One of the goals of the

underpinning science of synthesis is to invent new types

of transformations because novel transformations are the

tools that make it possible to create interesting and useful

new substances. Chemists also create new substances

with the aim that their properties will be scientifically

important or useful for practical purposes.

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3.2 Examples of critical futuredevelopments The following are four examples of areas of science

where further developments in fundamental

understanding could lead to a new generation of

products and applications as well as deliver potential

benefits for society.

Controlled release and formulation

Formulation – creating multi-component, often multi-

phase products – is an enabling capability exploitable

across many global market sectors, for example home

and personal care, cosmetics, food and beverages, fuel

additives, lubricants, coatings, inks, dyes, agrochemicals,

and pharmaceuticals. Relevant emerging high-value

markets also include organic electronics and

nanotechnology.

The combined global market for formulated products

exceeds £1000 billion per annum and is growing.

The drivers for this are varied but include a growing and

ageing global population requiring new products for

health, hygiene and food production. Globalisation is also

opening up new market opportunities and generating a

demand for products of novel and diverse performance

and profile, such as environmental, ethical and premium

products. In turn, there is an associated increase in

competition, driving more efficient production, improved

technology protection and new approaches to

overcoming ever shortening product life-cycles.

To develop the science and technologies needed to

exploit these opportunities and challenges,

multidisciplinary and cross-sector teams will be needed

with expertise in areas including colloids, particles,

surfactants, polymers, crystallisation, high-throughput

technologies, measurement, modelling and process

engineering.

Consumers like products that are convenient to use

and give good performance. A controlled-, sequential-

or multifunctional-release product is likely to have an

improved performance over a non-specific release

formulation by requiring reduced amounts of active

ingredients and needing to be applied less frequently.

Such technology may allow the design of site specific

active substances. For example, cancer cells have a

different pH and temperature to normal cells so

designing-in pH and temperature functionality, together

with incorporating biomarkers, may allow the

development of novel formulation products that

specifically target cancer cells, and hence are non-

invasive, offering consumer convenience with reduced

side effects.

Controlled release formulations may also be useful for

agrochemical and pharmaceutical applications because

they would allow the active ingredient to be delivered

where and how it is needed, potentially leading to

reduced non-target effects. New formulations will help

us to develop drugs and agrochemicals against targets

that were previously considered to be inaccessible.

In personal care the sequential delivery of

non-compatible active ingredients at specific time

intervals during a wash cycle could lead to the improved

cleaning performance of a washing powder; and in

cosmetics controlled release may lead to improved

topical cosmetic applications such as maximising the

amount of time an active ingredient such as a

sunscreen is present on the skin.

For the most part, existing technologies such as

encapsulation, micro-encapsulation and polymeric

systems do not allow sufficient levels of control of

particle and formulation design. For process technology

to evolve, understanding the individual particle

characteristics of the active ingredient(s) (size, shape and

functionality) and their relationship to the bulk

properties that directly relate to product performance

is important. Therefore, there is a need to develop a

fundamental understanding of surface chemistry,

individual particle attributes, process engineering and

scale-up laws. Such knowledge would provide the

scientific community with multibillion pound product

opportunities and a market advantage due to ‘first to

market’ and product differentiation. This knowledge

would potentially impact on health, environment and

sustainability.

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Intelligent synthetic design for effect

While our knowledge of chemical synthesis can be used

to make increasingly complex molecular structures,

another accolade for fundamental research would be to

better understand how these structures relate to specific

useful functional properties. Designing and building

functionality into a ‘final’ form, such as a drug molecule,

an adhesive or a coating, by understanding the

necessary properties of the component parts should be

the ultimate goal. A better understanding of the

molecular basis of functionality would allow us to design

more effective ingredients, including chemicals

designed to impart more than one kind of functionality

to a product. Equally, undesirable functionality such as

toxicity and bio-persistence could be designed out at an

early stage. Analysing known property data with

computational approaches may offer insights into the

structural basis for important bulk properties. This will

have tremendous impact on the environment in terms

of sustainability. Such an approach would enable a

fundamental shift from ‘make and test’ approaches

towards intelligence led design. Steps in this direction

have been made with, for example, biomimicry research

to understand how nature uses surface structure to

control properties.

Retrosynthesis is a method that was developed,

originally by E.J. Corey, to help the organic synthesis of

target molecules in the pharmaceutical and

agrochemical industries amongst others. Furthermore,

retrosynthesis for materials is being developed to help

design-in functionality in the materials chemistry field.

This is described as ‘combining concepts generally used

in covalent organic synthesis such as retrosynthetic

analysis and the use of protecting groups, and applying

them to the self-assembly of polymeric building blocks

in multiple steps. This results in a powerful strategy for

self-assembling dynamic materials with a high level of

architectural control’.10

One example of this is synthesising molecular motors,

where the thermodynamics and kinetics of phase

behaviour in polymer blends and block copolymers are

applied to develop new processing methods based on

self-assembly.

Thinking sustainably when looking at drug design11 is

another area that has become increasingly important.

Attention has been given recently to the problems

caused by pharmaceuticals in the environment.

However, the environmental impact of pharmaceuticals

is not just limited to their end-of-life. Each stage in the

lifecycle of a pharmaceutical product will have an

associated environmental impact, via, for example,

resource consumption, energy use or waste disposal.

This presents an opportunity to apply new chemistry

methods and technology to design pharmaceutical

products that have improved overall sustainability.

Efforts have been concentrated on improvements to

processes and manufacturing, such as reducing waste

and hazardous materials. The 12 Principles of Green

Chemistry can be applied here:

• prevent waste;

• design safer chemicals and products;

• design less hazardous chemical syntheses;

• use renewable feedstocks;

• use catalysts, not stoichiometric reagents;

• avoid chemical derivatives;

• maximise atom economy;

• use safer solvents and reaction conditions;

• increase energy efficiency;

• design chemicals and products to degrade after use;

• analyse in real time to prevent pollution;

• minimise the potential for accidents.

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Synthetic biology

Synthetic biology seeks to reduce biological systems to

their component parts and to use these to build novel

systems or rebuild existing ones. This manipulation of

living systems and their component parts in a rational

way is equivalent to the way in which engineers design

new machines, cars or planes. This manipulation has two

major implications. First, in creating new functions from

new combinations of component parts, and secondly in

improving the understanding of existing biological

systems through reverse engineering. Synthetic biology

requires the contribution of expertise from across the

sciences because it involves applying principles and

tools provided by engineering and the physical sciences.

This convergence of biology, engineering and the

physical sciences in synthetic biology could result in the

third industrial revolution over the next 50 years, similar

to the development of steam power and electronics.

Biological systems can be viewed as a network of

interacting modules. DNA elements are important

functional modules as they encode and control the

production of proteins that determine the outputs of

the system. Furthermore, these DNA elements may be

responsive to external cues through interactions with

signalling pathways. DNA can be precisely manipulated

to change the system’s outputs or behaviour to external

cues. Chemistry has a key role to play in synthetic

biology by providing tools to analyse and modify DNA

and other molecules in the required way. This includes

advances in DNA sequencing technology and gene

manipulation tools. The molecular modules are broadly

similar across many species. For example, the chemical

properties of DNA are universal and therefore

developments provided by the chemical sciences will be

widely applicable across synthetic biology.

A synthetic biology approach is being applied across a

range of biological scales. This includes designing

molecules, through to the engineering of novel

organisms, and may eventually allow the integration of

biological and non-biological components. Organisms

and biomolecules with more uses in chemistry are likely

to benefit society through applications in healthcare,

the environment and energy. For example, synthetic

biology will allow the development of new materials,

the synthesis of novel nucleic acid and protein-based

drugs, and will create organisms with new functions,

such as the targeted breakdown of harmful chemicals

in the environment.12

Synthetic biology can provide new processes for

producing chemicals and drugs.13 In nature, cells contain

enzyme pathways that make precise changes to

molecules with great specificity. Synthetic biology now

enables chemists to ‘mix and match’ enzymes from

different organisms to create new functions that allow

the synthesis of specific molecules. For example,

artemisinin is a naturally occurring, anti-malarial drug

that is currently extracted from a plant at high cost and

with low efficiency. Research has led to the introduction

of a new enzyme pathway into yeast cells to produce a

precursor to the active drug. This method has the

potential to produce the drug at high yield and

consistent quality, reducing its costs and increasing

availability. A more complex and distant application of

synthetic biology to medicine is the potential to

engineer microbes that are able to fight cancer, by

sensing and destroying cancer tissue.

Synthetic biology may also be used to facilitate the

production of bio-hydrogen for energy. In principle

hydrogen can be produced by splitting water using

hydrogenase enzymes found in plants and bacteria.

However, these enzymes are inhibited by the oxygen

by-product of the reaction, so the process is very

inefficient. Synthetic biology may provide a solution to

this problem by engineering bacteria that are able to

split water to produce hydrogen for use as a fuel.

Synthetic biology has the potential to contribute to

solving a range of global challenges. It is important that

the public is well-informed of these advantages to

ensure that synthetic biology can be used to the

maximum benefit of society.

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Electrochemistry

Electrochemistry is an area of science that is critical to a

variety of challenges outlined in this report, including

the storage of intermittent renewable energy sources,

batteries for the next generation of electric cars, the

clean production of hydrogen, solar cells with greater

efficiency and sensors for use in research of biological

systems and healthcare. Fundamentally electrochemistry

is concerned with inter-converting electrical and

chemical energy, but practically it can be applied as an

analytical and synthetic tool.

The realisation of increased use of renewable electricity

generation, including the reduction of CO2 from

transport, relies on developing energy storage devices.

If future cars are to be run using batteries, energy

storage devices need to be efficient, produce high

power and ideally be recyclable at low cost. This requires

further understanding and developments in

electrochemical research, applied to batteries,

supercapacitors, fuel cells and chemical energy storage.

Electrochemistry has a central role to play in producing

energy from renewable sources. For example, solar cells

are essentially electrochemical cells, and improvements

in their efficiency will rely on an improved

understanding of the electron transport process through

the cells. Hydrogen, considered by some as the clean

energy vector of the future, can be produced cleanly

and renewably by electrolysing water. Direct fuel cells

such as hydrogen or methanol cells, or cells built to run

on alternative high energy clean chemical feedstocks, all

require real technological breakthroughs in materials for

electrodes, understanding electrode reactions and

understanding electron transport mechanisms.

Another important area for electrochemistry is in

sensing. For example, for health and homeland security

we will need to detect an increasing number of

chemical species selectively, and ideally build this into

sensing systems that can act on this information in real

time. Electrochemical sensors are one means of

providing this information, and they have the advantage

of producing electrical output signals compatible with

microelectronic systems. The challenge for complex

systems is to develop multiple sensors integrated into a

system able to detect and diagnose sensitively and

selectively (like the multiple sensors in an animal’s nose

interfaced with the brain). This requires better and more

flexible sensor systems than at present.

Another challenge is the need in healthcare to detect

biomolecular species such as proteins, oligonucleotides

(DNA and RNA) and cells, quickly, accurately and

cheaply. In diagnostics this is driven by developing

physical techniques, which include electrochemical

transduction, to enable these measurements. Current

applications include glucose and pregnancy testing kits,

but in the future this will open up the real prospect of

theranostics – using diagnostics in informing patient-

specific therapies.

There is much research to be done on understanding

electrochemistry in living systems such as the nervous

system. Nervous systems depend on the interconnections

between nerve cells, which rely on a limited number of

different signals transmitted between nerve cells, or to

muscles and glands. The signals are produced and

propagated by chemical ions that produce electrical

charges that move along nerve cells. Electrochemical

techniques can be applied to understand these systems

and improve therapies for degenerative diseases such as

Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s.

There are also major technical challenges in

electrochemical corrosion, which need further

understanding. Corrosion is a major destructive process

that results in costly, unsightly and destructive effects,

such as the formation of rust and other corrosion

products, and the creation of gaping holes or cracks in

aircraft, automobiles, boats, gutters, screens, plumbing,

and many other items constructed of every metal,

except gold.

Finally, as an indispensable research tool,

electrochemistry can be applied to understanding

organic reaction mechanisms and reaction rates, in

nanoscale imaging devices such as electrochemical

scanning tunnelling microscopy (ESTM), and as an

analytical tool to characterise electrochemical systems

such as cyclic voltammetry, potential step voltammetry,

and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS).

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4. SOCIETAL CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR THE CHEMICAL SCIENCES

4.1 EnergyCreating and securing environmentally sustainable

energy supplies, and improving efficiency of power

generation, transmission and use

An adequate and secure supply of energy is essential in

almost every aspect of our lives, but this needs to be

achieved with minimum adverse environmental impact.

On current trends, global emissions are set to reach

double pre-industrial levels before 2050, with severe

impacts on our climate and the global economy.14

At the same time, energy demand worldwide continues

to increase, as the world’s population grows and the

developing world economies expand. On the basis of

present policies, global energy demand will be more than

50 per cent higher in 2030 than today, with energy related

greenhouse gas emissions around 55 per cent higher.15

Even if the potential for increasing low carbon sources

of energy is realised, it is clear that remaining reserves of

fossil fuels will play a significant part in meeting the

world’s energy needs for the foreseeable future, and

ways of reducing emissions must be found.

The International Energy Agency forecasts that $20

trillion of investment will be needed to meet these

challenges by 2030.15

As society moves from an economy based on fossil

fuels to a more sustainable energy mix, scientists and

engineers will be required not only to develop

sustainable energy solutions but also to find more

efficient ways of producing, refining and using fossil

fuels during the transition.

This section defines the challenges that exist and

identifies the key R&D areas for the chemical sciences

that are needed to support the sustainable

development of energy supply, distribution and use,

and to assist in the transition to a sustainable energy

future. The main challenges relate to energy efficiency,

energy conversion and storage, fossil fuels, nuclear

energy, nuclear waste and renewables.

4.1.1 Energy efficiency

Challenge: Improvements are needed in the efficiency

with which electricity is generated, transmitted and

energy is used.

The European Commission set a target of saving 20 per

cent of all energy used in the EU by 2020; improved

energy efficiency is a crucial part of the energy puzzle.

It would save the EU around €100 billion and cut

emissions by almost 800 million tonnes per year.

It is one of the key ways in which carbon dioxide (CO2)

emission savings can be realised.16

Estimates point to an energy shortfall of 14 terawatts

(TW) across the planet by 2050. Collectively, individuals

are responsible for over 40 per cent of the UK’s energy

use and CO2 emissions.14 The Energy Saving Trust

estimates that at home we waste over £900 million per

year by leaving appliances on when they are not being

used. Through energy efficiency and behavioural

measures to reduce waste, households, in the UK alone,

could save a further nine million tonnes of CO2 a year

by 2020 and cut energy bills at the same time17

(see also section 4.3.3 Home energy use). The chemical

sciences have a role to play in improving the efficiency

with which electricity is generated, transmitted and how

the energy is used.

Major opportunities exist for improving the conversion

of primary energy for transport, industrial energy use

and in buildings and domestic applications. Innovation

in these areas will be underpinned by the chemical

sciences.18 Materials chemistry has a significant role to

play in meeting future requirements, for example:

• using nanotechnology to increase the strength to

weight ratio of structural materials;

• developing better insulating materials and more

efficient lighting for buildings (see also section 4.3.3

Home energy use);

• through improving fuel economy and reducing CO2

emissions by developing advanced materials and

components that can be used in conventional vehicles

(see also section 4.3.5 Mobility).

In addition, there are undoubtedly developments in

materials use and processing where the chemical

sciences will play an important part in using energy

more efficiently and improving manufacturing efficiency.

Breakthroughs will be required in optimisation, process

intensification and developing new process routes,

including developing new catalysts and improving

separation technologies. This must be linked to the

application of Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) (see also section

4.6.1 Sustainable product design).

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4.1.2 Energy conversion and storage

Challenge: The performance of energy conversion and

storage technologies (fuel cells, batteries, electrolysis

and supercapacitors) needs to be improved to enable

better use of intermittent renewable electricity

sources and the development/deployment of

sustainable transport.

In 2000, cars and vans accounted for 7 per cent of global

CO2 emissions. This proportion is rising as economic

growth brings the benefits of widespread car use to the

world's emerging and developing economies. Under a

business-as-usual scenario global road transport

emissions would be projected to double by 2050.19

According to the King Review,19 it is essential to invest in

renewable electricity generation technologies as well as

technologies that allow transport decarbonisation.

The realisation of both aims relies on developing energy

storage devices that balance intermittent supply with

consumer demand and addressing issues associated

with security and quality of supply. Major technical

challenges need to be met that require research into

new areas of science, in particular the chemical sciences.

The major challenge is therefore to improve the

performance of energy conversion and storage

technologies (fuel cells, batteries, electrolysis and

supercapacitors) to enable better use of intermittent

renewable electricity sources and the

development/deployment of sustainable transport.

Technology breakthroughs required include:

• improving power and energy densities;

• fundamental advances in new cheaper, safer electrode

and electrolyte materials with better performance;

• reducing and replacing strategic materials to ensure

security of supply (such as for platinum) and

developing material recycling strategies.

Developments must be coupled with advances in the

fundamental science of surface chemistry,

electrochemistry and the improved modelling of

thermodynamics and kinetics.

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4.1.3 Fossil fuels

Challenge: Current fossil fuel usage is unsustainable

and associated with greenhouse gas production. More

efficient use of fossil fuels and the by-products are

required alongside technologies that ensure minimal

environmental impact.

The amount of the world’s primary energy supply

provided by renewable energy technologies will grow,

but without further breakthroughs in technology, most

estimates predict that it is unlikely to provide more than

10 per cent by 2050.18 Fossil fuels will therefore remain

part of our energy mix for some time to come. Currently

the world relies on fossil fuels for around 80 per cent of

its total energy supply and this energy use is responsible

for around 85 per cent of anthropogenic CO2

emissions.20 Oil makes up 35 per cent of the total global

energy source consumed, followed by 25 per cent gas

and 21 per cent coal.20 If some use of fossil fuels in the

future is accepted, it is vital to use fossil fuels and their

by-products more efficiently, alongside technologies

that will ensure minimal environmental impact.

Crude oil is currently being produced from increasingly

hostile environments. Enhanced oil recovery processes

and the exploitation of heavy oil reserves require a

detailed understanding of the complex physical and

chemical interactions between oil, water and porous

rock systems, and the development of novel chemical

additives to improve water flooding and miscible gas

injection. One of the main challenges facing the oil

refinery industry is the cost effective production of

ultra-low sulfur fuels. Input from the chemical sciences is

needed to overcome this issue by developing improved

catalysts and separation and conversion processes.

Natural gas has a higher hydrogen/carbon ratio than oil

or coal and emits less CO2 for a given quantity of energy

consumed. It leaves virtually no particulate matter after

burning. The potential benefits for improving air quality

are therefore significant, relative to other fossil fuels.

Chemical sciences will have a strategic role to play in

up-grading and improving current systems, and in

developing new technologies. Technology

breakthroughs will be required in: developing cost

effective gas purification technologies, improving high

temperature materials for enhanced efficiency and

performance, and developing advanced catalysts to

improve combustion for a range of gas types and for

emissions clean-up.

Coal-fired generation should have a long-term role in

providing energy diversity and security, providing ways

can be found to reduce CO2 emissions in the longer

term, while complying with other short to medium term

barriers resulting from tightening environmental

restrictions.18 Short term technical needs in coal-fired

power generation relate specifically to the control of

SO2, NOX and carbon in ash. Research should be focused

specifically on better materials for plant design,

including corrosion resistant materials for use in flue gas

desulfurisation systems, catalysts for emissions control

and a better understanding of specific processes such as

corrosion and ash deposition. Improved process

monitoring, equipment design and performance

prediction tools to improve power plant efficiency are

also required. Medium term challenges require improved

materials for supercritical and advanced gasification

plants as well as the development of gasification

technologies themselves.

If we continue to use fossil fuels, it is vital that some

means of capturing and safely storing CO2 on a large

scale is developed so that targets for CO2 reduction can

be met. Carbon capture and storage (CCS) is an

emerging combination of technologies, which could

reduce emissions from fossil fuel power stations by as

much as 90 per cent.14 Capturing and storing CO2 safely

will rely on the skills of a range of disciplines, including

the chemical sciences. The number of technical

challenges to achieve CCS on the scale required is

formidable. Amine scrubbing is currently the most

widely used process for CO2 capture, but the process is

costly and inefficient. Further research is required into

alternatives to amine absorption, including polymers,

activated carbons or fly ashes for the removal of CO2

from dilute flue gases. In addition, to optimise storage

potential, research into the storage options for CO2 is

needed (such as in depleted gas and oilfields, deep

saline aquifers or unmineable coal seams) and an

improved understanding of the behaviour, interactions

and physical properties of CO2 under storage conditions

is required. Research into the options for CO2 as a

feedstock is required, for example converting CO2 to

useful chemicals (see also section 4.6.4 Recovered

feedstocks). To ensure uptake, it is essential that CCS

technologies are integrated with new and existing

combustion and gasification plants.

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4.1.4 Nuclear energy

Challenge: Nuclear energy generation is a critical

medium term solution to our energy challenges.

The technical challenge is for the safe and efficient

harnessing of nuclear energy, exploring both fission

and fusion technologies.

Nuclear power in 2005 accounted for 16 per cent of

global electricity generation.20 In 2007 nuclear power

accounted for 18 per cent of the UK’s electricity

generation and 7.5 per cent of total energy supplies.14

It is a low carbon source of electricity and makes an

important contribution to the diversity of our energy

supplies. Without our existing nuclear power stations,

our carbon emissions would have been 5-12 per cent

higher in 2004 than otherwise.21 However, based on

published lifetimes most of the existing stations are due

to close in the next 15 years. Nuclear energy generation

is therefore a critical medium-term solution to our

energy challenge and is an important component of the

energy mix. The technical challenge is for the safe and

efficient harnessing of nuclear energy, exploring both

fission and fusion technology.

Current nuclear energy capability uses nuclear fission.

To improve further the efficient and safe utilisation of

nuclear fission it is necessary to:

• undertake research to advance the understanding of

the physico-chemical effects of radiation on material

fatigue, stresses and corrosion in nuclear power

stations;

• develop improved methods for spent fuel processing,

including developing advanced separation

technologies to allow unprecedented control of

chemical selectivity in complex environments;

• study the nuclear and chemical properties of the

actinide and lanthanide elements; and to improve our

understanding of radiation effects on polymers,

rubbers and ion exchange materials.

In addition, the new generation of advanced reactors, such

as those being developed under the banner of Generation

IV that use actinide-based fuels, have the potential to

deliver step-change benefits. Opportunities exist in the

design and demonstration of these new reactors.

In contrast, nuclear fusion is still at the development

stage. Despite some progress, the challenge in fusion

research is to generate more energy from fusion than is

put in. Apart from the continued research into plasma

physics, magnetics, instrumentation and remote

handling, the development of high performance

structural materials capable of withstanding extreme

operating conditions is required.

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4.1.5 Nuclear waste

Challenge: The problems of storage and disposal of

new and legacy radioactive waste remain. Radioactive

waste needs to be reduced, safely contained and

opportunities for re-use explored.

Globally about 270,000 tonnes of spent fuel are currently

in storage and 10,000-12,000 tonnes are added each

year.22 The last published UK Radioactive Waste Inventory

showed that the UK has approximately 476, 900 cubic

metres of radioactive waste currently stored in

repositories.23 Only 0.3 per cent of that waste is

considered of high radioactivity or ‘high level waste’.

The UK has a large variety of nuclear waste due to the

different legacy reactors that were built across the

country. It includes spent nuclear fuel, plutonium,

uranium and general radioactive waste from running

and decommissioned nuclear power plants. Published as

part of the Managing Radioactive Waste Safely (MRWS)

programme the UK’s current strategy for dealing with

higher activity radioactive waste in the long term is

through geological disposal, coupled with safe and

secure interim storage.23

The storage and disposal of new and legacy radioactive

waste pose a number of challenges. Radioactive waste

needs to be reduced, safely contained and opportunities

for re-use explored. This must be coupled with

decommissioning and contaminated land management.

Processes for separating and reusing nuclear waste rely

on developing areas of reprocessing chemistry, such as

recycling spent fuel into its constituent uranium,

plutonium and fission products, and using separation

chemistry in nuclear waste streams – for example using

zeolites for sorption, membranes, supercritical fluids and

molten salts. Improving the understanding of solids

formation and precipitation behaviour will be key.

Using wasteform chemistry, which includes the

fundamental science of materials used in immobilising

nuclear waste, could help solve a number of waste

management issues. But new and improved methods

and means of storing legacy and new nuclear waste in

the intermediate and long term are also required.

Storage strategies will necessitate producing new

materials, for example with high radiation tolerance.

They will also require a greater understanding of the

long term ageing of cements used for storage – and

their microstructural properties – and understanding

waste/cement interactions and the corrosion of metallic

components in cement materials. Methods of waste

containment for storage in geological sites require

further research, as each site will have differences in the

geological sub-strata.

The chemical sciences also have a role in developing

methods for decommissioning nuclear plants

and site remediation, including research into

environmental chemistry – such as hydro-geochemistry,

radio-biogeochemistry and biosphere chemistry,

and methods for the effective and safe post-operational

clean-out of legacy facilities.

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4.1.6 Biopower and biofuels

Challenge: Fuels, heat or electricity must be produced

from biological sources in a way that is economic

(and therefore efficient at a local scale), energetically

(and greenhouse gas) efficient, environmentally friendly

and not competitive with food production.

The proportion of solar radiation that reaches the Earth’s

surface each year is more than 10,000 times the current

annual global energy consumption and about 0.2 per

cent of it is fixed by plant life. Biomass is thought to

contribute over 10 per cent of global primary energy

and more than 80 per cent of this is used for cooking

and heating in households in developing countries.20

In an attempt to alleviate fossil fuel usage and CO2

emissions, developed nations are turning back to

biomass as a fuel source. Crops such as sugar cane can

grow very quickly and can fix sunlight with an efficiency

of 2 per cent, 10 times higher than the planetary

average for wild plants.

Biomass is any plant material that can be used as a fuel,

such as agricultural and forest residues, other organic

wastes and specifically grown crops. Biomass can be

burned directly to generate power, or can be processed

to create gas or liquids to be used as fuel to produce

power, transport fuels and chemicals. Biomass currently

accounts for just 0.43 per cent of the UK's energy but it is

seen as one way of meeting EU targets for reducing CO2

emissions and increasing the use of renewable energy.24

Biomass is therefore a versatile and important fuel, and

also a rich feedstock for the chemical industry (see also

section 4.6.3 Conversion of biomass feedstocks).

The potential for increased exploitation of biomass

resources is very large. The chemical sciences have a

role to play in producing fuels, heat or electricity from

biological sources in a way that is economic

(and therefore efficient at a local scale), energetically

(and greenhouse gas) efficient, environmentally friendly

and not competitive with food production.

The relatively low conversion efficiency of sunlight into

biomass means that large areas of agricultural land

would be required to produce significant quantities of

biofuels using current technology. There are significant

opportunities associated with developing energy crops.

For example, genetic engineering could be used to

enable plants to grow on land that is unsuitable for food

crops, or in other harsh environments such as oceans.

Plants could be engineered to produce appropriate

waste products and high-value chemical products or

they could be engineered to have more efficient

photosynthesis, increased yields and require lower

carbon inputs. There could also be opportunities to

develop methods of producing fuel from new sources

such as algae, animal or other waste forms.

Biofuels are more expensive than conventional transport

fuels18 but developing improved and novel conversion

technologies will broaden the range of feedstocks. For

example, the cost effective hydrolysis of lignocelluloses

will significantly increase the source of biomass for

bioethanol. The drive to increase use of biomass and

renewable energy sources, and materials, has led to the

bio-refinery concept, which would use the whole of the

biomass feedstock to produce a number of products, in

addition to biofuels. Gasification and thermochemical

technologies are also important methods of converting

biomass to transport fuels.

The chemical sciences have a significant role to play in

improving bio-refinery processes through:

• advancing modelling and analytical methods;

• improving ways of hydrolysing diversified biomass and

lignocellulose;

• improving the extraction of high value chemicals

before energy extraction;

• developing thermochemical processes including

developing better catalysts, microbes and enzymes;

• improving the flexibility of feedstock and output

(electricity, heat, chemicals, fuel or a combination).

Breakthroughs also need to be made in developing

better pre-treatment technologies to improve the

handling and storage of biomass, and ways of managing

bio-refinery waste streams so as to minimise

environmental impact.

While there are significant opportunities, the challenges

are considerable and will require developing novel

biomass conversion technologies, a fundamental

understanding of the chemistry of biomass production

and the tools to measure the impacts of biofuels over

the entire life-cycle. This will include analysing potential

environmental issues related to impacts of land use

change, water demand and biological diversity.

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4.1.7 Hydrogen

Challenge: The generation and storage of hydrogen are

both problematic. Developing new materials and

techniques so that we can safely and efficiently harness

hydrogen will be required to enable its use as an

energy vector, appropriately scaled to its applications.

Hydrogen coupled with fuel cell technology offers an

alternative to our current reliance on fossil fuels for

transport and generating power. Despite the

advantages, significant technical challenges exist in

developing clean, sustainable, and cost-competitive

hydrogen production processes to create a viable

future hydrogen economy. Both generating and storing

hydrogen are both problematic. The steam methane

reforming process is used to produce 95 per cent of all

hydrogen extracted today and liberates up to six times

as much CO2 as it does hydrogen.25 Developing new

materials and techniques so that we can harness and

use hydrogen safely and efficiently will be required so

that it can be used as an energy vector, appropriately

scaled to different applications.

Energy is required to produce hydrogen, therefore

hydrogen as a fuel is only as clean as the process that

produces it in the first place.18 The long-term goal is

renewably produced hydrogen. The preferred renewable

options include electrolysis, thermochemical water

splitting, biochemical hydrogen generation and

photocatalytic water electrolysis; but significant research

is required before they will become competitive with

conventional processes.

Producing hydrogen from water by electrolysis using

renewably generated electricity is highly attractive as

the process is clean, relatively maintenance-free and is

scalable. Advances need to be made in efficiency by

developing improved electrode surfaces for both types

of electrolysers and finding uses for the by-product, O2.

Photocatalytic water electrolysis uses energy from

sunlight to split water into hydrogen and oxygen.

R&D must focus on the energetics of the light harvesting

system to drive the electrolysis and the stability of the

system in the aqueous environment.

Thermochemical water-splitting converts water into

hydrogen and oxygen by a series of thermally driven

reactions. Developing new heat exchange materials will

be necessary to meet the required stability conditions.

An improved understanding of fundamental high

temperature kinetics and thermodynamics will be

essential. Biochemical hydrogen generation is based on

the concept that certain photosynthetic microbes

produce hydrogen as part of their natural metabolic

activities using light energy. To make this viable will

require breakthroughs in:

• discovering new microorganisms or genetically

modifying existing organisms;

• improving culture conditions for hydrogen production

by fermentation or photosynthesis;

• using microorganisms in microbial fuel cells to

generate hydrogen from waste and new efficient bio-

inspired catalysts for use in fuel cells.

Hydrogen storage is a significant challenge, specifically

for the development and viability of hydrogen-powered

vehicles. Hydrogen is the lightest element and occupies

a larger volume in comparison to other fuels. It therefore

needs to be liquefied, compressed or stored in an

advanced storage system to ensure a vehicle has

enough on board to travel a reasonable distance.

Technology breakthroughs required for alternative

storage options include developing advanced materials,

such as carbon nanotubes, or metal hydride complexes.

If hydrogen production and storage can be fully

integrated with the development of advanced fuel cell

systems for its conversion to electricity (see also section

4.1.2 Energy conversion and storage), it can provide fuel

for vehicles, energy for heating and cooling, and

electricity to power our communities.

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4.1.8 Solar energy

Challenge: Harnessing the free energy of the sun can

provide a clean and secure supply of electricity, heat

and fuels. Development of existing technologies to

become more cost efficient and developing the next

generation of solar cells is vital to realise the potential

of solar energy

The sun provides the Earth with energy at a rate of more

than 100,000 TW (1 terawatt = 1 trillion watts = 1012 W).

This corresponds to more energy in an hour than the

global fossil energy consumption in a year.26 The sun is a

source of energy many more times abundant than

required by man; harnessing the free energy of the sun

could therefore provide a clean and secure supply of

electricity, heat and fuels. Developing scalable, efficient

and low-intensity-tolerant solar energy harvesting

systems represents one of the greatest scientific

challenges today.

The sun's heat and light provide an abundant source

of energy that can be harnessed in many ways.

There are a variety of technologies that have been

developed to take advantage of solar energy.

These include photovoltaic systems, concentrating solar

power systems, passive solar heating and daylighting,

solar hot water, and solar process heat and space heating

and cooling. Developing these existing technologies,

and specifically the next generation of solar cells, is vital

to realising the potential of solar energy.

Solar cells offer an artificial means of utilising solar

energy. The current generation of crystalline and

amorphous silicon solar cells have efficiencies between

5 per cent and 17 cent but their fabrication is expensive

and consumes a lot of energy. The chemical sciences

have a role to play in improving ‘first’, ‘second’ and ‘third’

generation photovoltaic cells.

The breakthroughs required to improve the design of

current first-generation photovoltaic cells include:

• developing lower energy, higher yield and lower cost

routes to silicon refining;

• lower CO2-emission process to the carbo-thermic

reduction of quartzite;

• more efficient or environmentally benign chemical

etching processes for silicon wafer processing;

• developing base-metal solutions to replace the

current domination of silver printed metallisation used

in almost all of today’s ‘first’ generation devices.

Improvements to second-generation thin-film

photovoltaics, such as amorphous silicon films and

dye-sensitised solar cells, include:

• improving the reaction yield for silane reduction to

amorphous silicon films and improving the efficiency

of dye-sensitised solar cells;

• research into alternative materials and environmentally

sound recovery processes for thin cadmium-

containing films on glass and alternatives to indium;

• developing processes to improve deposition of

transparent conducting film on glass.

The challenge for third-generation photovoltaic

materials based on molecular, polymeric and

nano-phase materials is to make the devices significantly

more efficient and stable, and suitable for continuous

deposition on flexible substrates.

The cost of photovoltaic power could also be

reduced with advances in developing high efficiency

concentrator photovoltaics (CPV) systems and

improving the concentrated solar power (CSP) plants

used to produce electricity or hydrogen. New thermal

energy storage systems using pressurised water and

low cost materials will enable on-demand generation

day and night.

Breakthroughs will be required in developing the next

generation of technologies that take advantage of

biological methods of harvesting and storing energy

from light. There is the potential to explore the idea of

transferring concepts from natural photosynthesis to

solid state devices. Research aimed at mimicking

photosynthesis, but with increased efficiency over

nature, to generate hydrogen or carbohydrates is

required. The potential of artificial photosynthesis is

huge as it offers a route to sustainable hydrogen

production and also potentially to a process that

removes CO2 from the atmosphere and creates useful

products. This must be linked to developing light

harvesting, charge separation and catalyst technology.

Another area of development is improving

photobioreactors and photosynthetic organisms

(algae and cyanobacteria) for generating hydrogen or

for processing to biofuels (see also section 4.1.6

Biopower and biofuels).

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4.1.9 Wind and water

Challenge: Since power generation yields from tide,

waves, hydro and wind turbines are intermittent and

geographically restricted, effective energy supply from

these natural world sources needs further development

to minimise costs and maximise benefits.

Although in 2004 wind contributed only 0.5 per cent

of global energy, its potential greatly exceeds this.20

A 2 MW wind turbine in the UK will generate over 5.2

million units (kWh) of electricity each year. That is

enough to make 170 million cups of tea, to run a

computer for 1620 years, or to meet the electricity

demands of more than 1100 homes.27 With 3.1 GW of

installed wind capacity, the UK is currently ranked fifth

in Europe, which is the equivalent of running nearly

two million UK homes on ‘green’ energy.

As an island nation with the best coastal resources in

Europe it should be no surprise that the UK’s emerging

wave and tidal energy sector is a world leader.

The Carbon Trust Future marine energy report estimates

that between 15 and 20 per cent of current UK

electricity demand could be met by wave and tidal

stream energy.28 Around 1.3 GW of generating plant

could be installed by 2020 and this would lead to

significant industry expansion in the following decades.

Because power generation yields from tide, waves, hydro

and wind turbines are intermittent, and geographically

restricted, effective energy supply from these natural

sources needs further development to minimise costs

and maximise benefits.

In terms of wind energy, materials science will clearly

play an important role in developing coatings, lubricants

and lightweight durable composite materials that are

necessary for constructing turbine blades and towers

that can withstand the stresses – especially those that

offshore installations are subjected to (corrosion,

wind speeds etc). There is scope to develop embedded

sensors/sensing materials which can monitor stability

and damage, thus allowing instant safeguarding.

Corrosion will also be a problem for offshore turbines

exposed to salt, air pollution and UV radiation.

The continued development of advanced long

lasting protective coatings is required to reduce

maintenance costs and prolong the operating life

of wind energy devices.

To exploit fully the possibilities of electricity production

from wave and tidal sources, further advances are

required in the most developed ocean technologies

including tidal barrages, tidal current turbines and wave

turbines. This must be coupled with breakthroughs in

less developed technologies that rely on salinity-

gradient energy, also called blue energy, which work

either on the principle of osmosis (the movement of

water from a low salt concentration to a high salt

concentration) or electrodialysis (the movement of

salt from a highly concentrated solution to a low

concentrated solution). This requires further

developments that reduce the cost or improve the

efficiency of membranes to significantly improve the

economics of this process. Like wind energy, corrosion

is also a problem for wave and tidal energy and will

require the continued development of advanced long

lasting protective coatings, to reduce maintenance

costs and prolong operating life.

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ENERGY: FUNDAMENTAL SCIENCE CASE STUDY

Photovoltaics

One hundred and seventy years of research into

fundamental photochemistry, theoretical physics, and

new materials has resulted in a $15 billion photovoltaic

industry that is still growing and cleaning up the way the

world produces energy.

Photovoltaics, commonly known as solar cells, are used to

harness energy from light. The first photovoltaic or solar

cells were made in 1876 and were used by the emerging

photographic industry in photometric light meters.

The history of photovoltaics can be traced back to 1839

when Alexandre-Edmond Becquerel conducted intensive

fundamental research into phosphorescence,

luminescence and photochemistry. Becquerel discovered

the photovoltaic effect, a physical phenomenon that

allows light–electricity conversion. He found that

illuminating a beaker of dilute acidic liquid containing

two metal electrodes produced a voltage. Further

experimentation with wet cell batteries led to his eventual

discovery that when metal electrodes are directly

exposed to the sun, conductance increases significantly.

In 1896 Adams and Day studied the photovoltaic effect

in solids by illuminating a junction between selenium

and platinum.29 They built the first photovoltaic cells

from selenium which were just 1–2 per cent efficient.

However, it was not until 1904 that quantum mechanical

theory was conceived and a theoretical explanation of

the photovoltaic effect was published by Albert Einstein.

In 1918 Jan Czochralski laid down the foundation

for the formation of the first monocrystalline silicon

photovoltaics. Czochralski accidently discovered a

technique for growing perfect single crystals when he

dipped his pen into a crucible of molten tin rather than

his inkwell. He immediately pulled it out to find that a

thin thread of solidified metal was hanging from the

nib.30 Czochralski reproduced the technique using a

capillary tube and was able to verify that the crystallised

metal was a single crystal. This method for

monocrystalline production was used in 1941 for the

first generation of monocrystalline silicon

photovoltaics,31 and the same technique continues to

dominate the photovoltaic industry today.

In 1932 further research into the properties of new

materials led to the discovery of the photovoltaic effect

in cadmium selenide (CdSe). CdSe remains an important

material for modern day solar cells.

Modern solar electric power technologies came about

in 1954 when Bell Laboratories’ experimentation with

semi-conductors unexpectedly found silicon doped with

certain impurities was very sensitive to light. The end

result was the invention of the first practical solar

modules with an energy conversion efficiency of around

six per cent.

Photovoltaic cells continue to improve in efficiency

(15 per cent efficiency cells are widely used today).

This $37 billion industry32 is experiencing staggering

growth because concerns over fuel supply and carbon

emissions have encouraged governments and

environmentalists to become increasingly prepared to

off-set the extra cost of solar energy. Currently

photovoltaics are around four times too expensive to

compete with hydrocarbon fuels and therefore only

generate a small part of total renewable energy supply.

However, they offer by far the biggest potential to

overcome the global energy crisis, because more energy

from sunlight falls on the Earth every hour than is

consumed in a whole year. Since their discovery,

photovoltaics have developed to be used extensively in

applications ranging from powering space satellites,

parking meters and street lighting, to use in everyday

objects such as calculators, watches and torches.

“ Sooner or later we shall have to go directly

to the sun for our major supply of power.

This problem of the direct conversion from

sunlight into power will occupy more and

more of our attention as time goes on,

for eventually it must be solved.”Edison Pettit, Wilson Observatory, 1932

The increase in PV production from 1990 to 2007 (Kazmerski,National Center for Photovoltaics, USA)

Worldwide photovoltaic production

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

3500

4000

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

2006

2007

Tota

l meg

awat

t pro

duct

ion

RSC-BTL-962 28/7/09 15:34


4. 2 FoodCreating and securing a safe, environmentally friendly,

diverse and affordable food supply.

The world faces a food crisis relating to the sustainability

of global food supply and its security. The strain on

food supply comes primarily from population growth

and rising prosperity, which also bring competing land

and energy demands. By 2030 the world’s population

will have increased by 1.7 billion to over eight billion.1

Climate volatility and the declining availability of water

for agriculture will greatly increase the challenges

facing farmers.

To match energy and food demand with limited natural

resources, without permanently damaging the

environment, is the greatest technological challenge

humanity faces. The application of chemistry and

engineering is a key part of the solution. This section

looks at the opportunities that exist for the chemical

sciences to supply healthy, safe and affordable food for

all. The main challenges concern agricultural

productivity, healthy food, food safety, process efficiency

and supply chain waste.

4.2.1 Agricultural productivity

Challenge: A rapidly expanding world population,

increasing affluence in the developing world, climate

volatility and limited land and water availability mean

we have no alternative but to significantly and

sustainably increase agricultural productivity to provide

food, feed, fibre and fuel.

To meet the Millennium Development goals on hunger

a doubling of global food production will be required by

2050.33 This increase in food production is exacerbated

by economic growth in the emerging ‘BRIC’ economies

of Brazil, Russia, India and China. As these countries

become more affluent, this will translate directly into

increased food consumption, particularly for high

value-added food such as meat and dairy products.

The World Bank estimates that cereal production needs

to increase by 50 per cent and meat production by 80

per cent between 2000 and 2030 to meet demand.34

Furthermore, it estimates that by 2025 one hectare of

land will need to feed five people whereas in 1960 one

hectare was required to feed only two people.35

This needs to be achieved in a world where suitable

agricultural land is limited and climate change is

predicted to have an adverse impact on food

production due to the effects of changing weather

patterns on primary agriculture and shifting pests.

Increasing productivity from existing agricultural land

represents a significant opportunity because current

technologies can be applied to areas where yields are

still below average. Historically, increases have come

from higher yields as a consequence of improved

varieties, better farming practices and applying new

technologies such as agrochemicals and more recently

agricultural biotechnology. To meet growing demand for

food in the future, existing and new technologies,

provided by the chemical sciences, must be applied

across the entire food supply chain.

Pest control

Up to 40 per cent of current agricultural outputs would be

lost without effective use of crop protection chemicals.36

Agriculture is facing emerging and resistant strains of

pests. It is therefore essential that new crop protection

strategies, chemical and non-chemical, are developed.

Research should be done into new high-potency,

targeted agrochemicals with new modes of action that

are safe to use, overcome resistant pests and are

environmentally benign. New pest-specific biochemical

targets will have to be identified and a more thorough

understanding of the physico-chemical factors required

for optimal agrochemical bioavailabity. Computational

and predictive tools developed for drug design could

also be applied directly in designing agrochemicals.

Other areas of interest include pest control strategies

that use pheromones, semiochemicals and

allelochemicals as starting points are also of interest.

As new farming practices are adopted, such as

hydroponics, newly developed agrochemicals should be

tailored to more diverse growing conditions.

Formulation science will be essential for developing

novel mixtures of existing actives, ensuring a consistent

and effective dose is delivered to the insect, fungus or

weed at the right time and in the right quantity.

The reliance of crop production on chemical protection

strategies, for example agrochemicals, could be reduced

by harnessing the full potential of modern

biotechnology. Crops are being developed that are

resistant to attack by pests and to environmental

stresses, including drought and salinity.

RSC-BTL-962 28/7/09 15:34


Plant science

Higher crop yields and controlling secondary

metabolism should be sought through a better

understanding of plant science.

Improving the efficiency of nutrient uptake and

utilisation in plants is a major challenge in agricultural

productivity. This must begin with improving the

understanding of the roles of macro- and micro-

nutrients together with carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus

and sulfur cycling to help optimise nutrient

sequestration. In addition, research should be

undertaken to improve our understanding of the roles

plant growth regulators can play in modulating plant

water and nitrogen use efficiency. Similarly, a better

understanding of plant biochemical signalling could

facilitate the development of new crop defence

technologies, with positive implications for crop yields.

A greater understanding of these and other areas should

be exploited by biotechnology to generate, for example,

transgenic crops with improved efficiency in nitrogen or

water, or crops with improved yields of components

desirable for producing biofuel and feedstock.

Soil science

Maintaining good soil structure and fertility are

important to ensure high productivity. It is therefore

necessary to understand the complex macro- and

micro-structural, chemical and microbiological

composition of soil and its interactions with plant

roots and the environment. This should also include

an understanding of the mechanical properties of soils

and the flow of nutrients.

A lack of information on agro-ecology is a major barrier

to the adoption of sustainable agriculture practices

worldwide. Research should be done to improve the

understanding of the biochemistry of soil systems.

Specific examples include the chemistry of nitrous oxide

emissions from soil and the mobility of chemicals within

soil. Additionally, improved understanding of methane

oxidation by soil methanotrophic bacteria would help in

developing methane-fixing technologies. There is also

scope for optimising how fertilisers are used. Fertilisers

should be formulated to improve soil nitrogen retention

and uptake by plants. Furthermore, low energy synthesis

of nitrogen and phosphorus-containing fertilisers would

increase the sustainability of agricultural production by

reducing indirect input costs and resource requirements.

Water

Maintaining an adequate, quality water supply is

essential for agricultural productivity. Strategies for

conserving water supplies include using ‘grey water’ of

sufficient quality and more targeted water irrigation

systems, such as through drip delivery (more ‘crop per

drop’). Water-related challenges are dealt with in greater

detail in section 4.7.

Effective farming

To meet growing demand, agricultural productivity will

need to be increased, minimising inputs and maximising

outputs through sharing best agronomic practice.

The universal implementation of existing and new

technologies will result in greater productivity, and

increased precision at the field level will impact

positively on agricultural efficiency.

Chemical science will play a pivotal role in developing

rapid in situ biosensor systems and other chemical

sensing technologies. These sensors can be used to

monitor a wide range of parameters, including soil

quality and nutrients, crop ripening, crop diseases and

pests, and water availability. This will allow farmers to

pinpoint nutrient deficiencies, target agrochemical

applications and improve the quality and yield of crops.

Tracking and understanding the impact of climate

change parameters will facilitate the development of

predictive climatic models, thus identifying changing

conditions for agronomy and providing valuable data for

the planting and targeted treatment of crops.

Improved engineering tools will result in greater

efficiencies in on-farm practices such as grain drying,

seed treatment and crop handling and storage.

RSC-BTL-962 28/7/09 15:34


Livestock and aquaculture

In addition to crops, global livestock production faces

enormous short-term challenges. Total world global

meat consumption rose from 139 million tonnes in 1983

to 229 million tonnes in 1999/2001 and is predicted to

rise to 303 million tonnes by 2020.37 Technologies are

needed to counter the significant environmental impact

and waste associated with rearing livestock.

Disease in farmed animals should be tackled with

research into veterinary medicine, for such as

developing effective vaccines. Nutrigenomics must be

used to understand and guide improvements in efficient

feed conversion. Modern biotechnology should be used

to improve disease resistance, feed conversion and

carcass composition.

Most wild fisheries are at or near their maximum

sustainable exploitation level.38 In 2004 43 per cent of

the global fish supply already came from farmed

sources.39 The inevitable growth of aquaculture will

involve further intensification. The chemical sciences will

be able to provide improvements in productivity,

modifications of the cultivated organism and disease

control. Few effective drugs are available for treating

diseases in fish because of environmental concerns and

a relative lack of knowledge about many fish diseases.

4.2.2 Healthy food

Challenge: We need to better understand the

interaction of food intake with human health and to

provide food that is better matched to personal

nutrition requirements.

Nutrition is a major, modifiable and powerful factor in

promoting health, preventing and treating disease and

improving quality of life. Today about one in seven

people do not get enough food to be healthy and lead

an active life, making hunger and malnutrition the

number one risk to health worldwide – greater than

AIDS, malaria and tuberculosis combined.40

In stark comparison the developed world sees issues

arising that relate more to excess production and

consumption. Over-nutrition and reduced physical

activity have contributed to the growth of diseases such

as obesity. In 2006 24 per cent of adults (aged 16 or

over) in England alone were classified as obese.41

Understanding the interaction of food intake with

human health and providing food that is better matched

to personal nutrition requirements is therefore essential.

A greater knowledge of the nutritional content of foods

will be required to understand fully the food/health

interactions, which could facilitate more efficient

production of foods tailored to promote human and

animal health.

The chemical sciences are key to identifying

alternative/parallel supplies of ‘healthier foods’ with an

improved nutritional profile. One of the main challenges

is to produce food that reduces the fat, salt and sugar

components that can be detrimental to health, while

maintaining the customers’ perception and satisfaction

from the products. Many foods can be reformulated, but

the sensory quality during eating must be maintained.

A greater appreciation of the chemical transformations

which take place during processing, cooking and

fermentation will help to maintain and improve the

palatability and acceptability of food products. Another

challenge is developing improved food sources and

fortifying foodstuffs to combat malnutrition and to

target immune health. Even a diet that contains more

energy than required can be deficient in micronutrients.

To achieve this requires technology breakthroughs such as:

• a better understanding of formulation science for

controlled release of macro- and micro-nutrients and

removing unhealthy content in food;

• novel satiety signals, for example, safe fat-replacements

that produce the taste and texture of fat;

• producing sugar replacements and natural low calorie

sweeteners to improve nutrition and combat obesity;

• using the glycaemic load of food in understanding

nutrition and the role of glucose in health and the

onset of type II diabetes;

• understanding the role of gut micro flora and

probiotics, and prebiotics, in promoting health;

• developing and understanding fortified and functional

food with specific health benefits, including minor

nutrients.

Modern GM applications could be used to provide crops

that are modified to meet specific nutritional shortfalls.

Research into the design of functional foods will need to

be combined with in vivo approaches or techniques for

evaluating their behaviour in the digestive tract.

Similarly, nutrient requirements depend on factors

including genetics. The availability of rapid methods in

genomics, proteomics and metabolomics is allowing the

study of the impact of gene expression in individuals,

and individuals’ genetic sensitivity to food intake.

Nutrigenomics and nutrigenetics are also being used to

provide routes to improved personal nutrition.

RSC-BTL-962 28/7/09 15:34


4.2.3 Food safety

Challenge: Consumers need to be given 100 per cent

confidence in the food they eat.

Foodborne pathogens are a significant cause of global

health problems. In England and Wales in 2000, the

number of cases of foodborne illness was estimated at

1.34 million; there were 20,800 hospitalisations and 480

deaths.42 In the EU campylobacteriosis remained the

most frequently reported zoonotic disease in humans,

with 175,561 confirmed cases in 2006.43 In addition to

zoonoses, physical, chemical and radiological

contaminants can also pose risks to consumers.

Critical food hygiene and safety issues include those

associated with microbiological contamination – the most

common cause of health problems for consumers.

This can be caused by poor hygiene at any stage of the

food chain. This includes food spoilage caused by bacteria

and fungi, which may secrete by-products that can be

highly toxic, and via counterfeiting and adulteration,

which can significantly undermine consumers’ trust in the

quality and safety of branded foods.

The chemical sciences have a role to play in both the

detection and control of hygiene issues and food safety.

Irradiation can be used to remove bacterial pathogens

and prevent food spoilage. Technology breakthroughs in

real-time screening and sensors are necessary to support

rapid diagnostics to detect contaminants and ensure

food authenticity and traceability; this includes

detection of chemicals, allergens, toxins, veterinary

medicines, growth hormones and microbial

contamination of food products and on food contact

surfaces. Technologies could be extended to address

domestic food hygiene through visible hygiene

indicators. More efficacy testing and safety of new food

additives, such as natural preservatives and antioxidants

is required, as is an understanding of the links between

diet and diseases such as cancer. Further research should

be done into naturally occurring carcinogens in food

such as acrylamide and mutagenic compounds formed

in cooking, with similar studies to encompass the effects

of prolonged exposure to food ingredients.

While significant emphasis is placed on detection, there

is a role for the chemical sciences in developing and

using intelligent packaging to improve the control of

food spoilage, hygiene and food safety. These might

include microsensors to measure food quality, safety,

ripeness and authenticity and to indicate when the

'best before' or 'use-by' date has been reached.

4.2.4 Process efficiency

Challenge: The manufacture, processing, distribution

and storage of food have significant and variable

resource requirements. We need to find and use

technologies to make this whole process much more

efficient with respect to energy and other inputs.

The challenge in this area is to develop and use

technologies that make the entire process significantly

more efficient with regard to managing water and

waste, improving the use of energy and developing

extraction technologies for recovering and using

by-products.

Food manufacturing

To achieve the process efficiency goal, one of the main

challenges is to build highly efficient and sustainable

small scale manufacturing operations. This will require

improvements in operational efficiency throughout the

entire manufacturing process as materials are received,

stored and transferred. Requirements include:

• intensifying food production by scaling down and

combining process steps;

• improving process control to raise production

standards and minimise variability;

• routes for by-product and co-product processing to

reduce waste and recover value;

• milder extraction and separation technologies with

lower energy requirements;

• technologies to minimise energy input at all stages of

production, such as high pressure processing and

pulsed electric fields;

• optimising the forces needed to clean food

preparation surfaces in conjunction with developing

new anti-fouling surface coating technologies to

minimise energy requirements for cleaning;

• methods for synthesising food additives and

processing aids;

• a greater understanding of inhibition of the

chemistry of food degradation, and chemical

stabilisation technologies for produce, including

formulation and delivery.

In addition, the development of new methods for the

efficient use, purification and cost effective recovery of

water in food processing would reduce water wastage,

with the aim being to develop water-neutral factories.

RSC-BTL-962 28/7/09 15:34


Food distribution

The chemical sciences also have a role to play in

developing advanced storage technologies and in

optimising methods to distribute foods with minimal

energy requirements and environmental impact. In

terms of storage, breakthroughs will be required in:

• new, more efficient refrigerant chemicals that will help

avoid environmental damage and will save energy;

• increased efficiency of refrigeration technology at all

stages in the supply-chain, such as super-chilling as an

alternative to freezing;

• ambient storage technologies for fresh produce;

• improving food preservation methods for liquids and

solids, including rapid chilling and heating and also

salting.

In terms of distribution, the biggest opportunity for the

chemical sciences lies in sustainable and efficient

transport (see also section 4.3.5 Mobility). While shorter

supply chains through local sourcing can cut emissions

this must be balanced against possible increases in

other emissions across the product lifecycle. It is

therefore necessary to adopt lifecycle analysis which

takes into account an assessment of the overall carbon

footprint of products. Optimising food distribution will

also require analytical techniques to ensure quality

measurement and control of foodstuffs in transit.

4.2.5 Supply chain waste

Challenge: There is an unacceptable amount of food

wasted in all stages of the supply chain. We need to

find ways to minimise this or use it for other purposes.

The UK food industry alone accounts for about 10

million tonnes per year (10 per cent) of industrial and

commercial UK waste.44 Packaging and food waste are

the two most significant waste issues for the industry.

The main challenge is to find ways to minimise this

waste or, within the context of lifecycle analyses, use it

for other purposes.

The food industry is a major user of packaging, which

protects products from damage, deterioration and

contamination. The chemical sciences have a role to play

in developing sustainable packaging, which is

biodegradable or recyclable and compatible with

anaerobic digesters. These might include flexible thin

films made from corn starch, polyacetic acid or cellulosic

materials, which can withstand the chill-chain, handling

and storage. There is also the possibility of developing

food packaging that is compatible with anaerobic

digesters.

There are many potential uses for food waste, including

producing high value biochemicals, compost and

energy. The chemical sciences have a role to play in:

• the efficient extraction and application of valuable

ingredients from food waste and refinement to high

value products, for example enzymes, hormones,

phytochemicals, probiotics cellulose and chitin;

• using waste products as feedstock for packaging

material, for example producing novel biodegradable

plastic materials made from epoxides and CO2;

• efficient anaerobic treatment plants to process farm,

abattoir and retail waste, thus generating renewable

energy from biomass in the form of biogas.

RSC-BTL-962 28/7/09 15:34


FOOD: FUNDAMENTAL SCIENCE CASE STUDY

Saccharin

Basic research into the chemical reactivity of toluene over

a hundred years ago led to the serendipitous discovery of

the world’s first artificial sweetener; the global sweetener

market is now worth $1.1 billion.

Saccharin was the first artificial sweetener to be

discovered and it represented a significant development

in the use of artificial chemicals to control the human diet.

Saccharin is 300 times sweeter than sugar and as it is not

metabolised by the body it has no calorific value.

Saccharin was discovered in 1879 by Constantin Fahlberg,

a researcher in Ira Remsen’s lab at Johns Hopkins

University, US. Fahlberg. He was investigating the

fundamental reactivity of toluene, a chemical found in

coal tar. As toluene provides a useful starting point for

generating synthetic chemicals, Fahlberg and Remsen

were curious about what new compounds they could

make. At dinner one evening, Fahlberg had not

thoroughly washed his hands after leaving the lab, and

realised that he had a very sweet taste on his hands.

He was able to trace the taste back to a new compound

that he had synthesised: benzoic sulfinide.45 Fahlberg

was excited by the prospect of this new chemical and

published a paper on the subject with Remsen.

However, although Remsen was curious he did not show

interest in commercialising the product and Fahlberg

alone patented the compound as ‘saccharin’.

Saccharin was produced commercially in Germany from

1886, initially as a food preservative and later marketed for

diabetics. The company Monsanto was set up in 1901 by

a drug salesman who saw the potential market in the US

and started trading with saccharin as his first product.

Saccharin was seen as such a threat by the sugar industry

that sugar manufacturers lobbied governments to

regulate its use. However, it was not until the sugar

shortages of WWI that it became widespread; saccharin

use increased further during WWII.

A more efficient synthesis was developed by chemists in

the 1950s that used anthranilic acid rather than toluene as

the starting material, and the popularity of saccharin

continued to grow through the 1960s. Health concerns

over saccharin have been raised during its history but

research has now shown that it is not harmful and it is

approved by the UK Food Standards Agency.

Saccharin has a long shelf life and is stable when heated,

which makes it an ideal cooking ingredient.

Furthermore, to achieve the same amount of sweetness

saccharin is 20 times cheaper than the natural sugar

sucrose.46 These attributes mean that although other

artificial sweeteners have been discovered, saccharin is

still in widespread use today.

Artificial sweeteners have been useful in times of natural

sugar shortage, but also have additional benefits.

Saccharin can be used to reduce calorie and sugar

intake while still making enjoyable sweet foods;

therefore it is particularly valuable for diabetics and

calorie-controlled diets, for example, saccharin is the

active compound in Sweet’N Low sweetener. Unlike

sugars, artificial sweeteners do not promote tooth decay

and saccharin is routinely used to sweeten toothpaste

and mouthwash. Although Saccharin is the oldest of all

the artificial sweeteners and has been used for over 100

years it still shares around 10 per cent of the $1.1 billion

global sweetener market. Its valuable properties mean

that saccharin use is also likely to continue in the

foreseeable future.

Structure of Saccharin

S

NH

O

O O

RSC-BTL-962 28/7/09 15:34


4.3 Future cities Developing and adapting cities to meet the emerging

needs of citizens

Half of humanity now lives in cities, up from 30 per cent in

the 1950s, and within two decades, nearly 60 per cent of

the world’s people will be urban dwellers. Urban growth is

most rapid in the developing world where cities gain an

average of five million residents every month.47

The challenges that have to be faced in providing

enough food, water, shelter, energy and security are huge,

especially when exacerbated by climate change.

This section looks at the role for chemists in addressing

the challenges cities face due to the pressures they place

on resources, concerning: their creation and continued

growth, energy generation and use in buildings and

homes, public safety and security, ICT, and transport.

4.3.1 Resources

Challenge: Cities place huge demands on waste, water

and air quality management. We need technologies

that help provide healthy, clean, sustainable urban

environments.

Many cities already live beyond their means and their

ecological footprint is enormous. Cities cover only two

per cent of the Earth's surface, but they use 75 per cent

of the planet's natural resources.48 These include fresh

water, fuels, land, food, construction materials and raw

materials. The chemical sciences have a role to play in

reducing the ecological footprint through reducing the

tendency for cities to transfer environmental costs to its

surroundings, reducing resource use and reducing waste.

There is a need for technologies that provide healthy,

clean, sustainable urban environments. As cities expand,

air pollutant emissions are likely to increase dramatically.

Measuring and understanding air pollution provides a

sound scientific basis for its management and control.

Technological advances need to be made in developing

low cost, localised sensor networks for monitoring

atmospheric pollutants, which can be dispersed

throughout developed and developing urban

environments. This must be coupled with improving

catalysts for destroying pollutants and converting

greenhouse gases with high global warming potential

to less harmful products.

Waste is a serious issue for cities. Population,

urbanisation and affluence are linked to waste

generation and high income countries generate more

waste per capita than low income countries.49 The EU

generates 1.3 billion tonnes of waste each year,

equivalent to 3.5 tonnes of solid waste per capita.50

The UK generates about 100 million tonnes of waste

from households, commerce and industry51 and uses

over five million tonnes of plastic each year.52

The majority of all waste is deposited in landfill sites.

The chemical sciences have an important role to play

in reducing, recycling, re-using and disposing of waste.

For example, recycling plastics is problematic due to the

wide variation in properties and chemical composition

among the different types of plastics. Adopting current

and evolving technologies in pyrolysis, catalytic

conversion, depolymerisation and gasification for

recycling plastic waste into fuels, monomers, or other

valuable materials could significantly reduce this burden;

as will developing plastic derivatives from non-

petrochemical based materials, such as corn starch.

The technological breakthroughs required to reduce the

burdens placed on food, energy, raw materials and water

are covered in their respective sections. The role of the

chemical sciences in reducing the pressures that

buildings and transport place on the ecological footprint

of cities are referred to in sections 4.3.3 Home energy

use and 4.3.5 Mobility.

RSC-BTL-962 28/7/09 15:34


4.3.2 Home energy generation

Challenge: Most homes rely upon inefficient energy

technologies. We need to develop new technologies

and strategies for local (home) energy generation and

storage with no net CO2 emissions.

Projections for global carbon emissions from buildings,

including electricity use, is predicted to rise from 8.6

GtCO2 in 2004 up to 15.4 GtCO2 by 2030, contributing

around 30 per cent of total emissions.53 Most homes rely

upon inefficient energy technologies. Forty per cent of

total UK carbon emissions come from buildings and the

largest contributor to this total is our homes, with

domestic property accounting for 27 per cent of total

UK carbon emissions.54 Technological advances and

resource management techniques have now made it

possible to cut energy consumption by up to 90 per

cent.3 If in addition energy efficient buildings can draw

their energy from zero or low carbon technologies,

and therefore produce no net carbon emissions from

all energy use, it will be possible to reduce the

environmental impact of homes to virtually zero.

A range of renewable energy technologies already exist,

including solar, offshore wind, wave and tidal stream,

and geothermal energy. Some domestic energy

generation technologies are tried and tested, such as

using solar photovoltaic cells, to generate electricity.

However, technology breakthroughs are needed to

maximise cost effective energy collection from the sun,

and opportunities also exist for developing domestic

versions of other alternative energies. Renewable energy

is covered in more depth in section 4.1.

With the wider use of renewable resources the need for

energy storage will increase by orders of magnitude.

Superior battery technology and alternative energy

storage approaches with high energy density

optimisation, flexibility and portability will be required to

sustain a continuous supply of energy. Energy needs to

be stored at times of high generation for release at times

of high demand. To achieve this, the technology

breakthroughs required include superior electrodes,

electrolytes and fuel cells. Developments in materials

chemistry will also be pivotal in driving the

breakthroughs needed for micro-sized batteries and for

mobile and portable devices. Energy storage is also

covered in detail in section 4.1.

4.3.3 Home energy use

Challenge: Current and evolving technologies could

significantly reduce the burden of buildings/homes on

energy consumption.

Space heating corresponds to about 30 per cent of

residential building energy use in both the US and

China, with water heating the next greatest single

energy use.48 In developing countries traditional biomass

is still commonly used for heating and cooking and

these uses represent 80 per cent of global biomass use.20

In western countries the energy used to heat residential

and commercial buildings alone represents around 43

per cent of total energy use, generating the second

highest amount of greenhouse gases after

transportation. A typical family with two children spends

70 per cent of its yearly energy consumption in the

home.3 Current and evolving technologies in energy

efficiency and use can significantly reduce this burden,

and are central to efforts to mitigate climate change.

The chemical sciences already contribute to developing

and installing energy efficiency measures in homes.

However, to make a significant step change technology

breakthroughs are required. These include:

• superior building materials (see also section 4.3.4

Construction materials);

• nanocoatings for decorations;

• photochromic coatings for glass;

• the integration of intelligent ICT components and

sensors requiring new conductive/non conductive

polymers and flat lightweight displays, that are able to

respond to changes in temperature and light intensity.

This will need to be coupled with improved energy

efficiency of household appliances, lighting, heating and

cooling. Technologies such as LEDs and OLEDs based on

conjugated polymers with nanoscale controlled

deposition on thin films, along with integration into

products like self cleaning surfaces, will be key.

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4.3.4 Construction materials

Challenge: We need to use materials for construction

(such as for roads and buildings), which consume fewer

resources in their production, and confer additional

benefits in their use, and may be used for new build

and for retrofitting older buildings.

Each year, 420 million tonnes of materials are used in

construction in the UK. The construction and demolition

industries produce over four times more waste than the

domestic sector, over a tonne per person living in the

UK.55 The environmental impact of extracting, processing

and transporting these materials and then dealing with

their waste are major contributors to greenhouse gas

emissions, destroying habitats and depleting resources.

For example, concrete is used throughout the world and

contributed to around 5 per cent of global CO2

emissions in 2003.56 Consumption of concrete is growing

by about 2.5 per cent per year, with the majority of

growth occurring in developing countries.51

Chemical science has a role in developing construction

materials, such as for roads and buildings etc, which

consume fewer resources in their production, confer

additional benefits in their use and can be used for

new buildings and for retrofitting older buildings.

The technology breakthroughs required for this include:

• developing superior building materials for designing

new buildings and structures, and retrofitting older

buildings;

• developing intrinsically low energy materials, for

example low temperature/low CO2 emission cement

compositions based on recycled materials;

• reduced dependence on strategic materials;

• developing recycling methodologies.

The environmental impact of the materials used in a

house’s construction account for just 2–3 per cent of the

UK’s CO2 emissions, whereas domestic household

energy consumption accounts for 27 per cent.45

The chemical sciences already contribute to the

development and installation of energy efficiency

measures in households (see also section 4.3.3

Home energy use). However, to make a significant step

change these technologies must be coupled with

breakthroughs in developing superior building materials.

Materials that provide improved insulation are available

today but new materials will significantly increase

performance, for example new high performance

insulating materials, including aerogel nanofoams.

Eco-efficiency in the home will also be achieved with

technology breakthroughs in:

• the development of building materials that are also

functionalised to offer additional benefits, for example,

building materials/surfaces that decompose volatile

organic compounds;

• functional textiles with superior energy balance;

• the development of flexible anechoic building

materials to provide non-flammable sound insulation

and reduce urban stress.

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4.3.5 Mobility

Challenge: Urban transport is fuel inefficient and

environmentally damaging. Enormous societal benefits

will flow from scientific and technological solutions to

these problems.

Urban transport is fuel inefficient and environmentally

damaging. In 2004 transport made up 23 per cent of

global emissions, of which almost three quarters was

produced by road transport.57 Total energy use and

carbon emissions are predicted to rise to 80 per cent

more than current values by 2030. One factor

contributing to this rise will be the increased transport

energy use of non-OECD countries, from 36 per cent to

46 per cent by 2030. Tackling CO2 emissions from

transport is therefore an increasingly important part of a

strategy to avoid climate change and enormous societal

benefits will therefore flow from scientific and

technological solutions to these problems.

To reduce emissions there will need to be significant

developments and advances in the materials and

components used in conventional vehicle design, allowing

for a two or threefold improvement in fuel economy.

The chemical sciences have a vital responsibility to

progress developments in lightweight and safe vehicles.

The technology breakthroughs required in this area include:

• developing innovative elastomeric and thermoplastic

products for structural parts (thermoplastic foams,

organic fillers based-thermoplastic composites),

including alternative assembly and disassembly

methodologies that don’t compromise safety;

• new tyre technologies;

• engine oils and additives that save fuel;

• ceramic engine technology that reduces engine wear

and friction;

• developing improved sensor technologies for engine

management and pollution/emission gas detection.

Alongside this, eco-efficient hybrid vehicles will

require new energy storage systems (enhanced lithium

batteries and supercapacitors), which provide the

required power peaks during acceleration and energy

recovery during breaking.

4.3.6 ICT

Challenge: Public and business demand outstrips the

current capacity of the existing ICT infrastructure,

creating opportunities for the successful commercial

application of technological innovations.

Public and business demand outstrips the current

capacity of the existing ICT infrastructure, creating

opportunities for the successful commercial application

of technological innovations. The chemical sciences

have a role to play in data storage, miniaturisation for

device size and speed, power management and in the

reducing, recycling and reusing materials.

New applications, more complex business analytics and

the need to meet regulatory requirements stimulate

demand for developing materials and technologies,

which are able to deliver ultrahigh density and ultrafast

data storage. The chemical sciences have a role to play

in meeting these requirements, through developing

highly innovative storage options. The technological

breakthroughs in this area include developing

information storage holographics by using new

molecular and polymeric materials, along with DNA- and

protein-based biological switches, molecular switches,

and photoresponsive devices.

As computing speeds and power consumption continue

to increase, increased focus will be placed on power

management: reducing power consumption by

switching off components that are not being used and

rapidly activating the same components when

necessary. Because batteries and power supplies are

very slow, ultrafast capacitors will be needed. This will

require research into identifying mechanisms for self-

assembling low resistance interconnects and high-k

dielectric materials with low electrical leakage.

With process geometries approaching physical limits

and the adoption of new materials, there will be

fundamental changes in the concepts and design of

integrated circuits to ensure future electronic devices

will be smaller, operate faster and be cheaper to

produce. Fundamental research is required, particularly

into the materials that will be needed in future devices.

Research must be done into:

• integrating nanostructures in device materials;

• self-assembling biological and non-biological

components to produce complex devices such as

biosensors, memory devices and switchable devices;

• selecting polymers for high density fabrication that

meet resolution, throughput and other processing

requirements;

• printed electronics;

• high density, low electrical resistance interconnect

materials to enable ultra high speed, low power

communication.

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4.3.7 Public safety and security

Challenge: Technology must increase its role in

ensuring people feel and are safe in their homes and

the wider community. High population densities

increase the potential impact of environmental and

security threats.

High population densities increase the potential

impact of environmental and security threats.

Technology must increase its role in ensuring people

feel and are safe in their homes and the wider

community. Defence and national security does not

fall under the remit of this project.

Developing effective and rapid analytical techniques for

the early detection of a wide range of potential

environmental and security threats is essential.

Chemical and biological sensors need to be developed

that are remote, rapid, miniaturised and reactive.

Opportunities exist for developing sensor networks,

such as a chemical analogue of CCTV that could trace

chemical and biological threats, narcotics, explosives and

potential pandemics. Similar technologies could be

adapted for use as home security networks.

To make this a reality technological breakthroughs are

require in developing nano-structured materials that can

achieve sensitivity and selectivity for detecting minute

sample quantities. The ability to analyse and detect a

multiple number of species, including both inorganic

and organic species in one sensor, is the goal but

achieving this will require significant research effort.

The ability to detect potential threats must be coupled

with the development of decontamination and

remediation technologies.

Advances in detecting crime require technological

breakthroughs that can provide evolutionary, real-time

information-rich crime scene profiles. This must be

coupled to advances in chemical biometrics for example

DNA profiling and fingerprint technology, and advances

in ‘Lab on a chip’ technology. Increases in the amount of

information generated at a scene will require advances

in methods of data storing and handling, for example

chemometrics. Developments of this nature will require

breakthroughs in ICT (see section 4.3.6 ICT) and in

advanced and sustainable electronics (see section 4.5.4).

The growth and proliferation of counterfeit products,

which are of inferior quality and are potentially

dangerous, pose an additional threat to people.

Novel technologies are required to identify counterfeit

products, including pharmaceuticals, money and high

value products. This will necessitate advances in

analytical and materials chemistry.

In addition to developing technologies for detecting

and preventing environmental and security threats, the

chemical sciences have a role in developing high

performance protective materials for those involved in

civil protection, such as the police. This will require

advances in materials science (see section 4.5.5 Textiles).

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FUTURE CITIES: FUNDAMENTAL SCIENCE CASE STUDY

DNA fingerprinting

The elucidation of the structure of DNA in the 1950s

and the development of the polymerase chain reaction

(PCR) were major breakthroughs in fundamental science

that have led to DNA fingerprinting and a safer,

more secure society.

A DNA fingerprint is unique for every individual and

consequently DNA fingerprinting is rapidly becoming the

primary technique employed by forensic scientists for

identifying and distinguishing individual human beings.

DNA fingerprinting has become an indelible part of society,

helping to prove innocence or guilt in criminal cases,

resolving immigration arguments and clarifying paternity.

DNA fingerprinting is built upon several decades of

fundamental research into the properties of DNA and

advances in molecular techniques. A major breakthrough

was the elucidation of the structure of DNA in 1953,

involving the work of Watson, Crick, Wilkins and Franklin.58

Another essential development was the invention of gel

electrophoresis, a method of separating DNA molecules

according to their size.

DNA fingerprinting is the analysis of regions of the human

genome that are highly variable between individuals.

This ensures that one person can be clearly indentified

from another. As all individuals’ genes are very similar they

are not an appropriate target for DNA fingerprinting.

However, during the 1970s Alec Jeffreys showed that

some regions of the human genome in between genes

contain many short repeated sequences. Importantly for

DNA fingerprinting, he found that the number of repeats

is inherited between generations and that the overall

number of repeats varies between people. Repeats such

as these are found at many sites throughout the genome.

By analysing the number of repeats at different sites you

can construct a DNA fingerprint.

By the end of the 1980s, DNA fingerprinting had

established itself as an international gold standard for

genetic testing. However, the technique was slow and not

very sensitive; the polymerase chain reaction (PCR)

revolutionised DNA fingerprinting. PCR, invented in 1983

by Kary Mullis, is a method of rapidly and accurately

isolating and amplifying a specific DNA sequence using

only a small amount of starting material.59 In PCR a

template piece of DNA is mixed with small DNA

fragments that bind at the ends of the sequence to be

amplified and a DNA replication enzyme from bacteria is

used to fill in the gaps. Because PCR amplifies DNA, PCR

can be used to analyse extremely small amounts of

sample, which is often critical for forensic analysis, when

only a trace amount of DNA is available as evidence.

DNA fingerprinting offers security to society.

In addition to its use in solving criminal cases, paternity

and immigration issues, DNA fingerprinting has also

secured future generations because it has been used

successfully for controlling the spread of tuberculosis.

Furthermore DNA fingerprinting can be used to fight

fraud by identifying counterfeit drugs, unauthentic wine

and adulterated meat.

On a global scale, the availability of this technique and its

refinement to a stage where it would become virtually

foolproof could act as a deterrent to certain kinds of

crime. Experts now think that DNA fingerprinting, when

combined with rapid detection methods, could give rise

to better authentication tools than the ones in use today.

Electrophoresis gel showing DNA fragments

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4.4 Human healthImproving and maintaining accessible health, including

disease prevention

On the whole, people are healthier, wealthier and live

longer today than 30 years ago.60 If children were still

dying at 1978 rates, there would have been 16.2 million

deaths globally in 2006. There were only 9.5 million such

deaths. This difference of 6.7 million is equivalent to

18,329 children’s lives being saved every day.61 However,

the substantial progress in health over recent decades

has been deeply unequal. Improved levels of health in

many parts of the world are coupled with the existence

of considerable and growing health inequalities in

others. The nature of health problems is also changing;

ageing and the effects of ill-managed urbanisation and

globalisation accelerate worldwide transmission of

communicable diseases, and increase the burden of

chronic and non-communicable disorders.60

The challenge is to improve and maintain accessible

human health in a changing world. The healthcare sector

will benefit greatly from new products and technologies

provided by the chemical sciences. This section covers

the challenges that exist relating to ageing, diagnostics,

hygiene and infection, materials and prosthetics, drugs

and therapies, and personalised medicine.

4.4.1 Ageing

Challenge: With an ageing population, we need to

enhance our life-long contribution to society and

improve our quality of life.

In 2007 almost 500 million people worldwide were 65

and older. Increased longevity and falling fertility rates

mean that by 2025 that total is projected to increase to

835 million; this will account for over one in 10 of the

Earth’s inhabitants.62 By 2031 there will be two million

more people aged over 65 in England and Wales who

will require assistance with daily life if current disability

rates continue.63 Between 1991 and 2031 the total

population of England and Wales is expected to increase

by 8 per cent. However, the growth of the older

population will far exceed this. The numbers of people

aged 60–74 are predicted to rise by 43 per cent, those

aged 75–84 by 48 per cent and those aged 85 and over

by 138 per cent.63 Yet the largest number of older people

will live in the transitional and developing regions.

Sixty two percent (three fifths) of the world’s older

people live in less developed countries. By 2050 this will

increase to 78 per cent.62

In an era of global population it will become essential to

enable individuals to stay in good health longer, with

less disability and therefore less dependence on others.

The main challenge is to enhance the life-long

contribution of ageing individuals to society, while

improving their quality of life.

The chemical sciences have a role to play in preventing,

detecting and treating age related illnesses. Prevention

will require an improved understanding of the impact of

nutrition and lifestyle, for example nutraceuticals, on

future health and quality of life (see also section 4.2.2

Healthy food). This will be coupled with a shift in focus

to developing the next generation of preventative

intervention treatments, for example progressing

beyond statins and the flu jab.

Advances will need to be made in treating and

controlling chronic diseases such as cancer, Alzheimer's,

diabetes, dementia, obesity, arthritis, cardiovascular,

Parkinson's and osteoporosis. This must be linked with

improved understanding of the role of genetic

predisposition in the development of these diseases and

improving detection and treatment technologies.

Technology breakthroughs will be required in identifying

relevant biomarkers and sensitive analytical tools for

early diagnosis, which will allow the development of

practical non-invasive bio-monitoring tools, such as from

breath, urine, saliva and sweat , which will be particularly

valuable to frailer patients (see also section 4.4.2

Diagnostics). There will also be a need to develop new

materials for cost effective, high performance

prosthetics, for example artificial organs, tissues and eye

lenses (see also section 4.4.4 Materials & prosthetics).

To meet the demand for independent living from those

suffering from long-term adverse health conditions,

significant advances will also be needed in technologies

and materials for assisted living. Developments will be

required in areas such as drug delivery, packaging,

incontinence, physical balance, recreation (see also

section 4.5.3. Sporting technology) and in designing

living space and communities.

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4.4.2 Diagnostics

Challenge: Recognising disease symptoms and

progress of how a disease develops is vital for effective

treatment. We need to advance to earlier diagnosis and

improved methods of monitoring disease.

Improved diagnosis is required in the developed and

developing world. Quick and accurate diagnosis benefits

individual patients by improving their treatment, in

addition to ensuring the efficient use of resources and

limiting the spread of infectious diseases.64 Screening

and early detection of breast, cervical, colorectal and

possibly oral cancers can reduce mortality48 but in the

UK less than half of cancer cases are diagnosed at a

stage when cancer can be treated successfully. Cancer

Research UK has set a target that two thirds of cancer

cases are to be diagnosed at a stage when the cancer

can be treated successfully by 2014.65

Globally there are 33.2 million people living with HIV,

but only 10 per cent are aware that they are infected.

There are also 8.8 million new cases of TB annually,

many of which are undiagnosed. These diseases, along

with one million deaths from malaria per year, place a

huge burden on developing countries.66 To overcome

this, better systems are required that can be used in

resource-limited settings to detect diseases as early as

possible and to monitor the effectiveness of treatments.

Technology breakthroughs in detection include identifying

relevant biomarkers and developing sensitive analytical

tools for early diagnostics, which require smaller samples

and will deliver more complete and accurate data from a

single non-invasive measurement. Further advances could

ultimately lead to information-rich point-of-care

diagnostics resulting in a reduction in the need for

diagnosis and subsequent treatment in hospital, with the

associated costs. Improved biomonitoring techniques

could also allow the identification of disease risks and

predisposition along with other genetic traits for an

individual. In combination with basing treatment on

targeted genotype rather than mass phenotype, and an

increased focus on chemical genetics, this could result in

personalised treatment and medication tailored to the

specific needs of the individual (see also section 4.4.6

Personalised medicine).

In addition to detection, the chemical sciences have a

role to play in monitoring the effectiveness and safety of

therapies and medication. An understanding of the

chemistry of disease progression is required to achieve

this and research should be done to enable the

continuity of drug treatment over the disease life cycle.

Point-of-care diagnostics can also be used to monitor

disease progression and treatment efficacy enabling

responsive treatment, such as changes of drug dose,

thus reducing hospital hours. It is possible that

technological breakthroughs in diagnostic techniques

and therapeutic devices could lead to combined devices

that detect infection and respond to attack.

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4.4.3 Hygiene and infection

Challenge: To prevent and minimise acquired infections,

we need to improve the techniques, technologies and

practices of the anti-infective portfolio.

Infectious diseases account for over a fifth of human

deaths and a quarter of ill-health worldwide.67 In 2004,

12.6 million people died globally from major infectious

diseases: lower respiratory tract, HIV, diarrhoeal disease,

TB, malaria and childhood infections.54 These diseases

disproportionately affect the poor, and in some African

countries they have contributed to reducing life

expectancy to less than 40 years.54 Climate change is

expected to exacerbate the severity of infectious

diseases particularly in Africa, by providing more

favourable conditions for insect-borne parasites that

cause diseases, including malaria and sleeping sickness.54

In addition to the appearance of new infectious diseases,

such as SARS, and the worsening of current diseases

through climate change, we also face the challenge of

antibiotic resistance. Some strains of bacteria are now

resistant to the antibiotics that have previously been

used to treat them. In the UK alone Methicillin-resistant

Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) contributed to over 1593

deaths in 2007, an increase from 51 deaths in 1993.68

The main challenge is to prevent and minimise acquired

infections by improving techniques, technologies and

practices of the anti-infective portfolio. To do this there

will need to be an improved understanding of viruses

and bacteria at a molecular level, and of the transition of

disease across species. This must be coupled with

breakthroughs in detection strategies, for example:

• developing fast, cheap and effective sensors for

bacterial infection;

• developing new generation materials for clinical

environments, such as paints and coatings;

• developing advanced materials that detect and

reduce airborne pathogens, for example materials for

air filters and sensors.

The increased incidence of new genetic and resistant

strains requires an improved ability to control and deal with

them quickly. There is a need for the rapid development

of novel synthetic vaccines and the accelerated

discovery of anti-infective and antibacterial agents.

4.4.4 Materials and prosthetics

Challenge: Orthopaedic implants and prosthetics

need to be fully exploited to enhance and sustain

function fully.

In the UK more than 3000 people received organ

transplants in 2007/08. However, 1000 died while on the

waiting list, which currently numbers around 8000.69

The scale of the problem is even larger than these

figures suggest, as many patients are never put on the

waiting list and it is estimated that need for organs is 50

per cent more than currently available.56

In addition to the continued demand for developing

advanced materials to use in orthopaedic implants such

as hips, knees, ankles, etc, and traditional prosthetics

such as artificial limbs, there is a need to develop new

materials for cost effective, high functional prosthetics,

for example, artificial organs, tissues and eye lenses.

The challenge is to exploit replacement organs to

enhance sustained function fully.

Materials breakthroughs will be required in polymer and

bio-compatible material chemistry for surgical equipment,

implants and artificial limbs, developing smarter and/or

bio-responsive drug delivery devices for diabetes, chronic

pain relief, cardiovascular disease and asthma, and in

researching biological macromolecule materials as

templates and building blocks for fabricating new

(nano)materials and devices. This must be supported by

an increased understanding of the chemistry at the

interface of synthetic and biological systems.

In addition, repairing, replacing or regenerating cells,

tissues, or organs will require further research into soluble

molecules, gene therapy, stem cell transplantation, tissue

engineering and the reprogramming of cell and tissue

types. Improvement is required in the ability to modulate

neural activity, for example, by modifying neuron

conduction, allowing the treatment of brain degeneration

in diseases such as Alzheimer’s.

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4.4.5 Drugs and therapies

Challenge: Basic sciences need to be harnessed and

enhanced to help transform the entire drug discovery,

development and healthcare landscape so new

therapies can be delivered more efficiently and

effectively for the world.

Chronic diseases, including cardiovascular, cancer,

chronic respiratory, diabetes and others including

mental health problems and joint problems, caused 35

million deaths globally in 2005.70 These diseases affect

both the developed and developing world. Chronic

diseases cause more than twice the number of deaths

per year than infectious diseases, maternal and perinatal

conditions and nutritional deficiencies combined.

The prediction is that unless the causes of chronic

diseases are addressed, deaths will increase by 17 per

cent between 2005 and 2015.70 Developing drugs and

therapies that can target these diseases have the

potential to save a huge number of lives worldwide.

The chemical sciences have a vital role in harnessing and

enhancing basic sciences to help transform the entire

drug discovery, development and healthcare landscape so

new therapies can be delivered more efficiently and

effectively for the world. To achieve this, a number of

breakthroughs are required in applying systems biology in:

• identifying new biological targets;

• improving the knowledge of the chemistry of living

organisms, including structural biology;

• designing and synthesising small molecules that

attenuate large molecule interactions, for example

protein-DNA interactions;

• integrating chemistry with biological entities for

improved drug delivery and targeting (next

generation biologics);

• developing advanced chemical tools to enhance

clinical studies, for example non-invasive monitoring,

in vivo biomarkers and contrast agents.

The different sub-disciplines of the chemical sciences

will all play a role. For example, computational chemistry

will contribute to better systems biology approaches

and process chemistry modelling. Better understanding

at the molecular and cellular level will be underpinned

by physical organic chemistry. The analytical sciences

will play a key role in every aspect of the drug discovery

and development process.

Assessing the effectiveness and safety of drugs is an

essential component of the complex, costly and lengthy

drug discovery and development process. There is a need

to understand communication within and between cells

and the effects of external factors in vivo to combat

disease progression. Improved targeting to particular

diseased cells, through understanding of drug absorption

parameters within the body, such as the blood brain

barrier, will improve efficacy and safety. It is also necessary

to develop model systems to improve understanding of

extremely complex biological systems and how

interventions affect these living systems over time.

Increased understanding of the chemical basis of

toxicology and the derivation of 'Lipinski-like' guidelines

for toxicology will improve the prediction of potentially

harmful effects. In addition to this, developing

toxicogenomics will allow drugs to be tested at a cellular

and molecular level, and better understanding of the

interaction between components of drug cocktails will

increase the ability to avoid adverse side effects.

Monitoring the effectiveness of a therapy could improve

compliance and the treatment regime, and in turn

improve efficacy. These advances must be linked to the

development of improved drug delivery systems through

smart devices and/or targeted and non-invasive solutions.

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4.4.6 Personalised medicine

Challenge: We need to be able to deliver specific,

differentiated prevention and treatment on an

individual basis.

Technological advances in the past 10 years have

reduced the cost of sequencing the whole human

genome by a staggering 1000-fold or more.71 George M.

Church, Professor of Genetics at Harvard, predicts that

the ‘$1000 genome’ milestone, that is the ability to

sequence a whole human genome for less than a $1000,

will be a reality before the end of 2009.72 The speed and

cost of the sequencing process brings personalised

medicine one step closer.

The combination of improving our understanding of the

human genome and disease genes, with the ability to

rapidly and cheaply sequence an individual’s genome,

will allow identification of disease risks and

predisposition for an individual. Commercial kits are

already available to assess an individual’s genome for

disease traits for only $399.73 In addition, genomic

technology should allow better prediction of how

individuals will respond to a given drug and improve the

safety and efficacy of treatments by providing the data

required to tailor them to individual needs.

Technological advancement is therefore leading to

personalised treatment and medication tailored to the

specific needs of individuals. To be able to deliver

specific, differentiated prevention and treatment on an

individual basis, breakthroughs will be required in

applying advanced pharmacogenetics to personalised

treatment regimes, developing ‘lab-on-a-chip’

technologies for rapid personal diagnosis and treatment,

and developing practical non-invasive bio-monitoring

tools and sensitive molecular detectors that provide

information on how physical interventions work in living

systems over time. It is imperative that research

advances are translated into robust, low cost techniques.

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HUMAN HEALTH: FUNDAMENTAL SCIENCE CASE STUDY

Beta-blockers

Building on the fundamental and groundbreaking

medical theory of drug-receptor interactions,

pharmacologist Sir James Black worked in collaboration

with chemists to synthesise Propranolol, the first

beta-blocking drug for treating hypertension.

Beta-adrenoreceptor blocking drugs, or beta-blockers for

short, are adrenaline receptor-blocking drugs that reduce

the effects of the sympathetic nervous system on the

cardiovascular system. Adrenaline, the fight-or-flight

hormone secreted at times of stress and exercise, binds to

beta-adrenoreceptors causing the arteries to constrict and

the heart to work harder. In some patients this increases

the risk of having a heart attack.

Beta-blockers work by binding to beta-adrenoreceptors

and preventing the binding of adrenaline, therefore

avoiding the effects that lead to heart attacks.

Beta-blockers have been used routinely to treat high

blood pressure since the 1970s and are also given to

relieve angina, correct irregular heartbeats and reduce

the risk of dying after a heart attack.

The first successful beta-blocker, Propranolol, was

discovered in 1962 by Sir James Black, who was awarded

the Nobel Prize for medicine in 1988.74 Black believed

he would not have started his work on the subject

without the fundamental research done by his

predecessors including Paul Ehrlich, John Langley

and Raymond Ahlquist.

“ Science is a gradual progression that requires

building on the work of others. ”James Black

The groundbreaking work of Paul Ehrlich, pioneer of many

aspects of modern medicine, and physiologist John

Langley in the late 19th and early 20th century introduced

the concept that drugs bind to targets, we now call

receptors, and affect their activity.75 In 1948, Raymond

Ahlquist published his adrenergic ‘receptor’ theory that

adrenaline binds specific receptors to bring about its

effects. However, the theory was not widely accepted by

influential scientists, such as Henry Dale. It was not until

the 1950s when, while looking for a long-acting

bronchodilator compound, Powell and Slater from Eli Lilly

accidently discovered the adrenoreceptor blocking

compound dichloroisoproterenol (DCI). They found that

DCI competed with adrenaline and isoprenaline for

adrenergic receptor sites. Subsequently, in 1958, Neil

Moran and Marjorie Perkins showed that DCI antagonised

the changes in heart rate and muscle tension produced by

adrenaline, proving Ahlquist’s receptor theory.

From this, Black realised that a drug that could block the

effect of adrenaline on the heart would be effective in

treating cardiovascular conditions. Black collaborated with

a chemist at ICI, John Stephenson, in his search for such a

drug. Using DCI as a lead compound Stephenson

synthesised an analogue where the two chlorine atoms in

DCI were substituted with a phenyl ring. This compound,

Pronethalol, had promising clinical activity but had long-

term toxicity problems. Further analogue-based design

and fundamental organic chemistry led to the synthesis of

a compound, that would become known as Propranolol,

by chemists Leslie Smith and Albert Crowther. Clinical trials

soon confirmed that Propranolol was a safe and effective

drug for hypertension and cardiac arrhythmias.

The effects of adrenaline are mediated through

different beta-adrenoreceptor subtypes that are

located in different tissues, for example in the heart.

The first generation of beta-blockers, including

Propranolol, were non-selective and blocked all types

of adrenoreceptors. However, second generation

beta-blockers are specific to different receptor subtypes

and are therefore suitable to treat different conditions.

Since its discovery as a beta-blocker, Propranolol has

proven effective in managing a number of medical

conditions, including migraine prophylaxis in children. It

may even have potential future uses as an antimalarial drug

by preventing the parasite from entering red blood cells.

Propranolol has annual sales around $215 million in the US.76

The reaction scheme for the synthesis of Propranolol

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4.5 Lifestyle and recreationProviding a sustainable route for people to live richer

and more varied lives

Lifestyle and recreation contribute to the quality of life

and bring a sense of wellbeing to citizens and

communities. Everything from the museums, galleries,

archives, libraries and historic buildings that surround us,

to the clothes we wear, the household and personal care

products that we use and the latest advances in

sporting and digital technology that we purchase,

promote convenience and perceptions of well being.

One of the key challenges we face is to reconcile the

need to reduce the levels of energy and environmental

resources that we consume, while at the same time

maintaining and improving quality of life for all, thus

enabling people to live richer, more varied lives.

4.5.1 Creative industries

Challenge: Continued innovation is necessary to give

new options to designers, artists and architects.

Society is underpinned by its understanding of history.

This understanding is profoundly influenced by the

survival of the physical artefacts that embody much of

our cultural heritage – buildings, artefacts, works of art,

books, film and so on. The conservation of these physical

objects presents a fascinating, rich and diverse range of

scientific challenges. Equally, the chemical sciences can

make a huge contribution, not only to preserving our

cultural heritage, but to providing a continual supply of

innovative options for the designers, artists and

architects of the future.

Pollutants are having a major impact on our historic

buildings. Scaffolding moves continuously around

York Minster in a 100-year cycle as stonemasons restore

decayed and weathered limestone. York Minster recently

revealed that a five-year programme to restore the East

Front and half of the Great East Window will cost £12

million.77 The chemical sciences are vital for understanding

why previous materials have either decayed or survived,

and in helping to develop new materials for restoring and

protecting both new and historical buildings. In addition,

changes in climate could affect the indoor environment.

Temperature and humidity could cause extensive damage

to art collections, books and other artefacts. Chemical

science can provide an increased understanding of the

threat to these materials, which will help to minimise

damage and aid preservation. In addition, restoration of

paintings and other cultural treasures will require the

development of improved analytical techniques to identify

the compounds comprising the materials and colour

pigments used. In this way the piece can be preserved or

restored as close to its original state as possible.

In contrast to preserving our cultural heritage, the

designers, artists and architects of the future will require

the chemical sciences to provide a continual supply of

innovative materials for a whole range of new

applications. Examples include developing new

materials for use in the design of new buildings and

structures and new materials and applications for

creative designers – for example, dynamic systems that

change colour or texture as desired, new dyes that are

more stable and less toxic, and sustainable and

renewable packaging incorporating emerging active

and intelligent materials with time, temperature,

spoilage and pathogen indicator technologies.

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4.5.2 Household

Challenge: Household and personal care products that

promote convenience and perceptions of well-being, or

that deliver household functionality, need to combine

efficacy with safety and sustainability/ longevity.

Everything, from household and personal care products

right up to the materials used to furnish and build

homes, relies on developments from the chemical

sciences. It is important that these products, which

promote convenience and perceptions of well-being, or

that deliver household functionality, combine efficacy

with safety and sustainability.

To achieve this further fundamental research is required

to understand the complex interactions that take place

during formulation of products for the home and

personal care sector. This will require research into the

disciplines of physical and colloid chemistries, as well as

elements of analytical chemistry, chemical engineering,

pharmaceutical and biological sciences.

The chemical sciences also have a significant role in

facilitating the re-formulation of household and

consumer products to address safety and environmental

concerns, along with the legislative requirements, for

example, REACH (EU legislation concerning Registration,

Evaluation, Authorisation and restriction of Chemicals).

This must be linked to a better understanding of the

effects of dermatology and cosmetic ingredients at a

molecular and cellular level, and an improved

understanding of the chemical basis of toxicology in

new and novel products, and their breakdown in the

environment. This will require, for example, using

computational chemistry to develop good predictive

models for human and eco-toxicity.

Breakthroughs will also be required in developing

improved recyclable materials and building

technologies, including new materials and innovations

for constructing houses and their contents, for example

floor coverings and furniture, which combine efficacy

with safety and sustainability (see also section 4.3.4

Construction materials). Developments could include

self-cleaning materials for homes and more efficient

laundry processes, to reduce the amount of detergents

used and waste produced. There could also be advances

in developing innovative technologies such as

controlled switchable surface adhesion, which could

lead to self assembly furniture or self hanging pictures

and wall paper which, at the flick of a switch, can be

disassembled, removed or replaced.

4.5.3 Sporting technology

Challenge: We need to develop new materials that

enable higher performance as an ultimate sporting

goal, and bring a sense of well-being to the wider and

ageing population.

Physical activity not only contributes to well-being,

but is also essential for good health. People who are

physically active reduce their risk of developing major

chronic diseases such as coronary heart disease and

type II diabetes by up to 50 per cent, and their risk of

premature death by about 20–30 per cent. The annual

costs of physical inactivity in England are estimated at

£8.2 billion; this includes the rising costs of treating

chronic diseases such as coronary heart disease and

diabetes, but does not include the contribution of

inactivity to obesity – an estimated further £2.5 billion

cost to the economy each year.78

New materials, to enable higher performance as an

ultimate sporting goal and to bring a sense of

well-being to the wider and ageing population,

will be required. Advances and developments in materials

chemistry for sporting equipment that confers additional

benefits in weight, strength and accuracy will be essential,

as will developments in functional textiles (see also

section 4.5.5 Textiles). Advances in materials chemistry

have already been used in developing lightweight

supports and braces that can be used during physical

activity without hindering performance. In addition,

technology breakthroughs will be required for the next

generation of protective clothing and sportswear.

Advances in equipment and clothing will be coupled

with developing and using active diagnostics and

monitoring to assist personal performance – for example,

monitoring hormone levels.

The health benefits of physical activity are even more

pronounced in older adults, increasing an older person’s

ability to maintain an independent lifestyle. In addition

to advances in equipment and clothing, the chemical

sciences can help keep sport and recreation accessible

to the wider population, especially the ageing

population, through advances in healthcare - notably in

the development of an array of new technologies for

managing chronic illness and promoting active lifestyles.

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4.5.4 Advanced and sustainable electronics

Challenge: Miniaturised electronic devices, with faster

computer speeds and denser storage, need to be

produced. This should be coupled with developing

sustainable electronic devices, which are recyclable,

and have little dependence on materials in

increasingly short supply.

According to the UN environment programme, some

20–50 million metric tonnes of e-waste, including lead,

cadmium, mercury and other hazardous substances, are

generated worldwide every year as a result of the growing

demand for computers, mobile phones, TVs, radios and

other consumer electronics. In the US alone, 14–20 million

PCs are thrown out every year. In the EU the volume of

e-waste is expected to increase by 3–5 per cent per year.

Developing countries are expected to triple their output of

e-waste by 2010.79

Electronic products have a great positive impact on our

lives, however, their increasing availability and affordability

means that they also present a growing environmental

problem. The challenge is to produce miniaturised

electronic devices with faster computer speeds and denser

storage. This must be coupled with the need for

sustainable electronic devices, which are recyclable and

have little dependence on materials in increasingly short

supply (see also sections 4.6.1 and 4.6.2).

To develop miniaturised electronic devices with faster

computer speeds and denser storage, key requirements

in the future will include:

• advances in display technology, such as flat lightweight

and rollable displays for a variety of applications;

• controlled deposition (microcontact printing,

nanotemplate patterning etc) onto thin films and

integration into printed electronics;

• advances in flexible, printable electronics based on

new molecular technologies (allowing dynamic

re-configuration);

• design concepts and new materials for microsized

batteries for mobile and portable electronic devices

(see also sections 4.3.2 Home energy generation and

4.5.4 Advanced and sustainable electronics).

Enhancing information storage technology will also be

required – for example, molecular switches with the

potential to act as a molecular binary code is one

possibility. Molecular switches have the potential to

reduce the size of information storage by a factor of

100,000 and increase the speed of information storage

by a factor of 1,000,000.3 Technology advances will also

be required in the development of biological and/or

molecular computing, in understanding bio-mimicking

self-assembling systems and in developing the ability to

exploit the interface between molecular electronics and

the human nervous system - for example, using the

brain to switch on a light.

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4.5.5 Textiles

Challenge: There is a need to move away from a

conventional, low-cost, disposable fashion culture

to new systems which provide design scope, colour,

feel, sustainability, longevity and new, low-cost

fabrication routes.

Textiles surround us in our daily lives.

They are manufactured from natural fibres, manmade

fibres, or a mixture of both. Textiles and clothes are

getting cheaper. They follow fashion more rapidly and

we are buying more and more of them. In 2000 the

world’s consumers spent around $1 trillion worldwide

buying clothes. Around one third of sales were in

Western Europe, one third in North America and one

quarter in Asia.80 The total UK consumption of textile

products is approximately 2.15 million tonnes per year,

equivalent to approximately 35 kg per UK capita.

The combined waste from clothing and textiles in the

UK is about 2.35 million tonnes per year.64

The challenge is to move away from this conventional,

low cost, disposable fashion culture to new systems,

which provide design scope, colour, feel, sustainability,

longevity and new low cost fabrication routes. Chemical

science will be crucial in developing technological

innovations and sustainable textiles by:

• helping to improve resource usage (water, energy)

during fabrication;

• substituting harmful chemicals used during

production processes and in the fabrics themselves;

• developing environmentally sensitive production

techniques, particularly for cotton;

• increasing the re-use of materials;

• producing biodegradable textiles, allowing for better

disposal solutions;

• developing synthetic fibres from sustainable sources.

In addition to traditional textiles, developing functional

textiles (materials and products that are manufactured

mainly for their technical performance and functional

properties, rather than their aesthetic characteristics

such as colour or style) will require input from the

chemical sciences. Technology breakthroughs are

needed to develop functional textiles with superior

energy balance, strength and flexibility for future use in

clothing, in the home and in the construction,

automotive, aerospace, health, leisure and defence

sectors. Opportunities include developing textiles

incorporating self-healing and self-cleaning dynamic

pigmenting technologies – for example, biotherapeutic

textiles for use in wound dressings.

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LIFESTYLE & RECREATION: FUNDAMENTAL SCIENCE CASE STUDY

Liquid crystal displays

A chemical curiosity with ‘no application’, liquid crystals

(now worth £40 billion per year) only became commercially

useful after years of developing an understanding of

structure-property relationships and novel materials.

Liquid crystals exhibit a phase of matter that is between

that of a liquid and that of a crystal. A liquid crystal may

flow like a liquid, but contain molecules, typically rod-

shaped organic moieties about 25 Å in length, oriented

like they would be in a crystal. The molecular orientation,

and hence the material’s optical properties, can be

controlled by changing the temperature and by applying

an electric field. The most common application of liquid

crystal technology is in liquid crystal displays (LCDs).

Liquid crystalline mesophases – called nematic, smetic

and chiral phases – were discovered in 1888, through the

initial work of Friedrich Reinitzer on naturally-occurring

cholesterol derivatives, and his subsequent collaboration

with Otto Lehmann. When determining the purities of

esters of cholesterol Reinitzer noticed that they seemed to

exhibit a ‘double melting’ transition. For example, a sample

changed from a solid into a liquid at 145.5 °C and then at

178.5 °C this opaque liquid suddenly turned transparent.

Reinitzer sent samples to Otto Lehmann for

crystallographic studies and he intuitively deduced from

his data that the liquids' optical properties were due to

elongated molecules oriented parallel to each other.81

By the early 1900s, Daniel Vorländer had synthesised a

wide range of liquid crystalline compounds to investigate

the connection between molecular structure and liquid

crystalline behaviour. George Friedel also investigated

liquid crystalline phases and classified the phases

according to their molecular ordering.82

During the late 1940s and 1950s, George Gray at the

University of Hull in the UK did fundamental research to

better understand the influence of molecular structure

on liquid crystalline characteristics. Other chemists

synthesised novel materials with similar goals, and

interdisciplinary work with physicists and mathematicians

provided a good understanding of the physical properties

of liquid crystal materials and their phases. During the

early 1960s, many scientists concluded that although

liquid crystals were most unusual, they were now

well-understood and had no potential applications.

However, in 1963 Richard Williams of Radio Corporation of

America (RCA) recognised that liquid crystals responded

to electric fields; this led to the invention of the first LCD

by his colleague George Heilmeier in 1968.83

Unfortunately the material he used was unstable and was

not liquid crystalline until 83 °C, making the device

impractical. Following this, in 1971, Martin Schadt and

Wolfgang Helfrich at Hoffman-la Roche in Switzerland

invented a new class of LCDs, the Twisted Nematic Liquid

Crystal Display (TNLCD).

Since the UK had to pay licensing fees to RCA for

producing shadow mask displays for radar (greater than

the cost of developing Concorde), John Stonehouse,

Minister for Trade and Industry, encouraged the MoD to

set up a contract with George Gray in Hull to develop

new liquid crystals for the TNLCD. By 1973 Gray had

developed cyano-biphenyl liquid crystals,84 which were

stable, colourless and operated at room temperature.

These were quickly patented and mixtures of the various

homologues were formulated to generate an acceptable

blend for commercial displays. Remarkably for a new

invention, the materials were commercially available in

devices within two years of the discovery.

With rapid increases in technological inventions, the need

for more elaborate, quality displays in colour became

important. Hence, research into liquid crystal materials and

properties has grown enormously. A significant portion of

research has been targeted at improved displays, but a lot

has been fundamental research to improve understanding

of the structure-property relationships.

LCDs are used in a variety of everyday objects, from

watches and calculators, mobile phones, digital cameras

and MP3 players through to computer monitors and

high-definition televisions with large area screens.

Such displays, combined with the product they facilitate,

have revolutionised people’s lives. The market value of

LCDs is currently £40 billion per year and there are now

more LCDs in the world than there are people.

There is still scope for developing liquid crystal

technologies. Current ferroelectric liquid crystal

technology offers extremely fast switching devices for

microdisplays and telecommunications. Liquid crystals of

a different type to those in displays are attracting

attention for their potential applications in biological and

medical fields due to their similarity to cell membranes

and biological fluids and processes.

Nematic phase liquid crystal


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4.6 Raw materials and feedstocksCreating and sustaining a supply of sustainable

feedstocks, by designing processes and products that

preserve resources

In the developed world we live in a time of

unprecedented mass affluence and convenience.

However, this comfortable lifestyle comes at a cost.

Society is profligate in its use of materials with one

source estimating that 93 per cent of production

materials do not end up in saleable products and 80 per

cent of products are discarded after a single use.85

At the same time, the global population continues to

increase and with it, the affluence and expectations of

the developing world. For the whole world to share the

living standards currently enjoyed in the UK, the

resources of three planet Earths would be required.86

For a more equitable world in which developing countries

may hope to share our living standards, it is clear we all

must do more with less material resource. It is estimated

that 50 per cent of the products which will be needed in

the next 10–15 years have not yet been invented, so the

opportunities are both real and substantial.87

Industry will respond by becoming increasingly focused on

selling ‘solutions’ rather than ingredients, and developing

innovative, added value components. There will be a shift

from material intensive products to knowledge intensive

products. This section focuses specifically on the challenges

we face in sustainable design, conservation of scarce

natural resources, conversion of biomass feedstocks and

recovered feedstocks.

4.6.1 Sustainable product design

Challenge: Our high level of industrial and domestic

waste could be resolved with increased downstream

processing and re-use. To preserve resources, our initial

design decisions should take more account of the

entire life-cycle.

The environmental impact of a product is determined

largely at the design stage and mistakes made here can

embed unsustainable practice for the lifetime of the

product. Life-cycle thinking needs to be developed and

applied across entire supply chains to understand where

the highest environmental impacts are incurred and

which interventions are necessary to reduce these.

This includes closing the recycling and remanufacturing

loop. In addition to formal life-cycle analysis (LCA), the

chemical sciences will be needed to develop flexible

and agile tools to allow life-cycle thinking to be applied

throughout the innovation process.

Chemists have a huge role to play in applying best

practice technologies (such as metal recycling)

throughout the life-cycle of products, setting clear

standards for LCA methods and data gathering, and

developing tools to aid the substitution of toxic

substances, which can be particularly problematic.

For example, The British Coatings Federation has

estimated that if it was necessary to reformulate the

resin that binds an aircraft topcoat to the primer, as a

result of the withdrawal of one ingredient, the effort

required for substitution would lead to approximately

nine man years of work.88

An understanding of sustainable design and the

principles of reduction, remanufacture, reuse and recycle

(4Rs) must be applied widely by chemical scientists.

Concepts such as water and atom efficiency, alongside

green chemistry and chemical engineering, should be

standard approaches in intensifying and optimising

manufacturing processes – developing process

modelling and process analytics will be key.

Additional technological breakthroughs include:

• developing methods for tagging polymers to aid

recycling;

• designing biodegradability into finished products;

• developing smart coatings;

• developing improved recovery processes;

• developing new composites that are readily

recyclable.

As limits are placed on raw materials, substitution based

on functionality will become increasingly important.

Improvements in the processing of recyclates will help,

but a fundamental understanding of how structure

relates to property will enable an improved

understanding of eco-toxicity and the intelligent design

of substances.

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4.6.2 Conservation of scarce natural resources

Challenge: Raw material and feedstock resources for

both existing industries and future applications are

increasingly scarce. We need to develop a range of

alternative materials and associated new processes for

recovering valuable components.

Mineral commodities are essential to our way our life.

For example, the average car contains over 30 mineral

components, including almost a tonne of iron and steel,

over 100 kg of aluminium, 22 kg of carbon and nearly

20 kg of both silicon and zinc.89 Chemical scientists rely

on precious metallic elements that have applications in

many industries. However, it is difficult to estimate the

amounts in extractable reserves and to predict global

demand for specific elements as technologies change.

In modern technologies many of the elements are used

in small amounts and some are dispersed into the

environment. These factors can make it difficult to

recover and recycle the elements for future use.

A recent assessment, based on data from the US Geological

Survey's annual reports and UN statistics on global

population, considered the per capita use of elements and

performed basic calculations to estimate how soon we

may exhaust known reserves.90 To sustain the quality of life

of the modern developed world and its extension to the

entire global population, new technologies may have to

use elements more efficiently or use substitutes in place of

those used in contemporary technologies91 – for example,

indium is used in the manufacture of LCDs for flat-screen

TVs. The substance indium gallium arsenide is crucial for a

new generation of more efficient solar cells but insufficient

resource is available for this technology to make a useful

impact on global energy needs. As such, alternative

technologies will have to be sought. Tellurium is used

increasingly in semiconductors and solar panels, with the

concomitant increase in demand leading to a price

increase of 25-fold in 2006.92

The chemical sciences must apply the principles of

sustainable design to this issue. In particular innovations

to reduce, replace, and recycle elements will be needed.

Achieving ‘more with less’ is vital and reducing material

intensity through applying nanotechnology to increase

activity per unit mass and reducing raw material use

through processes such as thrifting are key areas.

Replacing precious metals with more common metals in

applications will continue to be a key strategy, as will

improved fertiliser management of nitrogen and

phosphorus and reduced dependence on finite metal

resources. Efficient methods for recovering metals from

electronic scrap (so-called e-waste) and landfill will

also be needed.

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4.6.3 Conversion of biomass feedstocks

Challenge: Biomass feedstocks (whether they are

agricultural, marine or food waste) for producing

chemicals and fuels are becoming more commercially

viable. In the future, integrated bio-refineries using

more than one biofeedstock will yield energy, fuel and

a range of chemicals with no waste being produced.

In the future, chemicals will be based increasingly on

biomass, which will also be used to help meet our

energy needs. Tomorrow’s chemical industry will be

built on the concept of a ‘bio-refinery’, where regional

facilities will take in a diverse range of crops and plant

matter and process them into biofuels, materials and

‘platform molecules’.

Sugars, oils and other compounds in biomass can be

converted into ‘platform’ chemicals directly, or as by-

products from fuel in processes analogous to the

petrochemical industry. These building block chemicals

have a high transformation potential into new families

of useful molecules. To produce platform chemicals,

the chemical sciences will be vital in providing novel

separation technologies, such as membranes and

sorbent extraction of valuable components from

biological media, and in developing pre-treatment

methods for biomass component separation.

The chemical sciences will also provide enzymes

tolerant to oxygen and inhibitors, and new synthetic

approaches to adapt oxygen-rich starting feedstocks,

which will help to convert platform molecules into

valuable products.

Biomass is not just available from agriculture, but is also

available in the form of industrial and municipal waste

streams. Global reserves of sustainable biomass are

estimated to be 200 billion tonnes (oven-dried material),

of which only 3 per cent is currently utilised.93 One billion

tonnes of biomass is equivalent in energy to over two

billion barrels of crude oil.

For bio-based renewable chemicals to compete with

fossil-fuel based feedstocks there are several key areas

of technology that must be developed and this offers

huge potential for the chemical sciences.

Fundamental bioprocessing science will have to mature.

Homogeneous feedstocks with metabolically

engineered properties will be required, as will a greater

variety and yield of products through advances in

fermentation science. Introducing novel catalysts and

biocatalysts will be valuable for breaking down lignin

into aromatic substrates, in pyrolysis and gasification

techniques that increase the density of biomass, and in

technologies that exploit biomethane from waste.

Technological breakthroughs will also be required in

microbial genomics to improve micro-organisms, and in

developing catalysts for upgrading pyrolysis oil.

Robust and transparent methods for assessing the

life-cycle impact of renewables and comparing

alternative routes is a priority. The few comprehensive

life-cycle assessments performed to date indicate that

using renewable chemicals has good potential for

energy and greenhouse gas savings. Improvements in

the efficiency of production are considered to be highly

likely in the near future, providing there are economic

incentives for development.

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4.6.4 Recovered feedstocks

Challenge: There are limits to the current supply of

chemical and fuel feedstocks from alternative sources.

The conversion of readily available, cheap feedstocks

and waste into useful chemicals and fuels is an

opportunity for chemical scientists.

The supply of chemical and fuel feedstocks currently

used for energy generation is severely limited.

Finding and enabling alternative energy sources is a

challenge for the chemical sciences.

Each person in the UK generates around 170 kg of

organic waste each year and approximately 33 per cent

of food bought by consumers, including £10.2 billion of

perfectly good food, is thrown away each year in the

UK.94 Most of this discarded waste ends up in landfills,

producing the harmful greenhouse gas methane,

which is 25 times more powerful than CO2. Organic

waste offers a cheap and readily available alternative

feedstock, thus converting waste to useful chemicals

and fuels is an opportunity for chemical scientists.

Not only would this provide an alternative energy

source, but it would also reduce greenhouse gas

emissions generated in landfill sites.

Anaerobic digestion and advanced thermal processing

are established technologies, used to treat organic waste

and produce renewable energy in the form of biogas or

gas for electricity or heat generation. However, a raft of

new chemical, thermal and biological processes are

beginning to emerge as methods to convert biomass

waste into a variety of fuels including hydrogen,

bio-crude oil and solid fuel. Energy recovery from waste

will become increasingly important in providing on-site

power generation for industry and therefore

technologies to process waste must evolve.

There needs to be a general shift in opinion to view

waste as a ‘raw material’.

Efficient recovery and recycling of feedstocks is also

important. Novel separation and purification

technologies for economic recycling need to be

developed. Upcyling plastic is an important aspect of

this and developing genuine, innovative recycling

technologies to allow, for example, monomers to be

recovered from mixed plastics must be facilitated by the

chemical sciences.

Plants successfully convert sunlight to energy through

photosynthesis. The ultimate challenge for the chemical

sciences would be to mimic this, by inventing ‘artificial

photosynthesis’ to harness light. The chemical sciences

could also provide future energy sources through other

biomimetic processes, such as converting small

molecules – such as CO2, N2 and O2 – to chemicals, and

by the catalytic conversion of simple alkanes to alcohols

– for example, the production of 1,4-butanediol from

butane. It is currently possible to use CO2 as a feedstock

to produce chemicals, fuels and polymers; however,

there are a number of potential technologies that

require further R&D – for example photochemical

conversion of CO2.

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RAW MATERIALS & FEEDSTOCKS:FUNDAMENTAL SCIENCE CASE STUDY

The Haber process

The fundamental understanding of reaction equilibria

established by Le Chatelier gave hope to chemists

seeking to develop conditions for converting abundant

supplies of hydrogen and nitrogen feedstocks to

ammonia – a vital component of agricultural fertilisers.

The Haber process is used to produce ammonia from

nitrogen and hydrogen at high temperature and pressure

with an iron catalyst. Ammonia can be processed into

nitrates, which are important components of fertilisers

and explosives. Developing a process to synthesise

ammonia was vital because it provided independence

from limited global deposits of nitrates and meant that

ammonia could be produced using common

atmospheric gases as feedstocks. The rapid

industrialisation of the Haber process is indicative of the

importance of ammonia synthesis.

The Haber process owes its birth to a broader parentage

than its name suggests. Throughout the 19th century

scientists had attempted to synthesise ammonia from its

constituent elements: hydrogen and nitrogen. A major

breakthrough was an understanding of reaction

equilibria brought about by Henry Louis Le Chatelier in

1884. Le Chatelier’s principle means that changing the

prevailing conditions, such as temperature and pressure,

will alter the balance between the forward and the

backward paths of a reaction. It was thought possible to

breakdown ammonia into its constituent elements, but

not to synthesise it. Le Chatelier’s principle suggested

that it may be feasible to synthesise ammonia under the

correct conditions. This led Le Chatelier to work on

ammonia synthesis and in 1901 he was using Haber-like

conditions when a major explosion in his lab led him to

stop the work.95

“ I let the discovery of the ammonia synthesis

slip through my hands. It was the greatest

blunder of my scientific career.”Le Chatelier

German chemist Fritz Haber saw the significance of

Le Chatelier’s principle and also attempted to develop

favourable conditions for reacting hydrogen and nitrogen

to form ammonia. After many failures he decided that it

was not possible to achieve a suitable set of conditions

and he abandoned the project, believing it insoluble.

The baton was taken up by Walther Hermann Nernst, who

disagreed with Haber’s data, and in 1907 he was the first

to synthesise ammonia under pressure and at an elevated

temperature. This made Haber return to the problem and

led to the development, in 1908, of the now standard

reaction conditions of 600 °C and 200 atmospheres with

an iron catalyst.96 Although the process was relatively

inefficient, the nitrogen and hydrogen could be reused as

feedstocks for reaction after reaction until they were

practically consumed.

Haber’s reaction conditions could only be used on a small

scale at the bench, but the potential opportunity to scale

up the reaction was seized by Carl Bosch and a large plant

was operational by 1913. The ability to synthesise large

quantities of a nitrogen rich compound from abundant

atmospheric nitrogen freed countries from depending on

limited nitrate deposits. Ammonia synthesis played a

strategic part in WWI. The large scale production of

ammonia allowed Germany to continue producing

explosives after their supplies had run out, thus

prolonging the war.

The industrialised Haber process is still important almost

100 years after its initial use. One hundred million tonnes

of nitrogen fertilisers are produced every year using this

process, which is responsible for sustaining one third of

the world’s population. In recent years this has led Vaclav

Smil, Distinguished Professor at the University of Manitoba

and expert in the interactions of energy, environment,

food and the economy, to suggest that, ‘The expansion of

the world's population from 1.6 billion in 1900 to six

billion would not have been possible without the

synthesis of ammonia’. Although there are environmental

risks involved in intensive fertiliser use, these chemicals

remain essential for the sustainable production of food,

and while the world population continues to grow it

appears that there will always be an important place for

the Haber process in producing fertiliser.

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4.7 Water and airEnsuring the sustainable management of water and air

quality, and addressing societal impact on water

resources (quality and availability)

Water and air are essential constituents of life.

Providing sufficient quantities of water in a sustainable

way at an appropriate standard to satisfy domestic,

industrial, agricultural, and environmental needs is a

global challenge.97 Estimates predict that by 2025 more

than half of the world population will potentially be

facing some level of water-based vulnerability.98

These challenges are exacerbated in the face of an

increasing population, climate change and man-made

pollution. This section focuses on the challenges that exist

in the areas of drinking water quality, water demand,

waste water, contaminants, air quality and climate.

4.7.1 Drinking water quality

Challenge: Poor quality drinking water damages

human health. Clean, accessible drinking water for

all is a priority.

Access to safe drinking water and adequate sanitation

varies dramatically with geography and many regions

already face severe scarcity. Current population forecasts

suggest that an additional 784 million people worldwide

will need to gain access to improved drinking water

sources to meet the UN Millennium Development Goal

target:99 to halve the proportion of people without

sustainable access to safe drinking water and basic

sanitation by 2015.100 The World Health Organization

estimates that safe water could prevent 1.4 million child

deaths from diarrhoea each year.101

Clean, accessible drinking water for all is a priority.

Water treatment is energy intensive and global energy

requirements will increase as nations are forced to

exploit water resources of poorer quality. Water scarcity

will lead to energy intensive desalination and water

reuse and recycling. The chemical sciences therefore

have a dual role to play in treating water, by both

making it potable and also by removing contaminants

from wastewater and industrial waste streams.

Technology breakthroughs required include:

• energy efficient desalination processes;

• energy efficient point of use purification, for example

disinfection processes and novel membrane

technologies;

• developing low cost portable technologies for

analysing and treating contaminated groundwater

that are effective and appropriate for use by local

populations in the developing world, such as for

testing arsenic-contaminated groundwater.

4.7.2 Water demand

Challenge: Population growth means greater demand

on water supply. Household, agricultural and industrial

demands are in competition. Management and

distribution strategies must ensure that clean water of

an appropriate quality remains economically accessible.

With 71 per cent of the Earth’s surface covered in

water102 there is no physical shortage, but most of the

resource is saline (97 per cent) and therefore

non-potable. The remaining 3 per cent is freshwater of

which two thirds are locked away in glaciers and the

polar ice caps. Humanity’s growing needs must therefore

be met with only 1 per cent of the Earth’s total water.

With household, agricultural and industrial demands in

competition, the chemical sciences, alongside

engineering, have an important role to play in ensuring

management and distribution strategies make certain

that clean water of an appropriate quality remains

economically accessible.

To achieve this, products must be designed to minimise

water and energy use during their production and use

(water footprinting). This can be achieved by adopting,

for example, the principles of green chemistry and

integrated pollution prevention and control to industrial

manufacture, with the aim of reducing waste, energy

and water use. Household products and appliances

must be designed to work effectively with minimal

water and energy demands, and include better water

re-cycle systems. Efficient, safe and low maintenance

systems need to be developed for industrial water

recycling and better strategies for water use and re-use

for agriculture systems. In addition, efficient water supply

systems and anti-corrosion technologies for pipework

are needed, including development of materials for

preventing leakage and water quality maintenance.

RSC-BTL-962 28/7/09 15:34


4.7.3 Wastewater

Challenge: Wastewater treatment needs to be made

energy neutral and we need to enable the beneficial

re-use of its by-products.

Every day in the UK alone, about 347,000 km of sewers

collect over 11 billion litres of wastewater.103 With the

future threat of water scarcity there will be an increased

interest in the recycling and re-use of water. These sources

have a wide range of contaminants that require removal,

which is currently energy intensive. The challenge is to

make waste water treatment energy neutral and to

enable the beneficial re-use of its by-products.

To make a breakthrough, advanced, energy efficient,

industrial wastewater treatment technologies are

needed, for which there is the potential to exploit novel

membrane, catalytic and photochemical processes. In

addition, more efficient ways are needed for treating

domestic wastewater, to avoid the high energy input

and sludge generation associated with using biological

processes. Opportunities exist for developing a foul

sewer network that can be considered part of the

treatment plant and works as a long, continuously

monitored pipe reactor that treats water in situ and

maintains quality to the point of delivery.

Further technology breakthroughs are required in

membrane technology for microfiltration, ultrafiltration

and reverse osmosis to reduce costs and improve

process efficiency significantly in removing particulates,

precipitates and micro-organisms. Novel coatings and

chemicals for minimising corrosion in pipe-work, biofilm

growth and deposition of solids such as iron and

manganese during water and wastewater treatment are

also required.

In addition to developing treatment technologies,

chemical science is key in developing processes for

localised treatment and re-use of wastewater to ensure

that appropriate quality of water is easily accessible.

Specifically, it is important to identify standards for

rainwater and grey water so that, coupled to appropriate

localised treatment, rain/grey water can be harvested

and used for secondary purposes.

4.7.4 Contaminants

Challenge: More research is required into the

measurement, fate and impact of existing and

emerging contaminants.

Human activity has resulted in the emergence of chemical

contaminants in the environment, typically mobilised by

water. Further research is required into the measurement,

fate and impact of existing and emerging contaminants.

This will help determine and control the risks of

contaminants to the environment and human health.

Our understanding of the major fate processes for many

contaminants is well developed. Experimental and

modelling approaches are available to determine how a

substance is going to behave in the environment and to

establish the level of exposure. However, knowledge

gaps include the environmental fate of nanoparticles

and pharmaceuticals and identification and risk analysis

of transformation products. The chemical sciences are

crucial in assessing the risks of mixtures of chemicals at

low concentrations to the environment and human

health. This must be coupled with further research into

understanding the impact of contaminants on and their

interaction with biological systems.

Temperature and precipitation changes due to global

warming may affect input of chemicals into the

environment, and their fate and transport in aquatic

systems. There is a need for the chemical sciences to

identify the potential impact of climate change on fate

and behaviour of contaminants.

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4.7.5 Air quality and climate

Challenge: Increasing anthropogenic emissions are

affecting air quality and contributing to climate change.

We need to understand the chemistry of the

atmosphere to be able to predict the impact of this

with confidence and to enable us to prevent and

mitigate further changes.

Global greenhouse gas emissions due to human

activities have grown since pre-industrial times, with an

increase of 70 per cent between 1970 and 2004.

World CO2 emissions are expected to increase by

1.8 per cent annually between 2004 and 2030.104

Increasing anthropogenic emissions are affecting air

quality and contributing to climate change.

Scientists have an important role to play in

understanding the chemistry of the atmosphere to be

able to predict with confidence the impact of these

emissions and to prevent and mitigate further changes.

To achieve this, the chemical sciences will need to:

• develop novel techniques for studying reactive

molecules that occur at ultra-low concentrations in the

atmosphere and are the agents of chemical change;

• understand, through developing novel techniques for

studying sub-micron particles, how aerosols form and

change in the atmosphere, and their impacts on

human health and climate;

• study geo-engineering solutions to climate change –

such as ocean fertilisation to draw down CO2, or

increasing the Earth’s albedo by enhancing

stratospheric aerosols to modify the Earth’s climate in

response to rising greenhouse gas levels – looking

both at the effectiveness and undesirable

environmental side-effects of these solutions;

• develop new modelling methodologies for treating

the enormous chemical complexity that occurs on

regional and global scales.

This must be coupled with developing novel analytical

techniques, such as low-cost sensors for the detecting

of atmospheric pollutants (ozone, nitrogen oxides,

particulates etc), which can be dispersed throughout

both developed and developing urban areas for

fine-scale measurement of air quality, and can be

used in developing atmospheric models. In addition,

technology breakthroughs will be required in

space-borne techniques for measuring major pollutants,

including particulate aerosols, with sub-20 km horizontal

resolution and the capacity to resolve vertically within

the lower troposphere.

RSC-BTL-962 28/7/09 15:34


WATER AND AIR: FUNDAMENTAL SCIENCE CASE STUDY

Ion exchange

Building on the discovery of ion exchange by soil

chemists, drinking water standards have been improved

globally by a new generation of chemists seeking a

better fundamental understanding of materials that

soften and purify water.

Ion exchange is the transfer of charged particles (ions)

between a solid and a solution. This process was first

observed in soils. However, it took almost 100 years to

develop into a practical tool for water purification and ion

exchange techniques are still being developed today.

The phenomenon of ion exchange was first

documented in 1850 by two English chemists,

John Thomas Way and Harry Stephen Thompson.105

They confirmed that ion exchange occurs naturally in

soil. Experimentation proved that it was possible to

release calcium ions by treating various clays with

ammonium sulfate or carbonate in solution.

After ion exchange was observed in soil, research was

done in an attempt to understand the material properties

that were causing the effect. Zeolites, along with other

minerals, were identified as being capable of ion

exchange. Zeolites are aluminium based minerals with a

porous structure, which allows them to trap ions such as

sodium and calcium. However, the ions are only held

weakly by the mineral, allowing them to be exchanged

readily with other positively charged ions in surrounding

solutions. Hard water contains high concentrations of

minerals including calcium¬ and magnesium ions,

leading to limescale build up and poor soap lathering.

Scientists wondered if they could use these ion exchange

properties of zeolite to soften water. To test this possibility

hard water was mixed with zeolite ‘charged’ with sodium

ions. In 1905 German chemist Robert Gans achieved this

goal: the water was softened because calcium and

magnesium ions in the water were exchanged with

sodium ions in the zeolite.106

Although zeolites were used for ion exchange as early as

1905, the material properties that caused the effect were

poorly understood. To create synthetic ion exchangers

with different functions, understanding of the materials

had to be improved. A major step towards this was made

in 1935 when English chemists Basil Albert Adams and

Eric Leighton Holmes discovered that crushed

phonograph records were capable of ion exchange.107

An improved understanding of synthetic materials that

were capable of ion exchange meant that novel ion

exchange materials could be produced. This discovery

was soon put into practice and in 1937 the first synthetic

ion exchange resin was used in a commercial water

softening plant in the UK.

Armed with a better fundamental understanding of

material properties, further improvements to ion

exchange materials were made over the following

decades. Properties such as capacity were improved and

resins could be designed to have specificity for different

ions. Current ion exchange resins are usually based on

polystyrene beads conjugated with different chemical

groups that determine their ion exchange properties.

In addition to water softening, ion exchange can also be

used to remove toxic metal ions, which can be

detrimental to human health, from water. The global

water treatment industry is worth around $30 billion.

This includes ion exchange technology, which is often in

parallel with other water purification methods that

remove micro-organisms and organic material to ensure

that drinking water is safe. Ion exchange in water

treatment can be used on both a large scale in water

treatment plants and in homes. Water filter jugs, kettles

and plumbed in systems, such as those made by BRITA,

contain ion exchange resin and these products are

popular because of the improvement in the taste of the

water. In addition, ion exchange is used to produce

ultrapure water for the pharmaceutical industry.

Our understanding of ion exchange is contributing to

developing sophisticated membranes that may be able to

produce drinking water from salt water sources. In the

future these membranes may be used for desalination to

produce safe, secure and sustainable drinking water

supplies around the world.

The micro-porous molecular structure of a zeolite, ZSM-5

RSC-BTL-962 28/7/09 15:34


Appendix

A1 Study methodology

The process consisted of a number of different stages, which are outlined below.

The main output from the process was identifying the

seven priority areas, which encompass the key global

issues facing the world today and in the future.

Across the seven priority areas 41 major challenges

society face are highlighted, as are a selection of the

hundreds of opportunities where chemistry and the

chemical sciences have a role to play in contributing to

the delivery of solutions. The main opportunities for the

chemical sciences have been mapped to a 15 year time

horizon for each thematic area.

A total of seven workshops, incorporating over 150

experts took place during 2008; these were leaders in

their field, including chief scientists and Nobel Prize

winners. In addition, the expertise, attitudes and opinions

of the wider community were incorporated via an open

three-stage web based consultation. All RSC members

and key stakeholders were invited to participate in June

2008, September 2008 and November 2008. Stakeholder

and public engagement specialists Dialogue by Design

were commissioned to carry out and manage the online

consultation process on behalf of the RSC. Over 1300

individuals registered their interest to participate and

submitted over 2000 comments.

In the first stage participants were invited to comment

on, contest and add depth to a series of key societal

challenges and potential opportunities for the chemical

sciences that were identified during earlier workshop

stages. In the second stage participants were invited to

review all the submissions to the first phase. For each

priority area participants were also asked to comment

on a series of timelines, where the main opportunities

for the chemical sciences have been mapped to a 15

year time horizon. The final phase gave participants the

opportunity to evaluate the process.

This was supplemented by the views of our substantial

and varied member network groups, which were

collected during various stages of the project and at the

RSC’s Annual General Assembly in Birmingham in

November 2008. At the General Assembly members

helped determine which of the 41 challenges the RSC

would be best placed to lead. This list was further

prioritised by an online survey in December 2008, where

1350 people participated. A total of 10 challenges were

identified for the RSC to focus on over the coming years.

April 2008 Scoping group workshop – A workshop to develop clear visions and issues for each

priority area, as defined by the steering group, and to explore new lines of enquiry.

May 2008 Exploration workshops – Facilitated workshops that allowed the RSC to better

understand the potential of a series of new lines of inquiry, which encompassed and

expanded the initial priority areas.

June 2008 Crafting and articulating workshop – A workshop to bring together all the big

thoughts and themes that emerged throughout the scoping group and exploration

workshops and current RSC policy work. These defined the challenges and potential

opportunities for the chemical sciences for each priority area.

June–July 2008 Online consultation 1 – Online consultation to comment on the challenges and

potential opportunities for chemical sciences for each of the priority areas.

September 2008 Online consultation 2 – Online consultation to review responses to the first session and

subsequent revised challenges and opportunities for the science focused Priority Areas.

To comment on a series of identified priorities mapped against a timeline for each priority

area and provide input to the implementation phase.

November 2008 Online evaluation – Participants were given the opportunity to evaluate the process.

December 2008 Prioritisation exercise – Online survey to determine which of the 41 challenges relating

to the seven priority areas identified during the project the RSC should lead on.

RSC-BTL-962 28/7/09 15:34


A2 Energy

Energy efficiency

Challenge

Improvements are needed in the efficiency with which electricity is generated, transmitted and energy is used.

Potential opportunities for the chemical sciences

• Further developments in materials chemistry

• Develop superconducting materials which operate at higher temperatures

• Develop cheaper, better insulating materials, including recycled materials

• Use nanotechnology and other methods to increase the strength to weight ratio of structural materials

• Develop more efficient lighting – eg OLEDs

• Develop smart windows

• Developing novel/more efficient coatings, lubricants and composites

• Improve energy intensive processes through process optimisation; process intensification; new process routes,

including developing new catalysts; and improved separation technologies

• Improve fuel economy: develop high performance catalysts and next generation fuels

Energy conversion and storage

Challenge

The performance of energy conversion and storage technologies (fuel cells, batteries, electrolysis and

supercapacitors) needs to be improved to enable better use of intermittent renewable electricity sources and

the development/deployment of sustainable transport.


• Reduce production and material costs

• Use self assembly methods

• Replace expensive materials

• Increase calendar and cycle lives, recyclability and durability

• Improve modelling of thermodynamics and kinetics

• Improve power density

• Improve energy density

• Advance the fundamental science and understanding of surface chemistry

• Replace strategic materials to ensure security of supply – ie platinum

• Develop enzymatic synthesis of nanomaterials

• Improve safety of devices – ie problems associated with overheating

• Decrease the cycle time of batteries – ie charging time needs to be reduced

• Develop material recycling strategies

RSC-BTL-962 28/7/09 15:34


Fossil fuels

Challenge

Current fossil fuel usage is unsustainable and associated with greenhouse gas production. More efficient use of

fossil fuels and the by-products are required alongside technologies that ensure minimal environmental impact.


• Further research and development of carbon capture and storage (CCS) technologies

• Research alternatives to amine absorption, including polymers, activated carbons or fly ashes for removing CO2

from dilute flue gases

• Further research the storage options for CO2 – ie in ageing oilfields, saline aquifers or unmineable coal seams

• Advance the understanding of corrosion and long term sealing of wells

• Improve understanding of the behaviour, interactions and physical properties of CO2 under storage conditions

• Research the options for CO2 as a feedstock – ie converting CO2 to useful chemicals

• Research the integration of CCS technologies with new and existing combustion and gasification plants

• Further research into extracting and processing crude oil is required

• Improve the understanding of the physical chemistry of oil, water and porous rock systems for enhanced oil

recovery technology

• Develop novel chemical additives to improve water flooding and miscible gas injection

• Utilise unconventional oil reserves by better understanding the chemistry and physics of reservoirs and

petroleum fluids

• Develop improved catalysts and separation and conversion processes for production of ultra-low sulfur fuels

• Develop tailored separation technologies for clean, atom efficient refineries

• Further research and development of clean coal technologies is required

• Short term: develop advanced materials for plant design – ie corrosion resistant materials for use in flue gas

desulfurisation (FGD) systems

• Develop better catalysts for emissions control, particularly SO2 and NOx

• Improve understanding of corrosion and ash deposition

• Improve process monitoring, equipment design and performance prediction tools to improve power plant

efficiency

• Develop advanced coal products – ie improved briquetted domestic fuel with lower emissions for use in

domestic dwellings

• Medium term: improved materials for supercritical and advanced gasification plants

• Develop gasification technologies

• Interface various power generation plants with fuel cells and carbon capture and storage technologies to

move towards zero emissions technology

• Further research and development of natural gas processing

• Develop gas purification technologies

• Improve high temperature materials for enhanced efficiency and performance

• Develop catalysts for improved combustion and emissions clean-up

RSC-BTL-962 28/7/09 15:34


Nuclear energy

Challenge

Nuclear energy generation is a critical medium term solution to our energy challenges. The technical challenge is

for the safe and efficient harnessing of nuclear energy, exploring both fission and fusion technology.


• Research methods for the efficient and safe utilisation of nuclear fission

• Advance the understanding of the physico-chemical effects of radiation on material fatigue, stresses and

corrosion in nuclear power stations

• Improve methods for spent fuel processing including developing advanced separation technologies, which

will allow unprecedented control of chemical selectivity in complex environments

• Design and demonstrate the new generation of advanced reactors including GEN IV based fuel cycles using

actinide-based fuels

• Study the nuclear and chemical properties of the actinide and lanthanide elements

• Improve understanding of radiation effects on polymers, rubbers and ion exchange materials

• Nuclear fusion

• Develop high performance structural materials capable of withstanding extreme operating conditions

Nuclear waste

Challenge

The problems of storage and disposal of new and legacy radioactive waste remain. Radioactive waste needs to be

reduced, safely contained and opportunities for re-use explored.


• Improved processes for nuclear waste separation and reuse

• Develop areas of reprocessing chemistry – ie recycling of spent fuel into its constituents of U, Pu and fission

products

• Use actinide separation chemistry in nuclear waste streams – eg zeolites for sorption, membranes, supercritical

fluids, molten salts

• Understand solids formation and precipitation behaviour and a reduction in the number and volume of

secondary waste streams through developing non-aqueous processes

• Research into the UK’s legacy and new nuclear waste storage options

• Use wasteform chemistry (including the science of materials used in immobilising nuclear waste materials) to

solve waste management issues

• Develop new and improved methods and means of storing waste in the intermediate and long term,

including new materials with high radiation tolerance

• Improve understanding of long term ageing and development of microstructural properties of cements,

waste/cement interaction and the corrosion of metallic components in cement materials used in storing

intermediate level waste

• Study methods of waste containment for storage in a geological site

• Methods for nuclear plant decommissioning and site remediation

• Research into environmental chemistry (hydro-geochemistry, radio-biogeochemistry and biosphere chemistry)

issues

• Methods for effective and safe post-operational clean-out of legacy facilities

RSC-BTL-962 28/7/09 15:34


Biopower and biofuels

Challenge

Fuels, heat or electricity must be produced from biological sources in a way that is economic (and therefore

efficient at a local scale), energetically (and green-house gas) efficient, environmentally friendly and not

competitive with food production.


• Develop tools to measure impacts of biofuels over entire life cycle (Life cycle analysis) – ie impacts of land use

change

• Genetically engineer plants to produce appropriate waste products and high value chemical products

• Genetically engineer plants to grow on land (or sea) that is unsuitable for any food crops

• Genetically engineer plants with increased efficiency of photosynthesis, increased yields and requiring lower

carbon inputs

• Develop better pre-treatment technologies to improve the handling/ storage of biomass

• Improve bio-refinery processes

• Improve modelling and analytical methods

• Improve ways of hydrolysing diversified biomass and lignocellulose

• Improve extraction of high value chemicals before energy extraction

• Improve thermochemical processes, including developing better catalysts, microbes and enzymes

• Improve flexibility of feedstock and output (electricity, heat, chemicals, fuel or a combination)

• Develop methods of producing fuel from new sources such as algae or animal and other wastes

• Develop ways of managing the bio-refineries waste streams so as to minimise environmental impact

• Develop engine technology and improve understanding of surface technology to improve efficiency of biofuels

for transport

RSC-BTL-962 28/7/09 15:34


Hydrogen

Challenge

The generation and storage of hydrogen are both problematic. Developing new materials and techniques so that

we can safely and efficiently harness hydrogen will be required to enable its use as an energy vector, appropriately

scaled to different applications.


• Improve efficiency of splitting water via electrolysis, using electricity preferably from renewables

• Develop improved electrode surfaces for electrolysers and materials of construction

• Find uses for the by-product O2

• Investigate methods of photocatalytic water electrolysis

• Light harvesting systems must have suitable energetics to drive the electrolysis

• Systems must be stable in an aqueous environment

• Improve efficiency of H2 production from the thermochemical splitting of water

• Research into new heat exchange materials

• Improve the understanding of the fundamental high temperature kinetics and thermodynamics

• Research the production of biochemical hydrogen generation

• Discovery new microorganisms or genetically modify existing organisms and improve culture conditions for

hydrogen production by fermentation or photosynthesis

• Develop using microorganisms in microbial fuel cells to generate hydrogen from waste

• New efficient bio-inspired catalysts for use in fuel cells

• Research into the safe and efficient storage of hydrogen

• Fuel cells (see Energy conversion & storage)

• New nanostructured materials, such as carbon nanotubes, or metal hydride complexes

• Research methods of implementing a hydrogen national infrastructure

• Better materials for fuel cells and for on-board hydrogen storage

• Large-scale H2 production processes using renewable or low-carbon energy sources

RSC-BTL-962 28/7/09 15:34


Solar energy

Challenge

A source of energy many more times abundant than required by man, harnessing the free energy of the sun can

provide a clean and secure supply of electricity, heat and fuels. Development of existing technologies to become

more cost efficient and developing the next generation of solar cells is vital to realise the potential of solar energy.


• Improvements to the design of current ‘first generation’ photovoltaic cells

• Develop lower energy, higher yield and lower cost routes to silicon refining

• Develop a lower CO2-emission process to the carbo-thermic reduction of quartzite

• Develop more efficient or environmentally benign chemical etching processes for silicon wafer processing

• Base-metal solutions to replace the current domination of silver printed metallisation used in almost all of

today’s first-generation devices

• Improvements to ‘second generation’ thin-film photovoltaics

• Improve the reaction yield for silane reduction to amorphous silicon films

• Research alternative materials and environmentally sound recovery processes for thin cadmium-containing

films on glass

• Research sustainable alternatives to indium

• Develop processes to improved deposition of transparent conducting film on glass.

• Develop third-generation photovoltaic materials based on molecular, polymeric and nano-phase materials for

significantly more efficient and stable devices, suitable for continuous deposition on flexible substrates.

• Develop high efficiency concentrator photovoltaic (CPV) systems

• Improve Concentrated Solar Power (CSP) plants used to produce electricity or hydrogen.

New thermal energy storage systems using pressurised water and low cost materials will enable

on-demand generation day and night.

• Research into producing ‘Solar fuels’

• Improve photoelectrochemical cells in which photovoltaics are coupled to the electrolysis of water to

generate hydrogen

• Research aimed at mimicking photosynthesis to generate hydrogen or carbohydrates.

Requires developing light harvesting, charge separation and catalyst technology

• Improve photobioreactors and photosynthetic organisms (algae and cyanobacteria) for generating hydrogen

or for processing to biofuels

RSC-BTL-962 28/7/09 15:34


Wind and water

Challenge

Since power generation yields from tide, waves, hydro and wind turbines are intermittent and geographically

restricted, effective energy supply from these natural world sources needs further development to minimise costs

and maximise benefits.


• Develop embedded sensors/sensing materials, which allow instant safeguarding of wind towers

• Develop lightweight durable composite materials, coatings and lubricants

• Develop technologies for salinity-gradient energy, also called blue energy, working either on the principle of

osmosis (the movement of water from a low salt concentration to a high salt concentration) or electrodialysis

(the movement of salt from a highly concentrated solution to a low concentrated solution). This requires further

developments that reduce the cost or improve the efficiency of membranes to improve significantly the

economics of this process

• Further develop ocean technologies for producing electricity including tidal barrages, tidal current turbines and

wave turbines

• Develop long lasting protective coatings, required to reduce maintenance costs and prolong operating life of

wave, wind and tidal energy devices

RSC-BTL-962 28/7/09 15:34


A3 Food

Agricultural productivity

Challenge

A rapidly expanding world population, increasing affluence in the developing world, climate volatility and limited

land and water availability mean we have no alternative but to significantly and sustainably increase agricultural

productivity to provide food, feed, fibre and fuel.


Agricultural productivity is broken down into six sub-challenges:

1. Pest control

Challenge: Up to 40 per cent of agricultural productivity would be lost without effective use of crop protection

chemicals. Agriculture is facing emerging and resistant strains of pests. The development of new crop protection

strategies is essential.

• New high-potency, more targeted agrochemicals with new modes of action that are safe to use, overcome

resistant pests and are environmentally benign

• Formulation technology for new mixtures of existing actives, and to ensure a consistent effective dose is

delivered at the right time and in the right quantity

• Develop better pest control strategies, including the using pheromones, semiochemicals and allelochemicals, as

well as GM and pesticides

• Pesticides tailored to the challenges of specific plant growth conditions – eg hydroponics

• Reduce chemical crop protection strategies through GM crops

2. Plant science

Challenge: Increasing yield and controlling secondary metabolism by better understanding plant science.

• Understand and exploit biochemical plant signals for developing new crop defence technologies

• Improve the understanding of carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus and sulfur cycling to help optimise carbon and

nitrogen sequestration and benefit plant nutrition

• Understand plant growth regulators

• Develop secondary metabolites for food and industrial use

• Understand the impact of nutrients at the macro and micro level

• Exploit the outputs of this understanding using biotechnology

• Nitrogen and water usage efficiency – eg drought resistant crops for better water management

• Better yields of components for biofuels and feedstocks through the use of modern biotechnology

3. Soil science

Challenge: Understanding the structural, chemical and microbiological composition of soil and its interactions with

plants and the environment.

• Develop fertiliser formulations able to improve the retention of nitrogen in soil and uptake into plants

• Optimise farming practices by understanding the biochemistry of soil ecosystems, for example, the chemistry of

nitrous oxide emissions from soil, the mobility of chemicals within soil, and partition between soil, water, vapour,

roots and other soil components

• Improve the understanding of methane oxidation by bacteria (methanotrophs) in soil to help in developing

methane-fixing technologies

• Understand soil structure – mechanical properties of soils and nutrient flow

• Low energy synthesis of nitrogen and phosphorus-containing fertilisers – alternatives to Haber–Bosch

RSC-BTL-962 28/7/09 15:34


4. Water

Challenge: Coping with extremes of water quality and availability for agriculture.

• Use grey water in agriculture

• Targeted use of water in agriculture (drip delivery)

5. Effective farming

Challenge: Minimising inputs and maximising outputs through agronomic practice

• Develop rapid in situ biosensor systems that can monitor soil quality and nutrients, crop ripening, crop diseases and

water availability to pinpoint nutrient deficiencies, target applications and improve the quality and yield of crops

• Analyse climate change parameters – eg greenhouse gases and seawater salinity, generates input for predictive

models, which can identify changing conditions for agronomy providing valuable data for planting new crops

• Precision agriculture at the field level

• Engineering tools for on farm practices – eg grain drying, seed treatment and crop handling

6. Livestock and aquaculture

Challenge: Optimised feed conversion and carcass composition.

• Develop new vaccines and veterinary medicines to treat the diseases (old/new/emerging) of livestock and

farmed fish – ie zoonoses

• Aquaculture production for food and industrial use (including algae)

• Understand feed in animals: feed conversion via nutrigenomics of the animal and bioavailability of nutrients

• Formulation engineering for delivery and minor component release and reduced waste –

ie phosphorus in pigs & fish

• Genetic engineering

• Genetic analysis for conventional breeding – Qualitative Trait Loci (QTL)

RSC-BTL-962 28/7/09 15:34


Healthy food

Challenge

We need to better understand the interaction of food intake with human health and to provide food that is better

matched to personal nutrition requirements.


• Understand the chemical transformations taking place during processing, cooking and fermentation processes,

that will help to maintain and improve palatability and acceptance of food products by consumers

• Develop novel satiety signals, for example, safe fat-replacements that produce the taste and texture of fat

• Technology to produce sugar replacements and natural low calorie sweeteners to improve nutrition and

combat obesity

• Model the whole digestive tract to research the digestion of new food and ingredients

• Understand the role of gut microflora in sustaining health and the role of probiotics and prebiotics in promoting

health

• Further develop and understand fortified and functional food with specific health benefits, and the impact of

minor nutrients on health

• Better understand formulation technology for the controlled release of macro- and micronutrients and removing

unhealthy content in food

• Nutrigenomics and nutrigenetics to satisfy individual genotype, optimise nutrition and health, protect against

disease and identify allergenic responses

• Develop diets for specific groups, such as neonates, adolescents and the elderly

• Use of the glycaemic load of food in understanding nutrition and the role of glucose in health and the onset of

type II diabetes

• Better understand the nutritional content of all foods so that we can produce food more efficiently for the

life-stage nutritional requirements of humans, livestock and fish

• Formulate for sensory benefit

• Formulation science to increase nutritional content of food

• More nutritious crops through GM technologies

• Target food composition for immune health

RSC-BTL-962 28/7/09 15:34


Food safety

Challenge

Consumers need to be given 100 per cent confidence in the food they eat.


• Better understand the links between diet and cancer. For example, research into naturally occurring carcinogens

in food such as acrylamide and mutagenic compounds formed in cooking

• Develop microsensors in food packaging to measure food quality, safety, ripeness and authenticity and to

indicate when the 'best before' or 'use-by' date has been reached

• Harness analytical chemistry to design rapid, real-time screening methods, microanalytical techniques and other

advanced detection systems to screen for chemicals, allergens, toxins, veterinary medicines, growth hormones

and microbial contamination of food products and on food contact surfaces

• Efficacy testing and food safety of new food additives, such as natural preservatives and antioxidants

• Domestic hygiene – visible signalling

• Irradiation for removing bacterial pathogens and preventing food spoilage

• Chemical labelling to enable traceability – rapid fingerprint methods

• Understand the effects of prolonged exposure to food ingredients

RSC-BTL-962 28/7/09 15:34


Process efficiency

Challenge

The manufacture, processing, distribution and storage of food have significant and variable energy and other

resource requirements. We need to find and use technologies to make this whole process much more efficient

with respect to energy and other inputs.


Process efficiency is broken down into two sub-challenges:

1. Food manufacturing

Challenge: Building highly efficient and sustainable small scale manufacturing operations.

• Storage technologies

• Develop new, more efficient refrigerant chemicals that will help avoid environmental damage and save energy

• Increase efficiency of refrigeration technology at all stages in the supply-chain – eg super-chilling as an

alternative to freezing

• Develop ambient storage technologies for fresh produce

• Develop improved food preservation methods for liquids and solids, including rapid chilling and heating, and

salting

• Intensify food production processes by scaling down and combining process steps

• Improve process control to raise production standards and minimise variability

• Develop routes for by-product and co-product processing to reduce waste and recover value

• Develop milder extraction and separation technologies with lower energy requirements

• Develop technologies to minimise energy input at all stages of production – eg high pressure processing and

pulsed electric fields

• Optimise the forces needed to clean surfaces during food processing – new surface coating technologies to

minimise fouling and to minimise energy requirements for cleaning

• Methods for the synthesis of food additives and processing aids

• Understand and inhibit the chemistry of food degradation

• Chemical stabilisation technologies for produce, including both their formulation and delivery

2. Food distribution

Challenge: Optimising methods to distribute foods by minimising energy requirements and environmental impact.

• Life cycle analysis – mapping carbon footprints

• Sensors to monitor food stuffs in transport

• Quality measurement and control: analytical techniques to detect pesticide residues, adulteration and confirm

traceability

RSC-BTL-962 28/7/09 15:34


Supply chain waste

Challenge

There is an unacceptable amount of food wasted in all stages of the supply chain. We need to find ways to

minimise this or use it for other purposes.


• Use analytical methods to support Lifecycle Analyses of the environmental impact of individual food products,

packaging and materials

• Extract and apply valuable ingredients from food waste – eg enzymes, hormones, phytochemicals, probiotics

cellulose and chitin

• Polymer chemistry to develop new biodegradable, recyclable or multifunctional packaging materials, to reduce

environmental damage and the quantity of packaging used in the supply-chain

• Understand the biochemical processes involved in produce ripening and food ageing, enabling shelf-life

prediction and extension

• Develop new methods for the efficient use, purification and cost-effective recovery of water in food processing,

leading to water-neutral factories

• Develop efficient anaerobic treatment plants to process farm, abattoir and retail waste, to generate biogas

• Use waste products as feedstock for packaging material, for example, the producing a novel biodegradable

plastic material made from epoxides and CO2

• Develop biodegradable or recyclable, flexible films for food packaging – eg corn starch, polylactic acid or

cellulose feedstock, able to withstand the chill-chain, consumer handling, storage and final use – eg microwave

or conventional oven

• Develop functional and intelligent packaging films providing specific protection from moisture, bacteria and

lipids, improving texture and acting as carriers for various components – eg nanotechnologies

• Packaging for food that is compatible with anaerobic digestors

• Recycle mixed plastics used in food packaging to recover monomers

• Sensors to replace inaccurate sell-by dates

RSC-BTL-962 28/7/09 15:34


A4 Future cities

Resources

Challenge

Cities place huge demands on waste, water and air quality management. We need technologies that help provide

healthy, clean, sustainable urban environments.


Monitoring and improving air quality

• Catalysts for efficient conversion of greenhouse gases with high global warming potential (in particular N2O, CH4

and O3), including those that occur in dilute process streams

• Develop low cost, localised sensor networks for monitoring atmospheric pollutants, which can be dispersed

throughout developed and developing urban environments

• Improve catalysts for destroying pollutants, in particular CO, NOx, hydrocarbons, VOC, particulate matter

• Advanced end of pipe treatment, including separation methods, catalysis and using plasma surface etching etc

• Healthy buildings:

• Air quality management (sensor technologies coupled to ventilation system)

• Functionalised surfaces for decomposing VOCs in homes

Monitoring and improving the quality of and conserving water

• Purify drinking water, targeting the conversion and removal of a wide variety of substances at low

concentrations

• Increase local use of grey water

• Detergents designed for grey water reuse

• Treatments for grey water remediation

Reducing waste

• Increase the proportion of city waste to be recycled – eg improve processes for recycling plastics, electronics and

organic matter – ie composted or processed to become a fuel

• Use/develop low environmental impacting materials – eg recyclable or easily disposable plastics, which are

designed to be compatible with recycling methods

• Soil remediation through applying (bio) catalysts

• Synthetic biology application of bioremediation for the clean up of toxic spills

Generic issues

• Smart devices that can sense, intervene and 'correct'

• Environmental monitoring

• Sensors for checking for ‘leaks’ in distribution systems

RSC-BTL-962 28/7/09 15:34


Home energy generation

Challenge

Most homes rely upon inefficient energy technologies. We need to develop new technologies and strategies for

local (home) energy generation and storage with no net CO2 emissions.


• Using alternative energy sources

• More flexible low cost photovoltaics based on ‘first generation’ silicon materials

• New solar panel production approaches, hybrid materials, new electrodes, photovoltaic paints

• Biogas fuel cells

• CHP units for small residences/homes using a variety of fuels – ie renewables/waste

• Harnessing thermal energy – eg excess heat from car engines

• Harvesting geothermal energy through improved heat transfer and anti-corrosion materials

• Superior domestic batteries and alternative energy storage approaches

• Lithium batteries based on alternative electrodes/electrolytes and polymers – eg nanostructured

electrode materials of high specific capacity, mesoporous carbon electrodes and electronically

conducting polymer electrodes

• Develop design concepts and new materials for microsized batteries for mobile and portable

electronic devices

• Fuel cells: PEM & DMFC; mesoporous carbon supported catalysts; electronically conducting polymer

supported catalysts; novel catalysts containing low or no noble metal content. Develop thin film deposition

and patterning techniques

• Hydrogen storage

• Technology approaches such as supercapacitors

Home energy use

Challenge

Current and evolving technologies could significantly reduce the burden of buildings/homes on energy consumption.


• Ubiquitous on-board power sources for low energy-density devices

• Intelligent ICT components and sensors able to respond to parameter changes in temperature, light intensity etc

requiring new conductive/non conductive polymers and flat lightweight displays

• Nanocoatings for decorations

• Photochromic coatings for glass

• Appliances with improved energy efficiency

• Light and energy management technologies

• Develop LEDs and OLEDs

• Nanoscale controlled deposition (microcontact printing, nanotemplate patterning etc) on thin films and

integration into products like self-cleaning surfaces

RSC-BTL-962 28/7/09 15:34



Challenge

We need to use materials for construction (such as for roads and buildings), which consume fewer resources in

their production, and confer additional benefits in their use, and may be used for new build and for retrofitting

older buildings.


• New materials for designing new buildings and structures

• Functionalised materials

• Functionalised building materials/surfaces that perform detoxification: low temperature nanoscale catalysts

designed to decompose volatile organic compounds

• Functional textiles requiring lightweight and low cost nonporous systems, and self-healing and self-cleaning

nanocoatings

• Anechoic building materials to provide non-flammable sound insulation and reduce urban stress

• Smart building materials integrated with intelligent ICT components and sensors able to respond to

parameter changes (such as changes in temperature)

• Insulating materials

• Develop new high performance insulating materials – eg aerogel nanofoams

• Develop self-cleaning materials

• Develop intrinsically low energy materials

• Develop innovative (low temperature/low CO2 emissions) cement compositions based on recycled materials

• Recyclability and reduced dependence on strategic materials

Mobility

Challenge

Urban transport is fuel inefficient and environmentally damaging. Enormous societal benefits will flow from scientific

and technological solutions to these problems.


• Reduce CO2 emissions from transport

• Eco-efficient hybrid vehicles will require new energy storage systems (enhanced lithium batteries and

supercapacitors)

• Catalysts for COx, NOx, SOx decomposition

• Develop lubricant and fuel formulations that increase the fuel economy of vehicles

• Develop new recyclable materials for the lightweight construction of vehicles (thermoplastic foams, organic

fillers-based thermoplastic composites) including alternative assembly/disassembly methodologies without

compromising safety

• Improve the internal combustion engine through developing and using new materials to reduce wear and

friction, and combustion/additive chemistry

• Smart polymers as actuators – integrating the power source and the machine movement

• New tyre technologies to reduce fuel consumption and reduce noise

• Improve sensor technologies for engine management and pollution/emission gas detection

• Reduce pollution from air transport

• Alternative catalyst technologies compatible with jet engines

• Catalysts for fuel quality and emissions control for ships

• Coatings for reducing friction

RSC-BTL-962 28/7/09 15:34


ICT

Challenge

Public and business demand outstrips the current capacity of the existing ICT infrastructure, creating opportunities

for the successful commercial application of technological innovations.


• Data storage

• Information storage: holographic storage, by means of new molecular and polymeric materials; DNA-based

and protein-based biological switches; molecular switches and photoresponsive devices

• Miniaturisation for device size and speed

• Integrate nanostructures in device materials

• Self assembly of biological and non-biological components to produce complex devices such as biosensors,

memory devices, switchable devices that respond to the environment, enzyme responsive materials,

nanowires, hybrid devices, self assembly of computing devices, smart polymers

• Polymers for high density fabrication: identify suitable materials meeting resolution, throughput and other

processing requirements

• Printed electronics

• High density, low electrical resistance, interconnect materials to enable ultra high speed, low power

communication: metallic nanowires; metallic carbon nanotubes

• Lightweight materials for ICT

• Power management

• Nanomaterials for power management; identify mechanisms for the self assembly of low resistance

interconnects, and high-k dielectric materials with low electrical leakage

• Reduce, recycle and reuse of materials used in information and communication technology

• Reduce dependence on strategic materials


Challenge

Technology must increase its role in ensuring people feel and are safe in their homes and the wider community. High

population densities increase the potential impact of environmental and security threats.


• Chemical and biological sensors: remote, rapid, miniaturised and reactive sensors; sensor networks; chemical

analogue of CCTV that could for example trace narcotics or the geographical movements of suspects; home

security networks; miniaturised analytical detectors to carry out range of functions as components of portable

consumer articles; hybrid biological devices, such as cheap biosensors that can communicate the information

needed made from the self assembly of biological and non-biological components

• Crime: evolutionary, real time information rich crime scene profiles; advances in DNA profiling/fingerprint

technology, ‘Lab on a chip’

• Develop high performance protective materials for civil protection practitioners – eg police

• Novel detection technologies to identify counterfeit products: drugs; money; high value products

• Data handling and sharing – chemometrics

• Chemical biometrics

• Early detection of potential pandemic diseases through developing effective and rapid analytical techniques

RSC-BTL-962 28/7/09 15:34


A5 Human health

Ageing

Challenge

With an ageing population, we need to enhance our life-long contribution to society and improve our quality of life.


• Prevent, treat and control chronic diseases – eg cancer, Alzheimer's, diabetes, dementia, obesity, arthritis,

cardiovascular, Parkinson's, osteoporosis)

• Focus on preventative intervention – eg statins, flu jab – what next?

• Improve the understanding of the impact of nutrition and lifestyle – eg nutraceuticals – on future health and

quality of life

• Develop practical non-invasive bio-monitoring tools – eg breath, urine, saliva, sweat

• Identify relevant biomarkers and sensitive analytical tools for early diagnosis

• Assisted living: design devices for drug delivery, packaging, incontinence, compliance, physical balance and

recreation

• Develop new materials for cost effective, high performance prosthetics – eg artificial organs, tissues,

eye lenses etc

Diagnostics

Challenge

We need to enable earlier diagnosis and develop improved methods of monitoring disease.


• Develop sensitive detection techniques for non-invasive diagnosis

• Develop cost effective information-rich point-of-care diagnostic devices

• Develop cost effective diagnostics for regular health checks and predicting susceptibility

• Identify relevant biomarkers and sensitive analytical tools for early diagnostics

• Understand the chemistry of disease onset and progression

• Research to enable the continuity of drug treatment over disease life cycles

• Focus treatment on targeted genotype rather than mass phenotype

• Increase the focus on chemical genetics

• Produce combined diagnostic and therapeutic devices – smart, responsive devices, detect infection and

respond to attack

RSC-BTL-962 28/7/09 15:34



Challenge

To prevent and minimise acquired infections, we need to improve the techniques, technologies and practices of the

anti-infective portfolio.


• Improve understanding of viruses and bacteria at a molecular level

• Accelerate discovery of anti-infective and anti-bacterial agents

• Develop fast, cheap and effective sensors for bacterial infection

• Develop new generation materials for clinical environments – eg paint, coatings

• Detect and reduce airborne pathogens – eg material for air filters and sensors

• Improve ability to control and deal quickly with new genetic/resistant strains

• Produce novel synthetic vaccines more rapidly

• Improve understanding of the translation of disease across species


Challenge

Orthopaedic implants and prosthetics need to be fully exploited to enhance and sustain function fully.


• Research polymer and biocompatible material chemistry for surgical equipment, implants and artificial limbs

• Research biological macromolecule materials as templates and building blocks for fabricating new (nano)

materials/devices

• Develop smarter and/or bio-responsive drug delivery devices – eg for diabetes, chronic pain relief,

cardiovascular, asthma

• Use synthetic biology for targeted tissue regeneration

• Develop tissue engineering and stem cell research for regenerative medicine

• Modulate neural activity, for example, by modifying neuron conduction, to allow the treatment of brain

degeneration in diseases such as Alzheimer’s

RSC-BTL-962 28/7/09 15:34


Drugs and therapies

Challenge

We need to harness and enhance basic sciences to help transform the entire drug discovery, development and

healthcare landscape so new therapies can be delivered more efficiently and effectively for the world.


• Chemical tools for enhancing clinical studies – eg non-invasive monitoring in vivo, biomarkers, contrast agents etc

• Design and synthesise small molecules that attenuate large molecule interactions eg protein–DNA interactions

• Understand the chemical basis of toxicology and hence derive 'Lipinski-like' guidelines for toxicology

• Integrate chemistry with biological entities for improved drug delivery and targeting (next generation biologics)

• Apply systems biology understanding for identifying new biological targets

Effectiveness and safety

• Understand communication within and between cells and the effects of external factors in vivo to combat

disease progression

• Monitor the effectiveness of a therapy to improve compliance

• Improve drug delivery systems through smart devices and/or targeted and non-invasive solutions

• Target particular disease cells through understanding drug absorption parameters within the body –

eg blood brain barrier

• Avoid adverse side effects through better understanding of the interaction between components of cocktails of

drugs

• Develop model systems to improve understanding of extremely complex biological systems and of how

interventions work in living systems over time

• Improve knowledge of the chemistry of living organisms including structural biology to ensure drug safety and

effectiveness

• Develop toxicogenomics to test drugs at a cellular and molecular level

Personalised medicine

Challenge

We need to be able to deliver specific, differentiated prevention and treatment on an individual basis.


• Apply advanced pharmacogenetics to personalised treatment regimes

• Use an individual’s genetic profile for diagnosis and treatment

• Develop sensitive molecular detectors, which can inform how physical interventions work in living systems over time

• Develop ‘lab-on-a-chip’ rapid personal diagnosis and treatment. Translate research advances into robust, low cost

techniques

• Develop practical non-invasive biomonitoring tools

RSC-BTL-962 28/7/09 15:34


A6 Lifestyle and recreation

Creative industries

Challenge

Continued innovation is necessary to give new options to designers, artists and architects.


• Develop new materials for restoring and protecting new and historical buildings

• Develop new materials for use in architecture, in designing new buildings and structures

• Developing new materials and applications for creative designers – eg dynamic systems that change colour,

texture or feel as desired

• Sustainable and renewable packaging coupled with emerging active and intelligent materials – eg developing

time, temperature, spoilage and pathogen indicator technologies

• Develop new dyes that are more stable and less toxic

• Better preservation & protection of materials, eg film and magnetic materials

• Use chemical science in preserving/restoring paintings and other cultural treasures: develop analysis techniques

to determine the compounds that comprise the colour pigments and materials

Household

Challenge

Household and personal care products that promote convenience and perceptions of well-being, or that deliver

household functionality, need to combine efficacy with safety and sustainability/ longevity.


• Continue to move formulation of household and personal care products from ‘black art’ to a more scientific basis

• Facilitate reformulation of household and consumer products to address safety and environmental concerns

• Further develop recyclable materials and building technologies including new materials for constructing houses

and their contents (floor covering, furniture etc)

• Develop self-cleaning materials for homes

• Reduce waste by rethinking systems and usage – eg less detergent in the water means less to dispose of

• Improved understanding of the chemical basis of toxicology in new/novel household products and their

breakdown in the environment to a level where good predictive models can be developed and used, such as

computational chemistry (safety assessment without the use of animals) for human and eco-toxicology

• Better understanding of the effect of dermatology and cosmetic ingredients at a molecular and cellular level

• Controllable surface adhesion at a molecular level. Switchable adhesion – eg self assembly furniture, self cleaning

materials, self hanging pictures and wall paper, which at the flick of a switch you can remove, replace or

disassemble

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Sporting technology

Challenge

We need to develop new materials that enable higher performance as an ultimate sporting goal, and bring a sense of

well-being to the wider and ageing population.


• Advance/develop materials chemistry for sporting equipment including protective wear

• Use active diagnostics and monitoring to assist personal performance – eg hormone levels

• Keeping sport and recreation accessible to the wider population, especially the ageing population through the

chemistry underlying healing, flexibility, aerobic performance etc


Challenge

Miniaturised electronic devices, with faster computer speeds and denser storage, need to be produced. This should be

coupled with developing sustainable electronic devices, which are recyclable, and have little dependence on materials

in increasingly short supply.


• Improve controlled deposition (microcontact printing, nanotemplate patterning etc) on thin films and integrate

into printed electronics

• Develop design concepts and new materials for microsized batteries for mobile and portable electronic devices

• Further enhance information storage technology – eg molecular switches with the potential to act as a

molecular binary code

• Develop biological and/or molecular computing

• Understand biomimicking self-assembling systems

• Printable (allowing dynamic re-configuration) electronics based on new molecular technologies

• Exploit the interface between molecular electronics and the human nervous system – eg using the brain to

switch on a light

• Advance display technology – eg flat lightweight and rollable displays – for a variety of applications

Textiles

Challenge

There is a need to move away from a conventional, low-cost, disposable fashion culture to new systems which provide

design scope, colour, feel, sustainability, longevity and new, low-cost fabrication routes.


• Functional textiles with superior energy balance and flexible use for garments, in the home and construction

industry, requiring lightweight and low cost systems, and self-healing and self-cleaning dynamic pigmenting

technologies

• New synthetic fibres from sustainable sources

• Biotherapeutic textiles – eg in wound dressing – building on currently available technology

• Textiles that respond to their environment

• New fabrication technologies (cf spray-on T-shirt)

RSC-BTL-962 28/7/09 15:34


A7 Raw materials and feedstocks

Sustainable design

Challenge

Our high level of industrial and domestic waste could be resolved with increased downstream processing and re-use.

To preserve resources, our initial design decisions should take account of the entire life cycle.


• Wider role of chemistry in product design for 4Rs (reduction, remanufacture, reuse, recycle)

• Technology for designing biodegradability into finished products

• Methods for tagging of polymers to aid recycling

• Wider training of chemists in sustainable design

• New composites that are readily recyclable

• Develop and apply smart coatings

• Develop improved recovery processes

• Manufacturing process intensification and optimisation

• Atom efficiency

• Green chemistry and chemical engineering

• Process modelling, analytics and control

• Improve life cycle assessment (LCA) tools and metrics

• Clear standards for LCA methods and data gathering

• Methods to assess recycled materials

• Tools to aid substitution of toxic substances

• Improve the understanding of ecotoxocity

• Better understand structure-property relationships

Conservation of scarce natural resources

Challenge

Raw material and feedstock resources for both existing industries and future applications are increasingly scarce.

We need to develop a range of alternative materials and associated new processes for the recovery of valuable

components.


• Recovery of metals

• Methods to recover metals from ‘e-waste’

• Extract metals from contaminated land/landfills

• Substitute key materials

• Select the most effective metal in high volume applications

• Improve fertiliser management of N and P

• Improve battery design and reduce dependence on finite metal resources – eg lithium

• Reduce material intensity

• Apply nanoscience to increase activity per unit mass

• Reduce raw material – ie thrifting

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Conversion of biomass feedstocks

Challenge

Biomass feedstocks (whether they are agricultural, marine or food waste) for the production of chemicals and fuels are

becoming more commercially viable. In the future, integrated bio-refineries using more than one biofeedstock will

yield energy, fuel and a range of chemicals with no waste being produced.


• Develop bioprocessing science for producing chemicals

• Methods for generating homogeneous feedstocks

• Improve biocatalytic process design

• Develop fermentation science to increase the variety and yield of products

• Metabolic engineering for improved biomass feedstock properties

• New separation technologies

• Membranes and sorbent extraction of valuable components from biological media

• Pre-treatment methods for biomass component separation

• Novel catalysts and biocatalysts for processing biomass

• New techniques for lignin and lignocellulose breakdown

• Microbial genomics to produce improved micro-organisms

• Pyrolysis and gasification techniques for pre-treatment and densification of biomass

• Catalysts for upgrading pyrolysis oil

• Technologies to exploit biomethane from waste

• Convert platform chemicals to high value products

• Oxygen and poison tolerant catalysts and enzymes

• New synthetic approaches to adapt to oxygen-rich, functional starting feedstocks


Challenge

There are limits to the current supply of chemical and fuel feedstocks from alternative sources. The conversion of

readily available, cheap feedstocks and waste into useful chemicals and fuels is an opportunity for chemical scientists.


• Small molecule activation

• CO2 as a feedstock – producing amino acids, formic acid and methanol

• Catalytic conversion of simple alkanes as a feedstock

• Biomimetic conversion of CO2, N2 and O2 to chemicals

• Artificial photosynthesis/solar energy conversion

• Recycling processes

• Novel separation and purification technologies for economic recycling

• Shift to viewing ‘waste’ as a raw material

• Genuine, innovative recycling technologies – ie not downcycling – especially for plastics

RSC-BTL-962 28/7/09 15:34


A8 Water and air


Challenge

Poor quality drinking water damages human health. Clean, accessible drinking water for all is a priority.


• Energy efficient point of use purification such as using disinfection processes and novel membrane technologies

• Develop portable technologies for analysing and treating contaminated groundwater that are effective and

appropriate for use by local populations – ie for testing arsenic contaminated groundwater

• Develop new instruments, sensors and analytical approaches and techniques to ensure consistent and

comparable measurement globally. For example, ongoing development of sensors for real time water quality

monitoring in distribution systems

• Develop energy efficient desalination technology

Water demand

Challenge

Population growth means greater demand on water supply. Household, agricultural and industrial demands are in

competition. Management and distribution strategies must ensure that clean water of an appropriate quality

remains economically accessible.


• Products designed to minimise water and energy use during their production and use through water

footprinting. This can be done by adopting, for example, the principles of green chemistry and the principles of

integrated pollution prevention and control, to industrial manufacture, with an aim of reducing waste, and

energy and water use

• Household products and appliances designed to work effectively with minimal water and energy demands and

include better water recycle systems

• Efficient, safe and low maintenance systems developed for industrial recycling of water

• Efficient water supply systems and anticorrosion technologies for pipework, including developing materials to

prevent leakages and water quality maintenance

• Better strategies for water use and re-use for agriculture systems

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Waste water

Challenge

Wastewater treatment needs to be made energy neutral and we need to enable the beneficial re-use of its

by-products.


• More energy efficient industrial waste water treatment technologies are needed potentially exploiting novel

membrane, catalytic and photochemical processes

• More efficient ways are needed of treating domestic waste water (to avoid the high energy input and sludge

generation associated with using biological processes). For example, developing a foul sewer network that can be

considered part of the treatment plant and works as a long, continuously monitored pipe reactor that treats water

in situ and maintains quality to the point of delivery

• Breakthroughs in membrane technology for microfiltration, ultrafiltration and reverse osmosis to reduce costs

significantly and improve process efficiency for removing particulates, precipitates and micro-organisms

• Novel coatings and chemicals for minimising corrosion in pipe-work, biofilm growth and deposition of solids such

as iron and manganese during water and wastewater treatment

• Develop processes for localised treatment and re-use of waste water to ensure that appropriate quality water is easily

accessible. Standards for rainwater and grey water identified so that coupled to appropriate localised treatment

rain/grey water can be harvested and used for secondary purposes such as toilet flushing or crop irrigation

Contaminants

Challenge

More research is required into the measurement, fate and impact of existing and emerging chemical contaminants.


• Study the breakdown of and transport of substances in the aquatic environment, including emerging

contaminants such as pharmaceuticals and nanoparticles

• Research into understanding the impact of contaminants on, and their interaction with biological systems

• Research into how, if possible, to assess the risk to the environment and human health of mixtures of chemicals

at low concentrations

• Identify the potential impact of climate change on contaminant fate and behaviour

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Challenge

Increasing anthropogenic emissions are affecting air quality and contributing to climate change. We need to

understand the chemistry of the atmosphere to be able to predict the impact of this with confidence and to enable us

to prevent and mitigate further changes.


• Develop novel techniques for studying reactive molecules that occur at ultra-low concentrations in the

atmosphere and are the agents of chemical change

• Understand, through developing novel techniques for studying sub-micron particles, how aerosols form and

change in the atmosphere, and their impacts on human health and climate

• Develop new chemical sensors for atmospheric gases and aerosols, which are cheap enough for widespread

deployment

• Provide the underpinning knowledge from laboratory studies to advance atmospheric chemistry models

• Develop new modelling methodologies for treating the enormous chemical complexity that occurs on regional

and global scales

• Study geo-engineering solutions to modify the Earth’s climate in response to rising greenhouse gas levels,

looking both at the effectiveness and undesirable environmental side-effects of these solutions

A9 Glossary of key terms

Priority Areas

Priority Areas are the key societal concerns on a national and global level, where the RSC and the chemical sciences can

have a role to play in providing innovative solutions.

Challenges

Within each priority area, 41 challenges for scientists, engineers and wider society have been defined as a result of the

workshops.

Opportunities

For each challenge, potential opportunities for the chemical sciences have been identified; these will be key in helping to

provide solutions.

RSC-BTL-962 28/7/09 15:34


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