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Chemistry 130 28/04/2013 19:36:00
Section 1.2
experiment: observation of natra! phenomena carrie" ot in
contro!!e" manner so res!ts can be "p!icate" an" rationa!
conc!sions can be ma"e
!a#: concise statement of fn"amenta! re!ationship or re$!arity of
natre
hypothesis: tentative exp!anation of some re$!arity of natre
theory: teste" exp!anation of basic natre phenomenon
o cannot be comp!ete!y proven
scientific metho": $enera! process of a"vancin$ scientific %no#!e"$e
Section 1.3
mass: &antity of matter
matter: #hatever occpies space an" is perceivab!e by senses !a# of conservation of mass: 'the tota! mass remains constant
"rin$ a chemica! chan$e(
#ei$ht: force of $ravity exerte" on ob)ect
Section 1.4
t#o princip!e #ays of c!assifyin$ matter
o physica! state *$as+ !i&i"+ so!i",
o chemica! constittion *e!ement+ compon"+ mixtre,
compressibi!ity/expansibi!ity "efine states
vapor: $aseos form of matter that norma!!y exists as !i&i" or so!i"
physica! chan$e: chan$e in form of matter+ bt not chemica!
i"entity
o "isso!vin$
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o "isti!!ation
chemica! chan$e/reaction: chan$e in #hich one or more forms of
matter are chan$e" in one or more ne# %in"s of matter
o rstin$
physica! property: characteristic that can be observe" #/o chan$in$chemica! i"entity
chemica! property: characteristic invo!vin$ chemica! chan$e
sbstance: matter that cannot be separate" frther by physica!
process
o a!#ays has same characteristic properties
mixtre: materia! that can be separate" frther by physica! process
o most materia!s
o has variab!e composition
o t#o types
hetero$eneos mixtre: mixtre #/ physica!!y "istinct
parts+ each #ith "istinct properties
homo$eneos mixtre *so!tion,: mixtre niform in
properties thro$hot $iven samp!es
Section 1.-
nit: fixe" stan"ar" of measrement
precision: c!oseness of set va!es obtaine" from simi!ar
measrements of i"entica! &antity accracy: c!oseness of sin$!e measrement to tre va!e
si$nificant fi$res: "i$its in measrement or ca!c!ation that inc!"e
a!! certain "i$its an" fina! "i$it #/ some ncertainty
nmber of si$nificant fi$res: nmber of "i$its reporte" for
measrement or ca!c!ation+ in"icatin$ precision
o r!es for contin$ on p. 16
o r!es for ca!c!ations on p. 16
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scientific notation: representation of nmber in 10n
exact nmber: nmber that arises #hen contin$ items or "efinin$
nits
ron"in$: proce"re of "roppin$ insi$nificant "i$its in ca!c!ation
Section 1.8 "imensiona! ana!ysis *factor!abe! metho",: metho" of ca!c!ation
#hich carries a!on$ nits of &antities
conversion factor: factor e&a! to 1 that converts to &antity
expresse" in nit to &antity expresse" in another nit
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Chemistry 130 28/04/2013 19:36:00
Section 2.1
atomic theory: a!tons exp!anation of strctre of matter as
"ifferent combinations of very sma!! partic!es
o a!! matter is compose" of in"ivisib!e atoms
atom: extreme!y sma!! partic!e of matter that retains its
i"entity "rin$ chemica! reaction
o an e!ement is compose" of on!y one type of atom+ #/ each
atom havin$ simi!ar properties
o a compon" is compose" of t#o or more e!ements chemica!!y
combine" in fixe" proportions
o a chemica! reaction is rearran$ement of atoms in reactin$
sbstances to pro"ce ne# combinations in forme"
sbstances atomic symbo!: one or t#o !etter notation se" to "esi$nate a
partic!ar e!ement
!a# of m!tip!e proportions: statement that #hen t#o e!ements
form more than one compon"+ then masses of one e!ement for
fixe" mass of other e!ement are in ratios of sma!! nmbers
Section 2.2
nc!es: atoms centra! core+ #hich is positive!y char$e" an"
constitte most mass
e!ectron: very !i$ht+ ne$ative!y char$e" partic!e otsi"e the nc!es
homson catho"e experiment
o sho#e" atoms #ere not in"ivisib!e
o bent beams
5therfor" $o!" foi! experiment
o some of the a!pha partic!es "ef!ecte" bac%
o nc!es is very sma!!+ so most partic!es #ent thro$h
Section 2.3
nc!es consists of both protons an" netrons atomic nmber: nmber of protons in atom
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proton: nc!ear partic!e that has positive char$e e&a! in ma$nit"e
to e!ectron+ bt has 1800 times more mass
e!ement: sbstance #hose atoms a!! have same atomic nmber
netron: nc!ear partic!e #/ no char$e+ bt mass e&a! to proton
mass nmber: tota! nmber of protons an" netrons in atom nc!i"e: atom characterie" by atomic nmber an" mass
isotopes: atoms #hose nc!ei have same atomic nmber+ bt
varyin$ masses
Section 2.4
a!ton acta!!y conte" avera$e atomic mass+ b/c of isotopes
o !imite" #/o mass spectrometer
atomic mass nit *am,: mass nit e&a! to 1/12 mass of carbon
12 atom
atomic mass: avera$e atomic mass
fractiona! abn"ance: fraction of tota! nmber of atoms of partic!ar
isotope
o can "etermine atomic mass of e!ement
Section 2.-
7en"e!eev an" 7eyer fon" in"epen"ent!y that e!ements co!" be
or$anie" by atomic mass not comp!ete!y tre
perio"ic tab!e: tab!ar arran$ement of e!ements in ro#s an"
co!mns+ #hich "emonstrates repetition of propertieso or$anie" by atomic nmber
perio": horionta! ro# on perio"ic tab!e
$rop: vertica! ro# on perio"ic tab!e
o main$rop/representative
o transition
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o innertransition
!anthani"es
actini"es
e!ements in same $rop have simi!ar properties
meta!: sbstance that has characteristic !ster an" acts #e!! ascon"ctor of heat an" e!ectricity
nonmeta!: e!ement that "oes not exhibit meta! characteristics
meta!!oi"/semimeta!: e!ement #/ both meta! an" nonmeta!
properties
Section 2.6
chemica! form!a: notation sin$ atomic symbo!s #/ nmeric
sbscripts to convey proportion of e!ements in sbstance
mo!ec!e: "efinite $rop of chemica!!y bon"e" atoms
o mo!ec!ar sbstance: sbstance consistin$ of a!i%e mo!ec!es
mo!ec!ar form!a: exact nmber of e!ement in mo!ec!e
mo!ec!es are not pi!e" ran"om!y strctra! form!a
po!ymer: very !ar$e mo!ec!e ma"e of sma!!er mo!ec!es !in%e"
to$ether
monomer: sma!! mo!ec!e !in%e" to$ether to form po!ymer
po!ymers are important+ as they are se" "ai!y
ion: e!ectronica!!y char$e" partic!e obtaine" from atom or $rop of
atoms by a""in$/removin$ e!ectronso anion ne$ative!y char$e"
o cation positive!y char$e"
ionic compon": compon" compose" of cations an" anions
form!a nit: $rop of atoms or ions exp!icit!y symbo!ie"
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Section 2.
or$anic compon": sbstance containin$ carbon #/ other e!ement
hy"rocarbon: compon"s containin$ on!y hy"ro$en an" carbon
fnctiona! $rop: reactive portion of mo!ec!e that n"er$oes
pre"ictab!e reactions Section 2.8
chemica! nomenc!atre: systematic namin$ of chemica! compon"s
inor$anic compon"s: compon"s #/o carbon
monatomic ion: ion forme" from sin$!e atom
po!yatomic ion: ion consistin$ of t#o or more atoms chemica!!y
bon"e" to$ether an" carryin$ e!ectric char$e
oxoaci": aci" containin$ hy"ro$en+ oxy$en+ an" another e!ement
hy"rate: compon" that contains #ater bon" as crysta!s
Section 2.9
chemica! e&ation: symbo!ic representation of chemica! reaction in
terms of chemica! form!as
o reactant/pro"ct
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Section 3.1
mo!ec!ar #ei$ht *7;,: sm of atomic #ei$hts of a!! atoms in
mo!ec!e of sbstance mo!ec!ar compon"
o ex. #ater 2*1,,: nmber of atoms in 12 $ samp!e of
C12+ #hich is 6.02x10
23
simi!ar to ho# "oen is 12 an" $ross is 144
mo!ar mass: mass of one mo!e of sbstance+ #hich is e&a! to
form!a #ei$ht
o ex. C12 has mo!ar mass of 12 $/mo!
percenta$e composition: mass percenta$es of each e!ement in
compon"
o can "etermine mo!ec!ar form!a thro$h mo!ec!ar #ei$ht
Section 3.3
mass percenta$e: parts of per hn"re" parts of tota!+ by mass
o mass ? *mass of ,/*mass of #ho!e, x 100?
o ex. 1 mo! of C@2A has mass of 30 $
C@2A has 1 mo!e of C+ 2 mo!es of @+ an" 1 mo!e of A
mass ? C 12/30 x 100? 40?
mass ? @ 2/30 x 100? 6.3?
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mass ? A 16/30 x 100? -3.3?
if $iven mass of compon"+ can ca!c!ate mass of parts
Section 3.-
empirica! form!a *simp!est form!a,: form!a of sbstance #ritten
#ith sma!!est inte$er sbscriptso same as form!a of compon" for ionic compon"s
o "ifferent from form!a of compon" for mo!ec!ar compon"s
@2A2 @A
o may have "ifferent strctres+ bt same percenta$e
composition
o n *mo!ec!ar #ei$ht,/*empirica! form!a #ei$ht,
stoichiometry: ca!c!ation of &antities of reactants an" pro"cts
invo!ve" in chemica! reaction
Section 3.8
!imitin$ reactant *!imitin$ rea$ent,: reactant entire!y consme"
#hen reaction $oes to comp!etion
o excess reactant not comp!ete!y consme"
o mo!es of pro"ct "etermine" by mo!es of !imitin$ reactant
theoretica! yie!": maximm amont of pro"ct obtainab!e from
reaction b/c of $iven amonts of reactants
o acta! yie!" may be mch !ess
some pro"ct may be !ost "rin$ process of separatin$from reaction mixtre
other competin$ reactions may occr
many reactions stop before comp!etion
percenta$e yie!": acta! yie!" expresse" as percenta$e of
theoretica! yie!"
o percenta$e yie!" *acta! yie!",/*theoretica! yie!", x 100?
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Chemistry 130 28/04/2013 19:36:00
Section 4.1
ionic theory of so!tions certain sbstances pro"ce free!y
movin$ ions #hen "isso!ve" in #ater+ an" these ions con"ct
e!ectricity in so!tion
o e!ectro!yte: sbstance that "isso!ves in #ater as e!ectrica!!y
con"ctin$ so!tion
ionic so!i"s that "isso!ve in #ater >aC!
not a!! ionic+ some mo!ec!ar @C!
o noe!ectro!yte: sbstance that "isso!ve" in #ater to $ive
noncon"ctin$ or very poor!y con"ctin$ so!tion
ex. C12@22A11
con"ction of e!ectro!yte
o
stron$ e!ectro!yte: e!ectro!yte that exists in so!tion a!mostentire!y as ions more ions to con"ct
most!y ionic so!i"s
o #ea% e!ectro!yte: e!ectro!yte that "isso!ves in #ater to $ive
re!ative!y sma!! percenta$e of ions
most!y mo!ec!ar sbstances
so!bi!ity: abi!ity to "isso!ve in #ater
o so!b!e: "isso!ve rea"i!y in #ater
o inso!b!e: !imite" so!bi!ities
Section 4.2
mo!ec!ar e&ation: chemica! e&ation in #hich reactants an"
pro"cts are #ritten as mo!ec!ar sbstances+ even tho$h they
may exist in so!tion
o exp!icit abot reactant so!tions an" pro"cts
ionic e&ation "etai!s #hats happenin$ at !eve! of ions
comp!ete ionic e&ation: chemica! e&ation in #hich stron$
e!ectro!ytes are #ritten as separate ions in so!tion
o
represents sbstances in pre"ominant forms in reaction
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spectator ion: ion in ionic e&ation that "oes not ta%e part in
reaction
net ionic e&ation: ionic e&ation from #hich spectator ions have
been cance!e"
Section 4.3 types of reactions
o precipitation reactions
o aci"base reactions
o oxi"ationre"ction reactions
precipitate: inso!b!e so!i" compon" forme" "rin$ chemica!
reaction in so!tion
o nee" so!bi!ity r!es to "etermine
exchan$e *metathesis, reaction: reaction b/# compon"s that+
#hen #ritten as mo!ec!ar e&ation+ appears to invo!ve exchan$e of
parts b/# t#o reactants
Section 4.4
aci"s an" bases are e!ectro!ytes
aci"base in"icator: "ye se" to "istin$ish b/# aci"ic an" basic
so!tions by means of co!or chan$es they n"er$o in so!tions
rrehenis "efinitions
o aci": sbstance that pro"ces @
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o stron$ aci": aci" that ionies comp!ete!y in #ater an" is
stron$ e!ectro!yte
@C!A4
@2SA4
@D @Br
@C!
@>A3
o #ea% aci": aci" that part!y ionies in #ater an" is #ea%
e!ectro!yte
@C>
@=
o stron$ base: base that present in so!tion entire!y as ions an"
is stron$ e!ectro!yte
iA@
>aA@
EA@
Ca*A@,2
Sr*A@,2
Ba*A@,2
o #ea% base: base part!y ionie" in #ater an" is #ea%
e!ectro!yte netra!iation reaction: reaction of aci" an" base that res!ts in
ionic compon" an" possib!y #ater
o pro"ct sa!t
monoprotic aci"s: aci"s #/ on!y one aci"ic @ per mo!ec!e
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po!yprotic aci": aci" that yie!" t#o or more aci" @ per mo!ec!e
aci" sa!ts: sa!ts #/ aci"ic @ an" can n"er$o netra!iation
Section 4.-
oxi"ation nmber *oxi"ation state,: acta! char$e of atom as
monatomic or hypothetica! char$e assi$ne" to atom by simp!e r!es oxi"ationre"ction reaction *re"ox reaction,: reaction in #hich
e!ectrons are transferre" b/# species or atoms chan$e oxi"ation
nmber
o oxi"iation increase" oxi"ation nmber
o re"ction "ecease" oxi"ation nmber
ha!freaction: one of t#o parts of oxi"ationre"ction reaction+ one
part !osin$ e!ectrons an" other $ainin$ e!ections
o oxi"ation !osin$ e!ectrons
o re"ction $ainin$ e!ectrons
oxi"iin$ a$ent: species that oxi"ies another species an" is
re"ce"
re"cin$ a$ent: species that re"ces another species an" is
oxi"ie"
combination reaction: reaction in #hich t#o sbstances combine to
form thir" sbstance
types of reactions
o "ecomposition reaction: reaction in #hich sin$!e compon"reacts to $ive t#o or more sbstances
o "isp!acement reaction *sin$!erep!acement reaction,: reaction
in #hich e!ement reacts #/ compon"+ "isp!acin$ another
e!ement from it
o combstion reaction: reaction in #hich sbstance reacts #/
oxy$en+ sa!!y #/ rapi" re!ease of heat as f!ame
Section 4.
so!te: sbstance bein$ "isso!ve"
so!vent: !i&i" that sbstance is bein$ "isso!ve" in
concentration: &antity of so!te in stan"ar" &antity of so!tion
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o "i!te !o#
o concentrate" hi$h
mo!ar concentration/mo!arity *7,: mo!es of so!te "isso!ve" in one
!iter *cbic "ecimeter, of so!tion
o mo!arity *7, *mo!es of so!te,/*!iters of so!tion, Section 4.8
&antitative ana!ysis: "etermination of amont of sbstance or
species present in materia!
Section 4.9
$ravimetric ana!ysis: type of &antitative ana!ysis in #hich amont
of species in materia! is "etermine" by convertin$ species to
pro"ct that can be iso!ate" an" #ei$he"
Section 4.10
titration: proce"re for "eterminin$ amont of sbstance by a""in$
caref!!y measre" vo!me of so!tion #/ %no#n concentration nti!
reaction is comp!ete
vo!metric ana!ysis: metho" of ana!ysis base" on titration
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Chemistry 130 28/04/2013 19:36:00
Section -.1
pressre: force exerte" per nit area of srface
o force mass x constant acce!eration of $ravity
mass x *9.81 m/s2,
o pressre force/area
Fmass x *9.81 m/s2,G/area
o scientific nit is %$/*ms2, or pasca!
re!ative!y sma!! nit
acce!eration: chan$e of spee" per nit time
barometer: "evice for measrin$ pressre of atmosphere
o manometer: "evice measrin$ pressre of $as or !i&i" in
vesse!
o
mi!!imeters of mercry *mm@$,/torr: nit of pressre e&a! tothat exerte" by co!mn of mercry 1 mm hi$h at 0 "e$rees C
o atmosphere *atm,: nit of pressre e&a! to 60 mm@$
o $enera! re!ationship b/# H an" h H$"h
Section -.2
compressibi!ity: abi!ity to be s&eee" into sma!! vo!me by
pressre
o Boy!es !a#: vo!me of samp!e of $as at $iven temperatre
varies inverse!y #/ pressre
HIconstant HfIfHiIi
#or%s for !o# to mo"erate pressres
o Char!es !a#: vo!me occpie" by samp!e of $as at constant
pressre is "irect!y proportiona! to abso!te temperatre
H/constant If/fIi/i
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#or%s for mo"erate temperatres
!a#s can be combine" into sin$!e statement vo!me occpie" by
$iven amont of $as is proportiona! to abso!te temperatre "ivi"e"
by pressre
o HfIf/fHiIi/i
vo$a"ros !a#: e&a! vo!mes of any t#o $ases at same
temperatre an" pressre contain same nmber of mo!ec!es
o mo!ar $as vo!me *Im,: vo!me of one mo!e of $as
often 22.4 /mo! at stan"ar" temperatre an" pressre
*SH, 0 "e$rees C an" 1 atm
Section -.3
mo!ar $as constant *5,: constant of proportiona!ity re!atin$ mo!ar
vo!me of $as to /H
i"ea! $as !a#: HIn5
o #or%s at !o# to mo"erate pressres
o #or%s for not too !o# temperatres
H7m"5
Section -.-
a!tons !a# of partia! pressres: sm of partia! pressres of a!!
"ifferent $ases in mixtre is e&a! to tota! pressre of mixtre
o partia! pressre: pressre exerte" by partic!ar $as in mixtre
o HH1
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rootmeans&are *rms, mo!ec!ar spee": + is a type of avera$e
mo!ec!ar spee"+ e&a! to spee" of mo!ec!e havin$ avera$e
mo!ec!ar %inetic ener$y
o F*35,/7mG*1/2,
ta%e care to se consistent nits "iffsion: process #hereby $as sprea"s ot thro$h another $as to
occpy space niform!y
Lrahams !a# of effsion: rate of effsion of $as from partic!ar
ho!e is inverse!y proportiona! to s&are root of mo!ec!ar #ei$ht of
$as at constant temperatre an" pressre
o effsion: process in #hich $as f!o#s thro$h sma!! ho!e in
container
"epen"s on area of ho!e+ nmber of mo!ec!es per nit
vo!me+ an" avera$e mo!ec!ar spee"
Section -.8
van "er ;aa!s e&ation: e&ation simi!ar to i"ea! $as !a#+ bt
inc!"es t#o constants+ a an" b+ to accont for "eviations from
i"ea! behavior
o *H
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Section 6.1
thermo"ynamics: science of re!ationships b/# heat an" other forms
of ener$y
thermochemistry: st"y of &antity of heat absorbe" or $iven off by
chemica! reactiono one area of thermo"ynamics
o ex. brnin$ of fe!
ener$y: potentia! or capacity to move matter
o property of matter
o many convertib!e forms
%inetic ener$y: ener$y of motion
o K%1/2mv2
o
SD nit is )o!e *M or %$m
2
/s
2
, ca!orie *ca!,: nonSD nit of ener$y common!y se" by chemists+
ori$ina!!y "efine" as amont of ener$y re&ire" to raise
temperatre of one $ram of #ater by 1 "e$ree C
o 1 ca! 4.184 M
potentia! ener$y: ener$y an ob)ect has by virte of position in fie!"
of force
o Kpm$h
interna! ener$y *N,: sm of %inetic an" potentia! ener$ies of
partic!es ma%in$ p sbstance
o KtotK%
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heat: ener$y that f!o#s into or ot of system b/c of "ifference in
temperatre b/# thermo"ynamic system an" srron"in$s
therma! e&i!ibrim: temperatre e&a!ity
o ener$y f!o#s nti! e&i!ibrim b/# system an" srron"in$s is
estab!ishe"o f!o#s from hi$her temperatre system to !o#er temperatre
system
heat of reaction: va!e of & re&ire" to retrn system to $iven
temperatre after comp!etion of reaction
types of chemica! reactions or physica! chan$es
o exothermic process: chemica! reaction or physica! chan$e in
#hich heat is evo!ve" *&,
o en"othermic process: chemica! reaction or physica! chan$e in
#hich heat is absorbe" *
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o specific heat capacity *specific heat,: &antity of heat
re&ire" to raise temperatre of one $ram of sbstance by
one "e$ree C or E at constant pressre
&smOt
ca!orimeter: "evice se" to measre eat absorbe" or evo!ve""rin$ physica! or chemica! chan$e
bomb ca!orimeter: ca!orimeter for reactions invo!vin$ $ases
Section 6.
@ess !a# of heat smmation for chemica! e&ation #ritten as
sm of t#o or more steps+ entha!py chan$e for overa!! e&ation
e&a!s sm of entha!py char$es for in"ivi"a! steps
Section 6.8
stan"ar" state: stan"ar" thermo"ynamic con"itions chosen for
sbstance #hen !istin$ or comparin$ thermo"ynamic "ata
a!!otrope: one of t#o or more "istinct forms of e!ement in same
physica! state
stan"ar" entha!py of formation *stan"ar" heat of formation,:
entha!py chan$e for formation of one more of sbstance in its
stan"ar" state from its e!ements in reference form an" stan"ar"
states
Section 6.9
fe!: sbstance brne" or reacte" to provi"e heat an" other formsof ener$y
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Chemistry 130 28/04/2013 19:36:00
Section .1
#ave: continos!y repeatin$ chan$e or osci!!ation in matter or
physica! fie!"
ex. !i$ht
e!ectroma$netic ra"iation !i$ht+ xrays+ ra"io #aves
#ave!en$th: "istance b/# any t#o a")acent i"entica! points #ave
o measre" in meters
fre&ency: nmber of #ave!en$ths of #ave that pass fixe" point in
one nit of time
o measre" in hert
cvP tota! !en$th of #ave passin$ point in 1s spee"
o spee" 3.00 Q 108m/s
e!ectroma$netic spectrm: ran$e of fre&encies or #ave!en$ths ofe!ectroma$netic ra"iation
o vio!et *300 nm, re" *800 nm,
o not visib!e 300 nm or 800 nm
Section .2
"iffraction: property of #aves in #hich #aves sprea" ot #hen
obstrction or sma!! ho!e abot sie of #ave!en$th is encontere"
photoe!ectric effect: phenomenon base" on fon"ation that !i$ht
has both #ave an" partic!e properties
K nhv
o n can on!y be positive inte$ers
o h is H!an%s constant physica! constant #/ va!e 6.63 Q
1034 Ms
photons: partic!es of e!ectroma$netic ener$y+ #/ ener$y K
proportiona! to observe" fre&ency of !i$ht
o K hv
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#ave fnction: mathematica! expression containin$ information
abot partic!e in $iven ener$y !eve!
Section .-
atomic orbita!: #ave fnction for e!ectron in atom
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Chemistry 130 28/04/2013 19:36:00
Section 8.1
e!ectron confi$ration: partic!ar "istribtion of e!ectrons amon$
avai!ab!e sbshe!!s
orbita! "ia$ram: "ia$ram to sho# ho# orbita!s of sbshe!! are
occpie" by e!ectron
Ha!i exc!sion princip!e no t#o e!ectrons in atom can have
same for &antm nmbers
o not a!! conceivab!e arran$ements of e!ectrons are possib!e
o orbita! can ho!" at most t#o e!ectrons+ on!y if they have
opposite spins
Section 8.2
$ron" state: &antm mechanica! state correspon"in$ #ith !o#est
ener$y !eve! of atom excite" state: confi$ration associate" #/ ener$y !eve!s other than
!o#est
bi!"in$p princip!e *fba princip!e,: scheme se" to repro"ce
e!ectron confi$rations of $ron" states of atoms by sccessive!y
fi!!in$ sbshe!!s #/ e!ectrons in specific or"er
o correspon"s to increasin$ ener$y of sbshe!!s
ener$y "epen"s on &antm nmber n an" !
nob!e $ases fi!!e" s/p sbshe!! re!ative nreactivity
a!%a!ine earth meta!s fi!!e" s sbshe!! mo"erate reactivity
o nob!e$as core: innershe!! confi$ration correspon"in$ to one
of nob!e $ases p!s t#o oter e!ectrons #/ ns2
confi$ration
pse"onob!e$ascore: nob!e$as core to$ether #/ *n1,"10
e!ectrons
va!ence e!ectron: e!ectron in atom otsi"e nob!e$as or pse"o
nob!e $as core
o
primari!y invo!ve" in chemica! reactionso accont for simi!arities of chemica! properties
exceptions to bi!"in$ p r!e
o chromim
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o copper
Section 8.4
"ifferent arran$ements of e!ectron confi$rations sho# "ifferent
states "ifferent ener$y an" ma$netic characteristics
@n"s r!e !o#estener$y arran$ement of e!ectrons in sbshe!!is obtaine" by pttin$ e!ectrons into separate orbita!s of sbshe!! #/
same spin before pairin$ e!ectrons
ma$netic attractions from e!ectrons in opposite spin cance! each ot
o so+ on!y atoms #/ npaire" e!ectrons exhibit net ma$netism
parama$netic sbstance: sbstance #ea%!y attracte" by ma$netic
fie!" $enera!!y res!tin$ from npaire" e!ectrons
"iama$netic sbstance: sbstance not attracte" by ma$netic fie!"
or s!i$ht!y repe!!e" by fie!"+ res!tin$ from paire" e!ectrons
Section 8.6
e!ectron confi$rations "isp!ay perio"ic variation in atomic
nmbers+ #hich res!ts in perio"ic variation in e!ements physica!
an" chemica! behaviors
perio"ic !a# #hen e!ements are arran$e" by atomic nmber+
their physica! an" chemica! properties vary perio"ica!!y
o atomic ra"is
o ioniation ener$y
o e!ectron affinity atomic ra"is
o a!on$ perio"s+ "ecreases #/ increasin$ atomic nmber *Lrop
D nob!e $as,
o a!on$ $rops+ increases #/ increasin$ perio" nmber
effective nc!ear char$e: positive char$e that e!ectron experiences
from nc!es+ e&a! to nc!ear char$e+ bt re"ce" by shie!"in$ or
screenin$ from intervenin$ e!ectron "istribtion
o increasin$ char$e p!!s e!ectrons in#ar"
ioniation ener$y *firstioniation potentia!,: minimm ener$y
nee"e" to remove hi$hestener$y *otermost, e!ectron from
netra! atom in $aseos state
o a!on$ perio"s+ increases #/ increasin$ atomic nmber
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o a!on$ $rops+ "ecreases #/ increasin$ atomic nmber
o m!tip!e ioniation ener$ies increase #/ each sccessive
remova!
!ar$e "iff. b/# 2n"an" 3r"ioniation ener$ies
e!ectron affinity: ener$y chan$e for process of a""in$ e!ectron tonetra! atom in $aseos state to form ne$ative ion
o !ar$e ne$ative nmbers in"icate formation of very stab!e
ne$ative ions
o sma!! ne$ative nmbers in"icate formation of !ess stab!e
ne$ative ions
o $enera! tren" is to#ar"s more ne$ative e!ectron affinities
from !eft to ri$ht in any perio"
Section 8.
!o#/hi$h ioniation ener$y meta!!ic/nonmeta!!ic
basicaci"ic behavior of oxi"es in"icator of meta!!icnonmeta!!ic
character
o basic oxi"e: oxi"e that reacts #/ aci"s
most meta! oxi"es
o aci"ic oxi"e: oxi"e that reacts #/ bases
most nonmeta! oxi"es
o amphoteric oxi"e: oxi"e #/ both basic an" aci"ic properties
hy"ro$eno $rop by itse!f
o co!or!ess $as compose" of @2mo!ec!es
Lrop D *a!%a!i meta!s,
o soft an" reactive
o reactivities increasin$ "o#n $rop
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o react #/ #ater to pro"ce hy"ro$en
Lrop DD *a!%a!ine earth meta!s,
o chemica!!y reactive *mch !ess so than a!%a!i meta!s,
o reactivities increasin$ "o#n $rop
o form basic oxi"es *5A, Lrop DDD
o si$nificant increase in meta!!ic character "o#n $rop
o form oxi"es *52A3,
Lrop DI
o form oxi"es *5A2,
o oxi"es pro$ress from aci"ic to amphoteric "o#n $rop
Lrop I
o transition from nonmeta! to meta!!oi" to meta!
o forms oxi"es *52A3an" 52A-,
some cases mo!ec!ar form!as are t#ice of these
form!as
o oxi"es pro$ress from aci"ic to amphoteric to basic
Lrop ID
o cha!co$ens
o transition from nonmeta! to meta!!oi" to meta!
o forms oxi"es *5A3 an" 5A3,
o most!y aci"ic *eA2an" HoA2is amphoteric+ tho$h HoA2 ismore basic,
Lrop IDD
o ha!o$ens
o reactive+ co!orf! nonmeta!s
o basic form!a *Q2,
Lrop IDD
o nob!e $ases
o $ases consistin$ of ncombine" atoms
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Chemistry 130 28/04/2013 19:36:00
Section 9.1
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ionic bon": chemica! bon" forme" b/# e!ectrostatic attraction b/#
positive an" ne$ative ions
o forms #hen e!ectrons are transferre" b/# va!ence she!!s of
cation to anion
o nei$hborin$ ions attract as many ions of opposite char$e aspossib!e
e#is e!ectron"ot symbo!: symbo! in #hich e!ectrons in va!ence
she!! of an atom or ion are represente" by "ots p!ace" aron" !etter
symbo! of e!ement
bon"e" atoms net "ecrease in ener$y b/c bon"e" state is more
stab!e an" at !o#er ener$y !eve!
Co!ombs !a# ener$y K obtaine" brin$in$ t#o ions #/ e!ectric
char$es 1an" 2 from infinite separation to "istance r is
K*%12,/r
o % is 8.99x109 Mm/C2
o m!tip!y by vo$a"ros nmber to express for one mo!e
!attice ener$y: chan$e in ener$y that occrs #hen ionic so!i" is
separate" into iso!ate" ions in $as phase
Born@aber cyc!e
o base" on @ess !a#
o "etermines !attice ener$y+ #hich is "iffic!t thro$h "irect
experimentation ionic sbstances are typica!!y hi$hme!tin$ so!i"s
o cations an" anions interact by stron$ bon"s
o cations an" anions attract to opposite!ychar$e" nei$hbors
Section 9.2
!oss of sccessive e!ectrons from atom re&ires increasin$!y more
ener$y
ten"ency to form ions is $reater "o#n any $rop of perio"ic tab!e
b/# of "ecreasin$ ioniation ener$y
r!es for common monatomic ions of main $rop e!ements
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o cations of Lrops D to DDD #/ nob!e$as or pse"onob!e
$as confi$rations char$es e&a! to $rop nmbers
o cations of Lrops DDD to I #/ nob!e ns2 e!ectron
confi$rations char$es e&a! to $rop nmbers mins t#o
o anions of Lrops I to IDD #/ nob!e$as or pse"onob!e$as confi$rations char$es e&a! $rop nmbers mins
ei$ht
po!yatomic ions he!" by cova!ent bon"s
transition e!ements form severa! cations of "ifferent char$es
o many are co!ore" b/c of " e!ectrons transitions
Section 9.3
ionic ra"is: measre of sie of spherica! re$ion aron" nc!es of
ion #ithin #hich e!ectrons are most !i%e!y to be fon"
o arbitrary never abrpt!y en"s
o cation T atom T anion
o fo!!o#s re$!ar pattern ionic ra"ii increase "o#n any
$rop b/c of a""ition of e!ectron she!!s
isoe!ectronic refers to "ifferent species havin$ same nmber
an" confi$ration of e!ectrons
o in $enera!+ cations "ecrease in ra"is across perio"
o abrpt increase in ra"is #hen anions are reache"+ an" then
ra"is "ecreases a$ain Section 9.4
cova!ent bon": chemica! bon" forme" by sharin$ of pair of e!ectrons
b/# atoms
o attraction arises from opposite!y char$e" nc!ei an" e!ectrons
bon" !en$th: "istance b/# nc!ei at minimm ener$y
o potentia! ener$y reaches minimm va!e #hen rep!sion of
positive char$es becomes !ar$er than attraction of e!ectrons
an" then increases
bon" "issociation ener$y: ener$y nee"e" to separate atoms in
mo!ec!e
e#is e!ectron "ot form!a: form!a sin$ "ots to represent va!ence
e!ectrons
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o bon"in$ pair: e!ectron pair share" b/# t#o atoms
o !one *nonbon"in$, pair: e!ectron pair that remains on one
atom an" is not share"
coor"inate cova!ent bon": bon" forme" #hen both e!ectrons of
bon" are "onate" by one atom octet r!e: ten"ency of atoms in mo!ec!es to have ei$ht e!ectrons
in va!ence she!!s *t#o for hy"ro$en atoms,
sin$!e bon": cova!ent bon" in #hich sin$!e pair of e!ectrons is
share" by t#o atoms
"ob!e bon": cova!ent bon" in #hich t#o pairs of e!ectrons are
share" by t#o atoms
trip!e bon": cova!ent bon" in #hich three pairs of e!ectrons are
share" by t#o atoms
Section 9.-
po!ar cova!ent bon": cova!ent bon" in #hich bon"in$ e!ectrons
spen" more time near one atom than other
o occrs #hen atoms are of "ifferent e!ements
nonpo!ar cova!ent bon" occrs #hen atoms are a!i%e
e!ectrone$ative!y: measre of abi!ity of atom in mo!ec!e to "ra#
bon"in$ e!ectrons to itse!f
o atom that ten"s to pic% p e!ectrons easi!y !ar$e
e!ectrone$ativityo atom that ten"s to !ose e!ectrons rea"i!y sma!!
e!ectrone$ativity
o in $enera!+ increase from !eft to ri$ht an" "ecreases from top
to bottom
meta!s !east e!ectrone$ative *e!ectropositive,
nonmeta!s most e!ectrone$ative
o abso!te va!e of "ifference in e!ectrone$ativity of t#o bon"e"
atoms
sma!! nonpo!ar bon"
!ar$e po!ar bon"
very !ar$e ionic
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Section 9.6
r!es for #ritin$ e#is e!ectron"ot form!as
o ca!c!ate tota! nmber of va!ance e!ectrons
o #rite s%e!eton strctre of mo!ec!e or ion
o "istribte e!ectrons to atoms srron"in$ centra! atomo "istribte remainin$ e!ectrons as pairs to centra! atoms
Section 9.
"e!oca!ie" bon"in$: type of bon"in$ in #hich bon"in$ pair of
e!ectrons is sprea" over nmber of atoms rather than !oca!ie" b/#
t#o
o bro%en !ine in"icates bon"in$ pair of e!ectrons that spans
more than t#o nc!ei
resonance "escription: "escription of e!ectron strctre of mo!ec!e
havin$ "e!oca!ie" bon"in$s by #ritin$ a!! possib!e e!ectron"ot
form!as
o sin$!e e!ectron"ot form!a cannot proper!y "escribe
o "e!oca!ie" bon"in$ resonance form!as
Section 9.8
some mo!ec!es have o"" nmber of e!ectrons an" cannot satisfy
the octet r!e
o ex. >A
o can have fe#er or more than ei$ht va!ence e!ectronsSection 9.9
forma! char$e: hypothetica! char$e obtaine" by assmin$ that
bon"in$ e!ectrons are e&a!!y share" b/# bon"e" atoms an" that
e!ectrons of each !one pair be!on$ comp!ete!y to one atom
o r!es for forma! char$e
ha!f of e!ectrons of bon" are assi$ne" to each atom in
bon"
both e!ectrons of !one pair are assi$ne" to atom to
#hich !one pair be!on$s
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o forma! char$e va!ence e!ectrons on free atom nmber of
e!ectrons assi$ne" by r!es
Section 9.10
bon" !en$th *bon" "istance,: "istance b/# nc!ei in bon"
o "etermine" experimenta!!y sin$ xray "iffraction ormo!ec!ar spectra ana!ysis
o sometimes+ can be pre"icte" from cova!ent ra"ii *va!es
assi$ne" to atoms sch that sm of cova!ent ra"ii of atoms
an" B pre"icts approximate B bon" !en$th,
bon" or"er: nmber of pairs of e!ectrons in bon"
o as bon" or"er increases+ bon" stren$th increases an" bon"
!en$th "ecreases
Section 9.11
bon" "issociation ener$y: measre of stren$th of partic!ar bon"
o essentia!!y entha!py chan$e for $asphase reaction in #hich
bon" brea%s
bon" ener$y: avera$e entha!py chan$e for brea%in$ of B bon" in
mo!ec!e in $as phase
in $enera!+ entha!py of reaction is approximate!y e&a! to sm of
bon" ener$ies for bon"s bro%en mins sm of bon" ener$ies for
bon"s forme"
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Chemistry 130 28/04/2013 19:36:00
Section 10.1
mo!ec!ar $eometry: $enera! shape of mo!ec!e "etermine" by
re!ative positions of atomic nc!ei
va!enceshe!! e!ectronpair rep!sion *ISHK5, mo"e! pre"icts
shapes of mo!ec!es an" ions by assmin$ va!enceshe!! e!ectron
pairs are arran$e" abot atoms that e!ectron pairs are %ept as far
a#ay as possib!e from one another
o !inear t#o e!ectron pairs
o tri$ona! p!anar three e!ectron pairs
o bent an$!ar
o tetrahe"ra! a!! e!ectron pairs are bon"in$
o tri$ona! pyrami"a! three bon"e" e!ectron pairs/one
nonbon"in$ pairo trio$ona! bipryrami"a! - e!ectron pairs
o octahe"ra! 6 e!ectron pairs
"irection in space of bon"in$ pairs mo!ec!ar $eometry
ISHK5 mo"e! pre"icts bon" an$!es
o !one pairs ten" to re&ire more space than correspon"in$
bon"in$ pair
m!tip!e bon" re&ire more space than sin$!e bon"s b/c of
$reater nmber of e!ectrons
tri$ona! bipyrami"a! arran$ement
o axia! "irections t#o "irections that form axis thro$h
centra! atom *180 "e$rees,
o e&atoria! "irections other three "irections *90 "e$rees to
axia! "e$rees an" 120 "e$rees from each other,
seesa# "istorte" tetrahe"ra!
Section 10.2
"ipo!e moment: &antitative measre of "e$ree of char$e
separation in mo!ec!eo net separation of char$e "ipo!e moment
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o measre" in co!ombmeters *Cm, an" "ebyes *,
capacitance: capacity of p!ates to ho!" char$e
vector &a!ity: ma$nit"e an" "irection
nonpo!ar ero "ipo!e moments
po!ar can have nonero "ipo!e moments intermo!ec!ar force po!ar !i&i" mo!ec!es orient so positive
en"s of mo!ec!es are attracte" to ne$ative en"s
Section 10.3
va!ence bon" theory: approximate theory to exp!ain e!ectron pair or
cova!ent bon" by &antm mechanics
o orbita! on one atom occpies portion of same re$ion as orbita!
on other atom over!ap
o tota! nmber of e!ectrons in both orbita!s no more than 2
$reater over!ap $reater bon" stren$th
orbita!s bon" protr"e or point for maximm over!ap
promote" e!ectron excite" from s to p orbita!
hybri" orbita!s: orbita!s "escribin$ bon"in$ obtaine" by ta%in$
combinations of atomic orbita!s of iso!ate" atoms
nmber of hybri" orbita!s forme" e&a!s nmber of atomic orbita!s
se"
o ex. s an" t#o p orbita!s form three hybri" orbita!s
Section 10.4 one hybri" orbita! nee"e" for each sin$!e/m!tip!e bon" an" !one
pairs
U *si$ma, bon" cy!in"rica! shape abot bon" axis
R *pi, bon" has e!ectron "istribtion above an" be!o# bon" axis
isomers: compon"s of same mo!ec!ar form #/ "ifferent
arran$ements of atoms
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o cis/trans "ifferent properties
Section 10.-
mo!ec!ar orbita! theory: theory of e!ectronic strctre of mo!ec!es
in terms of mo!ec!ar orbita!s+ #hich may sprea" over atoms or
mo!ec!e bon"in$ orbita!s: re$ions b/# nc!ei #here mo!ec!ar orbita!s are
concentrate"
antibon"in$ orbita!s: mo!ec!ar orbita!s havin$ ero va!es in re$ion
b/# t#o nc!ei an" concentrate" in other re$ions
bon" or"er: nmber of bon"s b/# t#o atoms
o V*nbna,
stren$th of interaction b/# t#o atomic orbita!s to form mo!ec!ar
orbita!s is "etermine" by
o ener$y "ifference b/# interactin$ orbita!s
o ma$nit"e of over!ap
stron$ interaction approximate!y e&a! ener$ies an" !ar$e
over!ap
Section 10.6
homonc!ear "iatomic mo!ec!es: mo!ec!es compose" of t#o !i%e
nc!ei
heternc!ear "iatomic mo!ec!es: mo!ec!es compose" of t#o
"ifferent nc!ei parama$netic npaire" e!ectrons ma$netic
"iama$netic paire" e!ectrons not ma$netic
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Chemistry 130 28/04/2013 19:36:00
Section 11.1
$ases compose" of mo!ec!es in constant ran"om motion
thro$h most!y empty space
o compressib!e can be pshe" into sma!! space
o f!i" mo!ec!es move easi!y re!ative to each other
!i&i"s re!ative!y incompressib!e f!i"s
o mo!ec!es are in constant motion+ bt more ti$ht!y pac%e"
o mo!ec!es move easi!y re!ative to each other
so!i"s near!y incompressib!e an" ri$i"
o partic!es are in c!ose contact an" "o not move abot+ bt
rather osci!!ate in fixe" positions
Section 11.2
chan$e of sta$e/phase transition: chan$e of sbstance from onestate to another
o me!tin$ *fsion, so!i" to !i&i"
o freein$ !i&i" to so!i"
o vaporiation !i&i"/so!i" to vapor
sb!imation so!i" to vapor
o con"ensation $as to !i&i"/so!i"
"eposition $as to so!i"
!i&efaction $as to !i&i"
vapor pressre: partia! pressre of vapor over !i&i"+ measre" at
e&i!ibrim at $iven temperatre
o "ynamic e&i!ibrim rate of mo!ec!e con"ensation e&a!s
rate of mo!ec!e vaporiation+ tho$h mo!ec!es contine to
!eave an" come bac% to the !i&i"
o "epen"s on temperatre
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o vo!ati!e hi$h vapor pressre at norma! temperatres
boi!in$ point: temperatre at #hich vapor pressre of !i&i" e&a!s
pressre exerte" on !i&i"
o "epen"s on pressre norma! boi!in$ point *at 1 atm,
freein$ point: temperatre at #hich pre !i&i" chan$es tocrysta!!ine so!i"
me!tin$ point: temperatre at #hich crysta!!ine so!i" chan$e to
!i&i"
me!tin$ an" freein$ points occr at same temperatre "ynamic
e&i!ibrim
chan$es of state invo!ve a""ition/remova! of heat ener$y
o heat of phase transition proportiona! to !en$th of f!at
re$ion+ #hen heat is a""e" at constant rate
o heat of fsion *entha!py of fsion,: heat nee"e" for me!tin$ of
so!i"
o heat of vaporiation *entha!py of vaporiation,: heat nee"e"
for vaporiation of !i&i"
o mch more ener$y re&ire" for vaporiation than me!tin$
ener$y mst be spp!ie" to brea% intermo!ec!ar attractions
C!asisC!apeyron e&ation
o !n*H,/
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o trip!e point: point on phase "ia$ram representin$ temperatre
an" pressre at #hich three phases of sbstance coexist in
e&i!ibrim
spercritica! f!i" !i&i" an" vapor have same "ensities an"
"istinctions have "isappeare"o critica! temperatre: temperatre above #hich !i&i" state of
sbstance no !on$er exists re$ar"!ess of pressre
o critica! pressre: vapor pressre at critica! temperatre
Section 11.-
intermo!ec!ar forces: forces of interaction b/# mo!ec!es
o norma!!y #ea%!y attractive
van "er ;aa!s forces: $enera! term for intermo!ec!ar forces
inc!"in$ "ipo!e"ipo!e an" on"on forces+ that res!t in mo!ec!e
a!i$nment
o "ipo!e"ipo!e force: attractive intermo!ec!ar force res!tin$
from ten"ency of po!ar mo!ec!es to a!i$n themse!ves sch
that positive en" of one mo!ec!e is near ne$ative en" of
another
o on"on *"ispersion, forces: #ea% attractive forces b/# a!!
mo!ec!es res!tin$ from sma!!+ instantaneos "ipo!es that
occr b/# varyin$ positions of e!ectrons "rin$ motion abot
nc!ei increase #/ mo!ec!ar #ei$ht more e!ectrons an"
!ar$er atoms more po!ariab!e or easi!y "istorte" to
$ive instantaneos "ipo!es b/c e!ectrons are farther
from nc!ei
char$e niform!y "istribte" over time+ bt neven at
instant
po!ariab!e/nonpo!ariab!e noncompact/compact
strai$htchain/f!exib!e more stab!e
o stron$ intermo!ec!ar forces !o# vapor pressres
o stron$ intermo!ec!ar forces hi$h boi!in$ points
o stron$ intermo!ec!ar forces hi$h srface tensions
o stron$ intermo!ec!ar forces !o# f!i"ities
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hy"ro$en bon"in$: #ea% to mo"erate attractive force that exists
b/# hy"ro$en atom cova!ent!y bon"e" to very e!ectrone$ative atom
an" !one pair of e!ectrons on another sma!!+ e!ectrone$ative atom
Section 11.6
for "ifferent types of so!i"s vary in chemica! bon"in$o mo!ec!ar so!i": so!i" consistin$ of atoms or mo!ec!es he!"
to$ether by intermo!ec!ar forces
ex. so!i" neon+ ice+ "ry ice
#ea% intermo!ec!ar attractions !o# me!tin$ points
re!ative!y soft
britt!e fractre easi!y a!on$ crysta! p!anes
noncon"ctin$
o meta!!ic so!i": so!i" consistin$ of positive cores of atoms he!"
to$ether by srron"in$ 'sea( of e!ectrons
ex. iron+ copper+ si!ver
$enera!!y have hi$h me!tin$ points variabi!ity
ma!!eab!e: can be shape" by hammerin$
con"ctin$
o ionic so!i": so!i" consistin$ of cations an" anions he!"
to$ether by ionic bon"s
ex. cesim ch!ori"e+ so"im ch!ori"e+ inc s!fi"e
re!ative!y hi$h me!tin$ points "ifferences arise b/cof !attice ener$y
britt!e fractre easi!y a!on$ crysta! p!anes
noncon"ctin$ so!i"/con"ctin$ !i&i"
o cova!ent net#or% so!i": so!i" consistin$ of atoms he!"
to$ether in !ar$e net#or%s or chains by cova!ent bon"s
ex. "iamon"+ $raphite+ asbestos
hi$h me!tin$ points
very har"
most!y noncon"ctin$
me!tin$/boi!in$ points increase from mo!ec!ar to meta!!ic to ionic to
cova!ent so!i"s
meta!!ic+ ionic+ an" cova!ent so!i"s !i%e!y to be so!i"s at 2-C
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Section 14.1
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chemica! %inetics: st"y of reaction rates+ ho# reaction rates
chan$e n"er varyin$ con"itions+ an" #hat mo!ec!ar events occr
"rin$ overa!! reaction
o factors affectin$ reaction rate
concentrations of reactants reaction rates oftenincreases #hen reactant concentrations are increase"
concentration of cata!yst
cata!yst: sbstance that increases rate of reaction
#/o bein$ consme" in overa!! reaction
not consme" "oes not appear in ba!ance"
chemica! e&ation
temperatre at #hich reaction occrs reactions
sa!!y spee" p #hen temperatre increases
srface area of so!i" reactant or cata!yst on!y #hen
reaction invo!ves so!i" #/ $as or !i&i"
rate increases #/ srface area
reaction rate: increase in mo!ar concentration of pro"ct of reaction
per nit of time or "ecrease in mo!ar concentration of reactant per
nit time
o sa! nit mo!/*s,
o can be avera$e rate or instantaneos rate !on$/short
instants of time Section 14.2
#ays of measrin$ reaction rates
o #ith"ra#/ana!ye samp!es from reaction vesse!
o manometer rea"in$s of reaction pressre chan$es
o spectrometer rea"in$s of co!or/absorption of !i$ht
Section 14.3
rate !a#: e&ation that re!ates rate of reaction to concentrations of
reactants *an" cata!yst, raise" to varios po#ers
o $enera! form rate%FGmFBGnFCGp
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o rate constant: %W proportiona!ity constant in re!ationship b/#
rate an" concentrations
fixe" va!e at $iven temperatre
o exponents m+ n+ an" p fre&ent!y inte$ers "etermine"
experimenta!!y reaction or"er: exponent of concentration of species in rate !a#+ as
"etermine" experimenta!!y
overa!! or"er: sm of or"ers of reactant species in rate !a#
isomeriation: reaction featrin$ compon"s that are isomers
*"ifferent compon"s #/ same mo!ec!ar form!a,
initia! rate metho": #ay of obtainin$ reaction or"ers thro$h series
of experiments in #hich initia! concentrations of reactants are
varie"
Section 14.4
inte$rate" rate !a#: mathematica! re!ationship b/# concentration
an" time
o firstor"er rate !a# !nFGt/FG0%t
o secon"or"er rate !a# 1/FGt%t
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activation ener$y: KaW minimm ener$y of co!!ision re&ire" for t#o
mo!ec!es to react
rate constant pro"ct of three factors %Xfp
o X: co!!ision fre&ency
chan$es s!o#!y #/ temperatreo f: fraction of co!!isions havin$ ener$y $reater than activation
ener$y
chan$es rapi"!y #/ temperatre responsib!e for
reaction rate
o p: fraction of co!!isions that occr #/ reactant mo!ec!es
proper!y oriente"
in"epen"ent of temperatre
transitionstate theory: exp!anation of reaction res!tin$ from
co!!ision of t#o mo!ec!es in terms of activate" comp!ex
o activate" comp!ex *transition state,: nstab!e $ropin$ of
atoms that can brea% p to form pro"cts
Section 14.6
rrhenis e&ation: mathematica! e&ation %eK/5#hich
expresses "epen"ence of rate constant on temperatre
o fre&ency factor: symbo! in rrhenis e&ation assme" to
be constant
re!at" to fre&ency of co!!isions #/ proper orientation !n % !n Ka/5 !n %2/%1 Ka/5 *1/11/,
Section 14.
e!ementary reaction: sin$!e mo!ec!ar event+ sch as co!!ision of
mo!ec!es+ res!tin$ in reaction
reaction mechanism: set of e!ementary reactions #hose overa!!
effect is $iven by net chemica! e&ation
reaction interme"iate: species pro"ce" "rin$ reaction that "oes
not appear in net e&ation b/c it reacts in sbse&ent step in
mechanism
mo!ec!arity: nmber of mo!ec!es on reactant si"e of e!ementary
reaction
nimo!ec!ar reaction: e!ementary reaction that invo!ves one
reactant mo!ec!e
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biomo!ec!ar reaction: e!ementary reaction that invo!ves t#o
reactant mo!ec!es
termo!ec!ar reaction: e!ementary reaction that invo!ves three
reactant mo!ec!es
Section 14.8 rate"etermin$ step: s!o#est step in reaction mechanism
Section 14.9
homo$eneos cata!ysis: se of cata!yst in same phase as reactin$
species
hetero$eneos cata!ysis: se of cata!yst that exists in "ifferent
phase from reactin$ species+ sa!!y so!i" cata!yst in contact #/
$aseos or !i&i" so!tion of reactants
chemisorption: bin"in$ of species to srface to chemica! bon"in$
forces
cata!ytic hy"ro$enation: hetero$eneos cata!ysis invo!vin$
chemisorption
sbstrate: sbstance #hose reaction the enyme cata!yes
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Section 1-.1
"ynamic e&i!ibrim: for#ar" Y reverse reactions that occr at
same rate to form mixtre of reactants an" pro"cts
chemica! e&i!ibrim: state reache" by reaction mixtre #hen rates
of for#ar" an" reverse reactions have become e&a!o continin$ for#ar"/reverse reactions "ynamic process
Section 1-.2
e&i!ibrimconstant expression: expression obtaine" by m!tip!yin$
concentrations of pro"cts+ "ivi"in$ by concentrations of reactants+
an" raisin$ each concentration term to po#er e&a! to coefficient in
chemica! e&ation
e&i!ibrim constant *Ec,: va!e obtaine" for e&i!ibrimconstant
expression #hen e&i!ibrim concentrations are sbstitte"o re!ates a!! e&i!ibrim compositions of reaction at $iven
temperatre
o for reaction a < bB cC < "+ EcFCGcFG"/FGaFBGb
o "efine" in mo!ar concentrations
o ratio of rate constants for for#ar"/reverse reactions
!a# of mass action: re!ation that states that va!es of e&i!ibrim
constant expression Ec are constant for partic!ar reaction at $iven
temperatre+ #hatever e&i!ibrim concentrations are sbstitte"
Ep #ritten in terms of partia! pressres of $ases rather than
concentrations
o Ep Ec*5,On#here On is sm of coefficients of $aseos
pro"cts mins sm of coefficients of $aseos reactants
sef! r!e if $iven chemica! e&ation can be obtaine" by ta%in$
sm of other e&ations+ e&i!ibrim constant for $iven e&ation
e&a!s pro"cts of e&i!ibrim constants of other e&ations
Section 1-.3
homo$eneos e&i!ibrim: e&i!ibrim that inc!"es reactants an"pro"cts in sin$!e phase
hetero$eneos e&i!ibrim: e&i!ibrim invo!vin$ reactants an"
pro"cts in more than one phase
o omit concentrations of non$aseos reactants Y pro"cts
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o reaction not affecte" by amonts of non$aseos sbstances+
as !on$ as some are present
sma!!/!ar$e e&i!ibrim constants favors reactants/pro"cts
o #hen aron" 1+ e&i!ibrim mixtre contains appreciab!e
amonts of both reactants Y pro"cts Section 1-.-
reaction &otient *c,: expression that has same form as
e&i!ibrimconstant expression bt #hose concentration va!es are
not necessari!y those at e&i!ibrim
o cEc $oes to !eft
o cTEc $oes to ri$ht
o cEc at e&i!ibrim
Section 1-.6
three steps se" to so!ve e&i!ibrim concentrations
o set p tab!e of concentrations *startin$+ chan$e+ an"
e&i!ibrim expressions in x,
o sbstitte expressions in x for e&i!ibrim concentrations into
e&i!ibrimconstant e&ation
o so!ve e&i!ibrimconstant e&ation for va!es of e&i!ibrim
concentrations
Section 1-.
e Chate!iers princip!e #hen system in chemica! e&i!ibrim is"istrbe" by chan$e of temperatre+ pressre+ or concentration+
system shifts in e&i!ibrim composition in #ay that ten"s to
conteract chan$e of variab!e
Section 1-.8
pressre
o "ecrease"/increase" vo!me increase"/"ecrease"
pressre moves to#ar"s si"e #/ fe#er/more mo!es
temperatre
o en"othermic reaction *positive O@Z,
increase"/"ecrease" temperatre
increase"/"ecrease" pro"cts
o en"othermic reaction *ne$ative O@Z,
increase"/"ecrease" temperatre
"ecrease"/increase" pro"cts
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