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    i H E O L D T E S T A M E N TP S E U D E P I G R A P H A ( rTOE N E W T E S T A M E N T

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    T H E O L D T E S T A M E N TPSEUDEPIGRAPHAT H E N E W T E S T A M E N T

    J A M E S H . C H A R L E S W O R T H

    T R I N I T Y P R E S S I N T E R N A T I O N A LH A R R I S B U R G , P A

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    Copyright 1985, 1998 by James H. CharlesworthAll rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in aretrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic,mechanical , photocopying, recording, or o therwise , without the wri t tenpermiss ion of the publisher.Trini ty Press International , P .O. Box 132 1, Ha rrisburg , PA 17105Trini ty Press International is a part of the Morehouse GroupCover: The Sea of Gali lee with Mt. Arbel in the dis tance , J . CharlesworthCover design by Rick Sni/. ikLibrary of Congress Cata log ing- in-Publ icat ion DataChar lesworth , James H.

    The Old Tes tament pseudepigrapha and the New Tes tament :prolegomena for the s tudy of Chris t ian origins / James HamiltonCha r le s wor th .

    p. cm .Orig ina lly pub l ished : Cam bridge [Cam bridgesh i re ] ; New York : Cam bridge Univers i ty Press , 1985, in series : Monograph series (Socie tyfor New Tes tament S tud ies ) ; 54 .

    Includes bibl iographical references and index.ISB N 1-56338-257-1 (paper : a lk . paper)1 . Ap ocryp hal book s (Old Testa m ent) Crit ic ism , in terpre ta t ion,etc . 2. Bib le . N.T . Crit ic ism , in terpre ta t ion, e tc . 3 . Jud aism His to ryPos t -e x il i c pe riod, 586 B .C . -21 0 A .D . 4 . C h r i s t i a n i t y -O rigin . I. Title .

    BS1700 .C44 1998229 ' . 9106dc 21 98 -39834C IP

    Printed in the United States of America98 99 0 0 01 02 03 7 6 5 4 3 2

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    C O N T E N T S

    Preface to the New Edition viiPreface to the Original Edition xxvAbbreviations xxixIntroduction 11 The Ps e ude p igr apha: Ne w Oppor tun i t i e s and Cha l le nge s

    for the Biblical Sch olar 6Introduction 6The M odern Study of the Pseu depig raph a 6New Op portunit ies and Ch allenges 18The Can on, Inspirat ion and the Pseu depig rapha 25Conclusion 26

    2 The Pseud epigraph a, Ear ly Jud aism and Ch ris t ian O rig ins 27Introduction 27Dating the Evid ence 31M ethodo logy: A Search for the Essen ce of Early Juda ism 47Perceptions of Early Judaism and Chris t ian Orig ins 58The Co sm ic Theo logy of Early Judaism 65The Eschatological An thropo logy of Early Judaism 67Conclusion 68

    3 The Pseudepigraph a and the New Testam ent 70Introduction 70Scrutiniz ing the Literary Rela t ionships Between

    the Pseud epigrap ha and the Ne w Testam ent 70The Pseudep igrapha and Dating the Ne w Testam ent 80M essianism and Ch ris tology: A M ajor Prob lem atic Term 87Conclusion 91

    Notes 94Indexes 135

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    P R E F A C E T O T H E N E W E D I T I O N

    Pseudepigrapha Research at the End ofthe Second Mil lennium

    Texts devoid of an historical context have litt le meaning or, worse, canmean whatever someone wants them to mean. Texts reveal their author 'smeaning (or range of meanings) when we unders tand their original contexts. The context of the writings in the New Testament is the world ofEarly Judaism; that is so because Jews composed a lmost a l l the wri t ingscollec ted into the New Testament. To perceive what Jesus may havemeant, according to Paul or the authors of the gospels, requires studyingwhat he reputedly said and did within his context; that is , within the worldof Early Judaism.If we seek to understand the origins of Christianity, then we mustrecreate for perception and unders tanding the Jewish world of Jews wholived before the burning of Jerusalem by the Romans in 70 C.E. and especially within ancient Palestine. How do we do that? And, how do the OldTestament Pseudepigrapha help us in recreat ing f irs t-century Judaism?

    For centuries scholars created a unif ied sys tem called "NormativeJudaism" and attributed it to first-century Palestine. They worked the NewTestament, Josephus , and the Mishnah as i f these collec t ions were minesfrom which one could easily extract details from pre-70 Judaism. This toofaci le construct is recognized as corrupt and m isreprese nta t ive . W hy ? Virtually all of the New Testament, all of Josephus, and all the tractates in theMishnah were written after 70 C.E., and that was when Judaism changedsignificantly.

    After 70 the numerous groups and sects disappeared. Only two groupssurvived. One would develop into Rabbinic Judaism by je t t isoning muchthat had been essential to earlier Jews, notably eschatology, messianism,apocalypticism, and especially searching for meaning by recasting historyas story. The other Jewish group to survive 70 was eventually to be calledChristianity, and it emphasized and developed many of the aspects ofEarly Judaism re jected or diminished by Rabbinic Judaism.

    As a reaction to this old traditional approach some scholars boldlyclaimed that Early Judaism did not exist. These scholars claimed that we

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    Preface to the New Edition viiimust ta lk about Judaisms not a Judaism. They c la imed that the world ofearly Jews before 70 was chaotic. This construct focused on the diversityof the Old Testament Pseudepigrapha and failed to learn from early tradit ions in the New Testament, Josephus , and the Mishnah. These threesources are essentia l in recreat ing and unders tanding Early Judaism, butthe vast amount of early traditions preserved in them need to be sifted soas to remove la ter in terpre ta t ions or a l tera t ions to them. ' Judaism becamechaotic in 68 C.E. when Jews revolted agains t Roman oppress ion. TheJews were without an organized front, a standing army, or a recognizedleader. In fact som e Palestinian cities join ed the R om an s and others join edthe rebell ion; thus Sepphoris survived to bequeath us eventually the so-called Mona Lisa of the Middle East, and Gamla lies in the ruins left byTitus and Vespasian.'^ In the late sixties, and not before, Judaism was internally divided and in chaos.

    If Early Judaism is a concept, and if i t was neither normative norchaotic, then what unified Jews and how do we learn about their religion?First, we learn from them by reading primarily what they wrote and leftfor us to digest. That is the Jewish writings in the Old Testament Pseudepigrapha (devoid of later additions that can be isolated) and the Dead SeaScrolls (all of which antedate 68 or 70 C.E.). Second, we study the NewTestament, Josephus , and the Mishnah, searching for t radit ions that helpus recreate Early Judaism.

    We should res is t the temptat ion to create a sys tematic or "orthodox"Judaism. That would be tantamount to project ing back into an earl ier t imelater concerns; and many of these are often the domain of Christianity.There is no evidence that pre-70 Jews were united in wanting to developa system or orthodoxy. Variety and diversity were not only tolerated butusually desired, as we learn from reading the Mishnah. The earliest evidence of Jews seeking one r ight teaching among diverse groups appearsin the earl ies t New Testament documents , and in Paul 's wri t ings that predate 70.

    What unified Jews prior to 70 so that I and others can talk about a cons truct ca l led Early Judaism? No answer wil l be devoid of some subject ivity, and the answer is not to be found in one document or in one collectionof early documents . I wish now to make only two points : (1) what scholars often claim to be unifying elements are almost always catalysts fordivers i ty ; (2) Jews were united by worship and creeds . The axiom to beused is surely that if we want to see all of Judaism prior to 70, or 135(when the final revolt against Rome was squelched), then we must includeall of it for review. To focus on one part is to be blind to the totality. Toselect one group as more important is to impose on history a later personalcri ter ion.

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    Preface to the New Edition ix(1) What experts h ighlight as unifying e lements within Early Judaism

    were also causes for diversity. The Temple certainly unified almost allJews, and vir tual ly a l l Jews would have agreed that Jerusalem was thecenter of the world (the axis mundi; cf. Jubilees). The Temple and its cult,however, a lso caused divers i ty , causing the exodus to Qumran and theanti-Temple rhetoric found in many documents composed a t Qumran ( theDead Sea Scrolls ) . The Sam ari tans mu st be included in any assessm ent ofEarly Judaism, and they vehemently re jec ted both Jerusalem and the Temple as the place in which to worship God. Also, there were thousands ofdisenfranchised pries ts and anti-Temple groups within the Land. Pi lgrimages to Jerusalem were not only signs of some unity but also the scenes ofdis turbances and even murders by those who were Jews opposed to anypilgrimage to Jerusalem.

    The Land was sure ly a source of pride and unity , especia l ly when readin light of the prom ises to A bra ha m . Yet, Ph ilo had to urge his fellow Jew sto revere old Abrahamic tradit ions and he sure ly did not make the mandatory pi lgrimages to Jerusalem (he apparently went to the Temple perhapsonly once or twice). The Qumranites withdrew into the wilderness toatone for the Land. There was in antiquity no mass re turn to the Land;most Jews l ived outs ide the Land. Moreover, defining the Land would nothave unif ied Jews l iv ing in Samaria , Gali lee , and Judea.

    Race and common ancestry were unifying factors . But race was not acriterion in antiquity. Herod could claim to be a Jew, although he was anIdumean. Jews of mixed races made c la ims to being ful ly Jewish, andsuch c la ims led to legis la t ions within some groups that excluded suchJews; yet there was the often annoying recognit ion that David, the greatest king in the history of Israel, was of mixed race.

    Scripture sure ly did unify most Jews. But some Jews certa inly wouldhave c la imed that the Temple Scroll was equal to and perhaps superior toDeuteronomy. And the Qumranites probably c la imed that their col lec t ionof the Psalms was superior to other collec t ions . Recogniz ing that before70 C.E. Jews read so many divergent vers ions of the documents widely(but not universally) recognized as Scripture reveals that Scripture unifiedbut a lso divided Jews. The groups represented by Sirach would have disassocia ted themselves from groups that adhered to tradit ions found in theWisdom of So lomon. The Samari tans , the Enoch groups , and the Qumrangroup would have denigra ted the concept of Scripture demanded by there igning pries ts in Jerusalem.

    It is tempting to claim that opposition and oppression from outsideJudaism unified Jews, and there is anti-Judaism in antiquity. But the evidence reveals that opposit ion sometimes highlighted divers i ty . Pompeyand the Romans were invited into the Land by two feuding Jewish r ivals

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    Preface to the New Edition xat war. There is no evidence that the Parthian invasion of 40 B.C.E. unified Jews. The Roman siege of Jerusalem in the late sixties certainly didnot unite the rivals John of Gischala and Simon Bar Giori. How to resistRome el ic i ted responses of to lera t ion (Jesus and the Testament of Moses)and open conflict (the Zealots, Sicarii , bandits , etc.).

    To hear the charge , "W hat text can you c i te to prove your poin t?" onlyreveals the speaker as one who is too focused on texts, and hence incapable of understanding the past. The past must not be reconstructed fromliterary sources alone. We must also study archaeological artifacts and theiconography of antiquity . For example , mystica l Jews interes ted in magica nd He l l e n i s t i c c u l tu re wou ld v io la te To ra ha c c o rd ing to s omeJewsby perhaps portraying Yahweh with anguipedes (serpents as feet).-*Such reflections can lead to the acquiescence that Judaism was chaoticallydiverse before 70 C.E. I am persuaded that we have missed something inmaking that move. What then unified Jews so that we can talk about EarlyJudaism (ca. 250 B.C.E. to ca. 200 C.E.)? I can only briefly summarizemy own thoughts .

    (2) Jews were united in some ways and in some t imes . That observat ion a l lows us to ta lk about "Jews" and "Early Judaism." I am convincedthat Jews were united by a passion for study. Galileans, Samaritans,Judeans , and Qumranites have left us evidence that s tudy was to bedevoted to God and his Word as represented in the Pentateuch. Study ledto debates in which meaning came a l ive through divergent points of v iew.Agreement and orthodoxy was not the norm; ra ther, pass ion and devotionto unders tanding Wisdom and l iv ing according to the precepts of Wisdomwere unifying forces. Worship of only One God, the Creator who is stillcreating, was a norm that helps us talk about Early Judaism." The need topraise Go d the God of Ab raha m , Isaac , and Jacob wa s widely recognized by Jews as diverse as the Qumranites, the Samaritans, the disenfranchised priests at Bethel (and elsew he re), and the ruling priests in Jerusalem .

    Finally, I find a unifying force in the creeds shared by most Jews.Gal i leans , Samari tans , Qumrani tes , Judeans , Idumean Jews , the conserva t ive Sadducees in the Temple would a l l reveal their common bonds asJews by reci t ing the Shema (Deut. 6 :4-5). ' This creedal formula in Scripture, acknowledged by all Jews as divinely inspired, was, as I see thatt ime , the centripetal force that enables us today to talk about early Jewsand Early Judaism. ' '

    The Jewish wri t ings in the Old Testament Pseudepigrapha thus do notportray nothing that has no construct . They reveal Early Judaism. Thisreligion (if that is an appropriate concept) was obviously not a unified system. Early Judaism wa s someth ing l ike a powerful hurricane; it had s trongwinds blowing in all directions but it also had a center. Yet, as all analo-

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    Preface to the New Edition xigies are misleading, we should not seek to isolate the center or core. Weshould not think about Early Judaism as a unity despite diversity. It evidences a unity bound up with diversity. That is , the winds and the centerdemarca te the whole .

    Having a t tempted to expla in what I mean by Early Judaism, and whyI am convinced we can ta lk about some unity within divers i ty , we maynow move on to the texts that are the focal point of the present book. Whatthen is the Old Testam ent Pse ude pigr aph a?

    The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha is a modern collec t ion of earlyJewish wri t ings , some of which have been expanded by Chris t ians , andearly Chris t ian composit ions . All documents included in th is ca tegory areformed by the Torah, the Book of the People.

    The Pseudepigrapha as a collec t ion must not be confused with ancientcollec t ions defined by the place in which documents were discovered.Thus, i t must not be confused with ancient collec t ions l ike the Dead SeaScrolls , which are over seven hundred documents found in caves northwest of the Dead Sea, or the Nag Hammadi Codices , which are over f if tydocuments found near the Nile in Upper Egypt.

    The modern collec t ion highlighted here is the most extensive oneavailable , namely. The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha, 2 vols . (GardenCity, N.Y.: Doubleday, 1983-85 [= OTP\). This collec tion of books (editedby J. H. Charlesworth) is similar to other current collections, such as thefollowing: the German edition (edited first by W. G. Kiimmel and then H.Lichtenberger) tit led Jiidische Schriften aus hellenistisch-rdmischer Zeit;the Spanish five-volume collection (edited by A. Diez Macho et al.) t i t ledApocrifos del Antigua Testamento; the French volume (edited by A.Dupont-Sommer and M. Philonenko) f i l led L M Bible: Ecrits Intertesta-mentaires; and the Italian tw o vo lum es (ed ited by P. Sa cch i) ti tled Apoc-rifi dell'Antico Testam ento.

    By what cri ter ia have modern scholars se lected the documentsincluded in such collections; that is , how are such documents to be distinguished from other, somewhat s imilar , wri t ings? How does one go aboutdefining or describing a modern collec t ion of ancient wri t ings? The taskis complicated because the documents to be considered for inclus ion arepreserved in an abundance of languages (e .g . , Hebrew, Aramaic , Greek,Latin , Syriac , Coptic , Slavic , Ethiopic , Armenian, and Georgian); moreover, the documents have been discovered not in one place but in numerous monasteries , l ibraries , museums, and private homes. What defini t ionor description helps guide the forming of a collection?

    Along with other experts I am convinced that a defini t ion of "Pseudepigrapha" is not poss ible ; one can only describe i ts contours . Thus , Iwould define the Old Testament Pseudepigrapha as ancient documents

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    Preface to the New Edition xiicomposed by Jews (and sometimes by Chris t ians or expanded by them)that date from approximately 250 B.C.E. to about 200 C.E. While theprovenience of most of the works in the Pseudepigrapha is uncerta in ,m any wer e certa inly com pose d in ancient Pales t ine . Within that group 1would include the fol lowing: Books of Enoch, Jubilees , Psalms ofSolomon, and Testaments of the Twelve Patr iarchs . Unlike some otherearly Jewish composit ions , the Pseudepigrapha usually c la im to preservefresh revelation and to be like other writings in the so-called Old Testament (or Hebrew Scriptures). Usually, they are attributed to Old Testament f igures l ike Adam, Enoch, Abraham, Isaac , Jacob, Joseph, Moses ,David, Solomon, Isa iah, Jeremiah, Baruch, and Ezra . While modernresearch has shown that such attribution is pseudepigraphical (that is ,inaccurate ly a t tr ibuted to A dam or other prom inent person s in the Bible) ,the ancient authors (and their communit ies) bel ieved in the sacredness ofthese wri t ings . Many Jew s most l ikely assum ed that the wo rk derived ul t i mate ly (perhaps through dreams or vis ions) from the person to whom itwas a t tr ibuted. Such Jews a lso assumed that David had composed and collec ted the Davidic Psal ter and that Solomon had composed Proverbs ,Eccles ias tes , and the Song of Songs . Pseudepigraphical a t t r ibution is thustypical of so-cal led extracanonical and intracanonical worksbut onemust be careful not to give the impression that we can talk about a closed"canon" before 70 C.E.

    It should be helpful to clarify the genres represented in the major categories employed in the Pseudepigrapha. There are f ive subcategories : theexpansions of bibl ica l narra t ives , psalms or odes , tes taments , apocalypses ,and wisdom or philosophic l i tera ture . What fol lows are se lect ions fromeach subcategory; the succinct i l lus tra t ions in troduce the s tudent to eachof these subsections of the Pseudepigrapha.

    1. Expansions of Biblical N arratives. The Life of Adam and Eve {VitaAdae et Evae) was written by a Jew, probably in ancient Palestine, in thefirst century C.E. in order to expand upon and explain problems with orissues ra ised by the bibl ica l s tory concerning Adam and Eve. This document describes the life of Adam and Eve after their expulsion from theGarden of Eden. The work is extant in Latin, but a recension is preservedin Greek ( the misnamed Ascension of Moses) . This work conta ins one ofthe rare references in early Jewish literature to the concept of the imagodei (chap. 13-15). The author focused on the concept of sin and gaveprominence to repentance (chap. 1-8). An attractive interiude is the storyof the futile attempt by Eve and Seth to obtain "the oil of mercy" fromParadise so that they might anoint a s ickened and dying Adam (chap.40-44). Reflect ions on what our predecessors thought about the horrors ofseeingfor the first t imea human being age and then die is mirrored in

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    Preface to the New Edition xiiithis early Jewish story. The account also reflects Jewish introspection andthe search for meaning in a t ime so frequently devoid of meaning.

    The Lives o f the Prophe tsextan t in numerous languages , inc lud ingSyriac and Latin and especia l ly the original Greekdescribes the l ivesand deaths of the three major and tw elve m inor pro phets as well as D anie l .In addition it includes the seven non-literary prophets mentioned in theHebrew Bible . Since the work is extant only in manuscripts that showChris t ian influences , i t is conceivable that a Chris t ian composed the work.It is not im poss ible that it is a fifth-century C .E. com po sitio n. M an yexperts , however, tend to favor a Jewish original , s ince most of the passages are conspicuo usly free of Ch ris t ian ideas and ph rases . Also indicat ive of Jewish composit ion and a date prior to the second century C.E.may be a reference to Eli jah coming from "the land of the Arabs" (21:1).This aside seems to indicate that Transjordan still was part of Arabia andnot a Roman province as it became under Trajan in 106 C.E. If so, thenthe wo rk is Jewish and was com pos ed p rior to 106. Typical of th is pseu de-pigraphon is the fol lowing excerpt: "Isa iah, from Jerusalem, died underManasseh by being sawn in two, and was buried underneath the Oak ofRogel , near the place where the path crosses the aqueduct whose waterHezekia l shut off by blocking the source" {OTP 2:385) .

    2. Psalms or Odes. The Psa lms of So lomon a re seven teen psa lms composed, probably in Hebrew, in the latter half of the first century B.C.E. inJerusalem by a group of Jews s imilar to , but probably not identica l with ,the Pharisees . One of the most important references to the Messiah in pre-70 Jewish l i tera ture occurs in the las t two psalms. Note Psalms ofSolomon 17:32:

    And he wil l be a r ighteous king over them, taught by God.There wil l be no unrighteousness among them in his days ,for all shall be holy,and their k ing shall be the Lord Messiah. {OTP 2:667)

    The Odes of Solomon is properly recognized as the earl ies t Chris t ianhymnbook. I t consis ts of forty-two odes a t tr ibuted to Solomon. The authorwas obviously a conv ert from Juda ism to "Ch ris t iani ty ," and con ceiva blyhe may have once been an Essene (primari ly because the author seems tohave memorized sec t ions in the Qumranic Thanksg iv ing Hymns) . Thedate is not certain, but som etim e aro und 1(X) C .E. is likely. Th e nu m ero usl inks with the Gospel of John (e specia l ly in the Lo gos H ym n) indicate thatthe document was mos t l ike ly composed wi th in the Johannine Community .^ Note Ode 7:7-8:

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    Preface to the New Edition xivThe Fa ther o f knowledge

    is the Word of knowledge.He who c rea ted wisdom

    is wiser than his works. {OTP 2:740)Has the author of th is ode used the express ion "Father of knowledge"because in Essene lore the Creator was memorized as "the God of knowle dge " ( I Q S 3 :15 )?

    It is obvious that the Jewish hymns, prayers, and odes are essentialsources that must be comprehended and apprecia ted by New Testamentstudents who are interested in the origins and meaning of their faith. Onlythen will the student really understand the hymns found in the New Testament, especially in the Gospel of Luke and in the Revelation of John.Most of these early Jewish hymns are found either in the Pseudepigraphaor in the Dead Sea Scrolls.*

    3. Testaments. The Testament of Adam is trifurcated into a Horarium(hours of the day and night), the Prophecy, and the Hierarchy (angelol-ogy). The first two sections are Jewish and probably date from the firsttwo centuries of the common era . The Hierarchy was composed by aChristian sometime between the second and fifth centuries C.E. Syriac isprobably the original language of each sect ion. The work is importantbecause it i l lustrates again how and why Christians were inherifing andyet edit ing considerably early Jewish wri t ings . The document i l lus tra testhe pervasive early Jewish concept that there is a determined and properorder to the universe and that cosmic events have ass igned t imes and seasons (cf 1 En oc h) . M ost impo rtantly, in the Chrisfian add ition Adam ispromised deification; and despite the Fall he shall ascend to his appointedplace . Note 3:4 (which seems to be composed ex ore Christi): "And afterthree da ys , wh ile I am in the tom b, I will raise up the body I received fromyou. A n d. . . I wil l m ake you a god ju s t l ike you wa nted " {OTP 1:994).

    Three pseudepigrapha, namely, the Testament of Abraham, the Testament of Isaac, and the Testament of Jacob are organically related; that is ,the f irs t composit ion, the Testament of Abraham, gave r ise to the seconddocument, and they together to the th ird work. Each was most l ikely composed in Greek, perhaps evolving from traditions, even a written source,left by an Egyptian Jew of the first century C.E. In their present form,however, the la t ter two works are Chris t ian; each conta ins Chris t iane mbe l l i s hme n ts .

    The most important aspect of the Testament of Abraham is i ts univer-salism and avoidance of distinctly Jewish concepts such as Torah andcovenant . The author seems to define Judaism generical ly as a re l ig ion ofmorality. Typically Egyptian is the account of the weighing of souls at

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    Preface to the New Edition xvjud gm ent (chap. 12). Jewish h um or and lore is found in the accou nt ofD eath 's vis it to Ab raham (cha p. 1 6-2 0). Regally a t t i red and disguise d,Death comes to take his soul to God. Abraham asks to see Death 's rea lappearance. Death then reveals his ugliness , and immediate ly seven thousand of A bra ha m 's servants die . A brah am rem ains a l ive , only to be even tually tricked by Death. Michael and other angels bury his body but takehis soul to heaven.

    While the Testament of Isaac may have been composed original ly inthe first century C.E., i t is preserved only in late manuscripts , so one cannot discern its original date of composition. In its present form it seems toemanate from the Coptic Church, since one of its purposes is to specifythe dates of the deaths of A brah am and Isaac accord ing to that chur ch. T heuniversa l ism of the Testament of Abraham is continued in the Testamentof Isaac . For exam ple , note 2:9: "Thu s you shall be fathers to al l the w orld ,O faithful elder, our father Isaac" {OTP 1:905).

    The Testament of Jacob, preserved only in la te manuscripts , seems inits extant form to be at least a century later than the Testament of Isaac.The bless ing of only Manasseh and Ephraim, the use of only Genesis , andthe importance of Jacob (cal led many names, including Jacob-Israel) a l lindicate poss ible Samari tan influences . Jacob is sa id to have "seen Godface to face" and to have beheld the ladder and "the Lord sitting at its topwith a power which no one cou ld desc r ibe" (2 :14-16) {OTP 1:914-15) .

    The Tes tament o f M oses ( = Assum pt ion of Mos es ) i s p rese rvedincomplete ly in only one Latin manuscript ( indeed a s ixth-centurypalimpsest) . I t purports to conta in Moses ' las t words to Joshua. I t mayhave been composed in the early second century B.C.E. , but i t more l ikelyreached its present form in the early decades of the first century C.E. Itwas most likely com pose d in Hebre w or A ram aic , and in ancient Palestine. This document focuses on the conquest of the Land under Joshua, buts tresses that overt ac t ion agains t pagans wil l come only from God, whowill come to avenge Israel (10:3 , 7). Passages such as these may havebeen intended to cool the zealous anger of Palestinian Jews who in thedecades prior to 66 C.E. hated the Romans for occupying the Land andoppress ing God's chosen race . The document in tends to convey a messageof hope for the oppressed l iv ing in ancient Pales t ine during the Romanconques t .The Testament of Job was written either in the first century B.C.E. orthe f irs t century C.E. I t was probably composed in Greek somewhere inEgypt, and conceivably by Jews c lose to the Therapeutae . The work highl ights pat ience and endurance among a l l the vir tues . Note the s toic character of Job: "I am your father Job, fully engaged in endurance" (1:5){OTP 1:839). This tes tament a lso shows specia l in teres t in women, includ-

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    Preface to the New Edition xvi

    4. Apocalypses. Only two apocalypses appear in the Chris t ian Bible :Dan iel and the Re velatio n of John . M ost of the full-blown apo calyp sesnow are collec ted together within the Pseudepigrapha. The most importantare the well-known Books of Enoch, Fourth Ezra , and the Apocalypse ofBaruch. Less well known is the Apocalypse of Abraham. I t was probablycomposed in Hebrew, by a Jew, about the t ime of the Revela t ion of John,and possibly in ancient Palestine.

    On e must be cautious in working his torica l ly on the Ap ocalyp se ofAbraham. It is extant only in late Slavic manuscripts . The apocalypse isconfused and contains visions difficult to understand. Like the work'scontemporaneous apocalypses , namely, 4 Ezra and 2 Baruch, i t preservesevidence that pagan Roman soldiers had burned the Temple (chap. 27).The author offers a vague explanation for this catastrophe. The reason forthe loss of the Temple is apparently because Abraham's descendants cont inuous ly p rovoked Go d to anger (2 0 :6 -7 ; 25 :6 -7 ; 27 :7 ; 28 :4) due to the iridola try (25:1-6) and murderous deeds (27:7). Obviously humorous isAbraham's f irs t person discourse on how his fa ther 's idols were crushedby the unc ont rolla ble action of an ass.^ A br ah am 's plight is settled by Syrians. They willingly pay for both smashed idols and the gods that remain.Thence Abraham flips the three broken gods into a river in which theysank "and were no more" (2 :1-9) {OTP 1:690).

    The Apocalypse of Zephaniah is of uncerta in date ; i t appears to havebeen composed by a Jew, in Greek, sometime in the first or second century C.E. , conceivably in Alexandria . Indicat ive perhaps of a pre-70 dateis the pro-Edomite sentiment of 3:1-2, " 'Come, le t me show you the[place (?)] of r ighteousness . ' And he took me [up] upon Mount Seir . . . . "{OTP 1:510). Important for a better perception of the far off city of theLetter to the Hebrews (13:14) is the description of the beautiful city inchapter 5 . Like the Apocalypse of Abraham, the Apocalypse of Zephaniahcontains the concept of weighing souls: "It is necessary that the good and

    ing a unique portrayal of his first wife, Sitis , and his daughters. Poignantis the story of Sitis . Once she was wealthy but now penniless. Thus, shemust sell her hair so as to purchase three loaves of bread. She shares themwith Job. Satan, disguised as a bread seller, is the villain who cuts her hair,while a crowd in the marketplace marvels (chap. 23-24). Note the lamentfor Sitis in 25:6:See one who used to have a foot basin of gold and silver,

    and now she goes along by foot:Even her hair she gives in exchange for loaves! {OTP 1:850)

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    Preface to the New Edition xviithe evil be weigh ed in a ba lan ce" (8 :5) . The le i tmotif is the ju dg m en t a llhumans must face . While angels with trumpets (9-12) are reminiscent ofthe Revelation of John, the depiction of suffering sinners recall the muchlater Divine Comedy of Dante .

    The Apocalypse of Eli jah is preserved only in Coptic (both theAkhmimic and Sahidic seem to derive from a Greek Vorlage) and Greekfragments . The work is composite and can be divided into f ive extensivecha pters : a discussio n of praye r and fasting (ch ap. 1), the time before thecoming of the Antichris t (chap. 2) and a depic t ion of him (chap. 3) , threemartyrdoms (chap. 4) , and f inal ly , oracles concerning the end of t ime(chap. 5) . This docum ent is not easy to date . I t may have been com pose dsometime between the first and fourth centuries C.E. by a Jew or a Christian. It is possible that this pseudepigraphon was composed in third-centuryEgypt by a Chris t ian scribe wh o inheri ted mu ch earl ier Jew ish tradit ionsor even sources. But while it is clearly Christian in its final and only extantform, many experts conclude that i t derives from a los t Jewish composition. Scholars have speculated on the date of this lost Jewish work, concluding that it may be as early as the early postexilic period, or date to thet ime of the Alexan drian Jew ish revolt of 1 16-1 17 C.E . N um ero us spe cialists today think that the Jewish document may have been written in thefirs t century C.E. Origen, Clement of Rome, and Clement of Alexandriamay have know n i t. Th ou gh the doc um ent is not a full-fledged apoc alypse , i t does conta in apocalyptic perspectives ; note , for example , th isexcerp t : "Everyone who wi l l obey me wi l l rece ive th rones and c rowns . . . .They will walk with the angels up to my city" (1:8, 10) {OTP 1:736-37).

    J . Wisdom or Philosophic Literature. Four th Maccabees was mos tl ikely comp osed by a Jew ish philosoph ical theolo gian, in Gre ek, betw een63 B.C.E. and 70 C.E. , perhaps in Alexandria , more l ikely in Antioch ( inwhich there was a cult of the Maccabean martyrs) , but even conceivablyin Pales t ine . The recurring theme is that reason enables humans to overcome pass ions . The heroes are Joseph, Moses , Jacob, David (with reference to 2 Sam. 23:13-17), and especia l ly the famous martyrs of the Maccabean age, part icularly , Eleazar and the seven brothers with their mother(1:8) . The author knew that he had to define both "reason" and "pass ion."The latter concept is rather easy to define, but the former is difficult andreveals the author 's Jewishness . He grounds his defini t ion of reason inTorah: "But we have to define what reason is and what pass ion i s . . . . Re a son, I suggest, is the mind making a deliberate choice of the life of wisdom. Wisdom, I submit , is knowledge of th ings divine and human, and oftheir causes . And this w isdom , I assu m e, is the culture we acqu ire from theLaw, through which we learn the things of God reverently and the thingsof men to our wor ld ly advantage" (1 :14-17) {OTP 2:545) . If 4 M accabee s

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    Preface to the New Edition xviii

    N e w D e v e l o p m e n t sWhat is new and challenging in the s tudy of the Pseudepigrapha s ince thepresent book appeared in 1985, th ir teen years ago? M any answ ers areforthcoming, such as the abundance of new texts regarding the Messiahfound am ong the Dead Sea S crolls . '" Th ese wil l help us bet ter unders tandthe messianism in such Jewish documents as the Psalms of Solomon, 4Ezra , and especia l ly the "intr acan onic al" gosp els . A m ong po ss ible reflections, I hav e chosen to focus on only four of the most im porta nt a nsw ers.

    /. Full Collection. The expanded nature of the Pseudepigrapha, whichcharacterizes the OTP, is now certainly justified. We even need to think

    was composed in Pales t ine , then the fol lowing observations are appropriate . The document was pe rhaps in tended as a commemora t ive address tobe read aloud at the site where the Maccabees were buried; that is , actually at Modein in the hill country to the west of Jerusalem. This hypothes is f i ts well with what is known about the monumental tombs and pyramids built at Modein by Simon the Maccabee in honor of his father andbro thers . These monuments were we l l known when 4 Maccabees wascom posed (1 M ace . 2 :70 ; 9 : 18 -2 1 ; 13 :25- 30 ; Josephu s , Ar. 12 .210-12) .

    It is evident that the Pseudepigrapha, especially the clearly Jewishwrit ings that antedate 135 C.E. , when B ar Ko khb a w as defeated, must becomprehended in the a t tempt to define and describe Jewish thought andlife during the Second Temple Period. Along with the Apocrypha, theDead Sea Scrolls , Josephus, the early Jewish tradifions in the New Testament, and the early Jewish portions of the tractates in the Mishnah, thePseudepigrapha are requis i te reading for unders tanding and reconstruct ingEarly Judaism . The y provide the s tudent and scholar with data from whichto recreate the context of the historical Jesus of Nazareth and the movement that eventually became divorced from Judaism, receiving the eponymous label "Chris t iani ty ."

    It is now clear that to understand a text demands perceiving its context . The noun "context" has two meanings . Firs t , there is the his torica lcontext that a l lows us to comprehend the reasons why authors wrote , whatthey may have intended to communicate , and how some of their readerswould have unders tood or misunders tood them. Second, there is the l i terary context . This a l lows the exegete to grasp what words mean and whatmeaning seems to have been poured into the text. Both the historical andliterary contexts of passages in the New Testament appear in a new light,and sometimes with unexpected meaning, thanks to ins ights obta inedfrom reading the Old Testament Pseudepigrapha.

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    Preface to the New Edition xixabout other documents that are poss ible candidates for inclus ion withinthis corpus; that is , works that were not included in the OTP and in ThePseudepigrapha and M odem Research}^ Three wri t ings a lone may nowbe ment ioned . ' "

    The first book to be considered for inclusion in the Old TestamentPseudepigrapha is the Apocalypse of Elchasai. It dates from the early partof the second century C .E. , was com po sed by a Jew or a Jew ish Chris t ian,and is an a p o c a l y p s e .T h e deb a te over the de f in i tion and unders tand ingof such terms as "Jewish," "Jewish Chris t ian," and "Chris t ian," as well as"orthodoxy" and "heresy" wil l be enriched by a s tudy of th is document.The wriung is also important for a perception of the origins of Christianbaptism. '" The unders tanding of the origins of the Odes of Solomon andthe Testaments of the Twelve Patr iarchs involve categories and methodologies that are encountered in s tudying this book c la imed as authenticrevela t ion by the Elkesai tes , a "Jewish-Chris t ian sect" that congregatedjus t eas t of the Jordan sometime beginning around 100 C.E.

    The second book that is important to discuss when considering thescope and nature of the Pseudepigrapha anew is the so-cal led Apocalypseof Pseudo-Methodius . This is an apocalypse , but a la te work, perhaps dating from the seventh century C.E., which was attributed to the famous St.Methodius of Olympus (died ca . 311 C.E.) whose works are mostly los t .The Apocalypse of Pseudo-Methodius is extant in Greek, Latin , and Syriac, but i t conta ins many old tradit ions ." Some of these could be important and perhaps Jewish, since the work purports to be the history of theworld from Adam unti l the end of t ime. Thus , th is apocalypse may behelpful in discerning some early Jewish tradit ions .

    Th e third book is the Book of the Gian ts . Th e work w as known beforethe discovery of the documents in the Qumran caves; i t was known to theManicheans and part ly preserved in the Midrash of Shemhazai andAzazel ." ' Now we have the original Aramaic from documents preserved inthe Qumran caves ." Unfortunate ly , the work is now preserved only inextremely small fragments . The Book of the Giants is re la ted to the Booksof Enoch, probably dependent on the Enochic Book of Watchers , conta instradit ions and concerns s imilar to those found in Pseudo-Eupolemus, isclearly Jewish, and obviously antedates 68 C.E.;"* hence, it is a strong candidate for inclusion within the OTP}''2. Qumran Pseudepigrapha. Scholars and serious s tudents in teres tedin the production of pseudepigraphical composit ions by Jews before theburning of Jerusalem in 70 C.E. must master the pseudepigraphic workspreserved among the Dead Sea Scrolls . The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha (works in the OTP) are s imilar to the Qu m ran Pseu depig raph a.The la tter are pseudep igraphical c om pos it ions know n from fragments

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    Preface to the New Edition xxfound in the eleven Qumran Caves; that is , works not found in the Bible,the OTP, or the Old Testament Apocrypha. The most important QumranPseudepigrapha are the fol lowing ( l is ted in a lphabetica l order):

    Apo crypha l Psa lm wi th Psa lm 122:1 -9Apocryphon 1-4Apocryphon of Jacob arApo cryphon of Je remiah A -EApocryphon of Joseph arApocryphon of Judah arApocryphon of Moses

    Aramaic Apoca lypse a rAramaic Apocrypha l Work a rBarki NafshiBook of the MysteriesDa v id Apoc ryphonGenes is Apocryphon a rGiants (or) Pseudo-Enoch arMalach i ApocryphonMidrash Sefe r MosesMos e s Apoc ryphon A -CM oses Fragm ent 1 -2Mys te r ies

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    Preface to the New Edition xxiNew JerusalemNo ah Apo cryhpon 1-2Prayer of Enosh?Prayer of Esther arPrayer of Joseph

    Prayer of MichaelPrayer of NabonidusProphetic Apocryphon 1 - 3Psalms of JoshuaPseudep igraphic Work 1-3Pseudo-Daniel arPseudo-Ezckie lPseudo-Lamenta t ionsPs e udo -Mos e sSamuel-Kings ApocryphonSapientia l FragmentsSapiential TestamentSapiential WorksSayings of MosesSons of Jacob FragmentTestament of Qahatar

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    Preface to the New Edition xxii

    It is a pity that these wo rks are pre serv ed o nly in fragm ents often,minuscule pieces (sometimes the s ize of a f ingernail) .

    One work not yet mentioned conta ins pseudepigraphical composit ions . I t is t i t led the Qumran Pseudepigraphic Psalms (4Q380 and 381).This collection of psalms, usually similar to the poetry of the DavidicPsa lm s, conta ins psa lms a t tr ibuted to Ob adiah (4Q 380 , frag. 1, 2 :8) andMa na s s e h ( 4 Q 3 8 1 , frag. 33 , 1:8). T he latter is ap pr eci ab ly different fromthe Prayer of Manasseh that is among the documents in the OTP}^

    3. Canon. In the pas t two decades scholars have come c loser to a consensus of when and how the canon took shape. The canon was not closedbefore 70 C.E. I have no doubt that the Enoch groups deemed the Booksof Eno ch as fully insp ired as any "bib lica l" book . I am also convin ced thatthe group of Jews behind the Temple Scroll , which is sure ly pre-Qum-ranic , would have judged i t to be quintessentia l Torahthat is , equal to ,and perhaps better than, Deuteronomy. It is now clear that the so-calledPseudepigrapha must not be trea ted as i f they were produced on thefringes of a monoli th ic Judaism (as too many specia l is ts on Rabbinicshave done throughout this century). If we are interested in an accurate historical assessment of Jews who lived before 70 C.E. or before the defeatof Bar Kokhba in 135 C.E. , then we should perceive the Pseudepigraphaas they were apparently judged to be: God's revela t ion to humans.This new perception regarding a canon not-yet-c losed is p lacarded bybooks that now appear with titles altered. Once we picked up a book withthe t i t le "Non-Canonical Psalms." I t now reappears as "Qumran Pseudepigraphic Psalms" or as "Non-Masoret ic Psalms." The concept of a c losedcanon no longer t inges the new t ides . Improved methodology and refinedperceptions should allow for a more inductive and sensitive appraisal ofearly sacred literature. The full function of scripture in Early Judaism andEarly Ch ris t iani ty is an excit ing area for ex pl or a t i on ."

    Vis ion of SamuelVis ions of Amram arWis dom Apoc ryphonWords of MichaelWork Similar to Barki NafshiZodiology and Brontology ar^"

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    Preface to the New Edition xxiii4. Expansions of the "Old Testament" and "Rewritten Bible." Orga

    niz ing the documents collec ted into the OTP led to the realization that itwas necessary to create a new category to cover documents that expandedupon the bibl ica l narra t ive . I chose to ca l l th is new category "Expansionsof the 'Old Testament. '" Included among such works were Jubilees , theMartyrdom and Ascension of Isa iah, Joseph and Aseneth, the Life ofAdam and Eve, the Ladder of Jacob, Jannes and Jambres , the His tory ofthe Rechabites , Eldad and Modad, as well as the His tory of Joseph. As Istated in 19 83, "Ea rly Juda ism wa s a religio n bo un d to and defined by theBook, the Torah. Because God had chosen to reveal h imself in his tory, asacred aura surround ed the events in Israel 's pas t" {OTP 2:5). Judaism andChristianity are religions shaped by a sacred story in which the believerbecomes a part ic ipant . The s tory, as i t evolves and is contemplated, needsto be corrected and expanded.

    Now, among the Dead Sea Scro l ls a re found numerous documentsre la ted to the genre cal led "Expansions of the 'Old Testament. '" They arecal led the "Rew rit ten Bib le ." Th is genre perta in s to a collecfion of textsthat were not composed a t Qumran; they ra ther represent general Jewishthought before the end of ancient Israel in 70 or 135. Like the composit ions in the "Expansions of the 'Old Testament, '" so the documents in the"Rewrit ten Bible" are c losely a l igned with or a t tached to a bibl ica l book;moreover, each group of texts reflec ts the need to rework, rearrange, correct , expla in , or supplement the base text . Three supreme examples ofthese two categories are Jubilees , the Temple Scroll , and 4Q ReworkedP e n t a t e u c h . "

    Less than a decade ago Qumran scholars , who frequently are a lsoexperts on the Pseudepigrapha, met in conferences that seemed to me l ikebloodbaths . The discuss ions degenerated into arguments . The pas t threemajor symposia , however, indicate a re turn to the c ivi l i ty I remember inthe fifties and sixties. Scholars skilled in Qumranology need to be conversant with pseudepigraphical s tudies , and Pseudepigrapha specia l is tsmust know the world of Qumran. As revealed by the categories "Expans ions" and "Rewrit ten Bible ," we are working with one world of Jewishthought, and i t was indelibly shaped by Torah, God's Word in wri t tenform."" And it is within this world, at once chaotic and creative, that Jesustaught and his fol lowers moved in and about synagogue and Temple . Heand they were devout Jews a t tempting to unders tand the meaning of God'sWord for the present . Since the New Testament evolves out of th is e thosand world , and s ince i ts works were wri t ten a lmost a lways by Jews, theorigins of Chris t iani ty l ie deeply planted within Judaism.

    The following reflections are intended as prolegomena for the study ofChris t ian origins . Today, experts concur that we must s tudy the New Tes-

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    Preface to the New Edition xxiv

    J . H. CharlesworthTubingen30 May 1998

    lament text in its context. This endeavor often leads to thoughts about thepeople of the Book. Entering the world of Jesus and his earliest followerswil l s t imulate some pondering, including (hopefully) medita t ions on theBook shaped by the people . Indeed, the people of the Book have given usthe Book of the people . "

    This brief in troduction to the Old Testament Pseudepigrapha isintended to give a broad overview of this collection of early Jewish andChris t ian works . The fol lowing pages are in tended to help the s tudentwork with the documents in th is modern collec t ion, and to avoid errorscommitted in the past. The present work is a republication of the book thatapp eare d in 19 85. I am grateful to C am br idg e Univ ersity P ress for permission to republish the work. I have omitted from the earlier version theappendices , but I have kept correct ions and addit ions to a minimum so asto preserve the original integrity of the book and to keep costs as low aspossible so that students will be able to afford copies. I am grateful toTrinity Press International for agreeing to reissue this book. The Alexander von Hum boldt Stiftung provided a grant that enabled me to preparethis book for republica t ion.

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    P R E F A C E T O T H E O R I G I N A L E D I T I O N

    The present reflections represent some thoughts that have evolvedsince 1958, when I f irst became interested in Early Judaism. Duringthese years my understanding of Early Judaism has changed s ignificantly . M ost impo rtan tly , I gradua lly ab an do ne d the idea that f irst-century Palestinian Jews were mostly activistic and non-reflective;now I kn ow that man y of them were well-educated not on ly in Israeliteand Jewish traditions but also in the achievements of other cultures ,notab ly , R om an , Greek, Syr ian , Egyptian and Iranian ( in the o ldbroad sense). First-century Judaism wa s shaped by the Great R evo lt ,which ended in the Romans burning the Temple; but i t was by nomeans a culture devoid of creat ive new compos it ions .

    With the recovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls and related manuscriptdiscoveries , and with the num ber of do cum ents n ow in the Old T estament Pseudepigrapha c om es a quite new awareness of the vast am ountof Early Jewish l iterature we now possess . Many of the texts we nowconsider paradigm atically imp ortant for the study of Early Jud aismand Early Christianity were s imply unknown to such erudite andindefatigable scholars as M.-J. Lagrange and W. Bousset. With eachnew discovery of an o ld document should a lso come the quest ion ,'How much more has been irretrievably lost?' (see chapter 2 , n . 51).Firs t-century Judaism was inte l lec tual ly a l ive , new compos it ionspoured forth from many segments o f that complex we misrepresentby the overworked word 'rel igion', as if we have a categorical container into which we pour our undigested data.

    For several decades I have been trying to contribute to the study ofEarly Judaism and Early Chris t iani ty by edit ing and transla t ing manuscripts studied in many of the famous libraries, including the Vatican,the Bri t ish Museum, the John Rylands Univers i ty Library of Manchester , the Bodle ian Library, the Bibliotheque Nationale and the Biblio-thequc Bodmcr. My past work has been primari ly analyt ica l . Now Ihave begun an a t tempt to s truggle with the essentia l meanings and

    xxv

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    Preface to the Original Edition xxvifunctions of the hundreds of documents that are our primary sources .While avoiding the error of a t tempting to construct a sys tem out ofsom e of the data, 1 hav e reflected on the me ani ng of our texts for thephenomena that qualif ied and defined Early Judaism and Early Christianity. The move, therefore, is from analytical focus to synthetic perception. The clarity of the parts , of course, must not be lost as breadthof field is increased.

    M y foc us here has , as the t it le ind icates , been up on the Old Testam ent Pseu dep igrap ha. Th is stance is logical and necessary. I have beenpreoccupied with that corpus of l i terature, and no scholar today canc la im to be a master o f m ore than one anc ient co l lec t ion . M oreover ,I tend to doubt whether any of us can really digest al l that is in thePseu dep igrap ha. I t is , after al l , m ore com ple x, disparate , and repleteand at the same time, less understood and studied than the othercollectio ns , including Ph ilo , Joseph us, the Dead Sea Scrolls , and eventhe Mishnah. Yet l imiting oneself to one collection is a fatal f law;I therefore try to include, wherever pertinent, a discuss ion of theseother collections , with the guidance of experts in the related fie lds .

    Th e emp hasis o n Jew ish sources in the present work indicates thatI contend that the origins of Christianity are inextricably rooted inEarly Judaism. I t does not , however , sugges t that the non-Jewishcultures were ins ignificant for the development of Christianity .Obvious ly the content ion that Judaism was inf luenced by fore igncultures (see chap ter 2) at least mirrors the imp orta nce o f these othercultures for Ear ly Chris t ianity . The non-Jewish d imens ion of thedeve lopment of Ear ly Chris t ianity i s indicated , inter alia, by threequite d i f ferent scho lars . C .H . Talbert in Literary Patterns,Theological Them es and the Genre of Luke-Acts ( S B L M S 2 0 ;Missoula , Mont . , 1974) c la ims that Luke-Acts i s 'organized both asa whole and in its parts ' just as Vergil 's Aeneid (p. 68), and that theLucan writings are modelled after Aristotle 's Poetics 1 7 : 5 - 1 0 ,S u e t o n i u s ' Life of Vergil 2 2 - 3 , L u c i a n ' s How to Write History 4 8 ,and Pl iny 's Letters 9:36 (p. 141). Subsequently , in W hat is a Gospel?The Genre of the Canon ical Gospels (Philadelphia, 1977), Talbertargues that the Gospe ls are somewhat s imilar to the Greco-Romanbiograp hies . H . D . B etz i s fam ous for h is know ledge of c lass ica lantiqu ity and his attem pts to reveal the non -Jew ish e lem ents in EarlyChris t iani ty; in Galatians: A Comm entary' on Paul's Letter to theChurches in Galatia (H erm en c ia ; Ph i lad e lph ia , 1979) , an e rud i tework, he contends that Paul 's le t ter to the Gala t ians should beexamined in the l ight of Greco-Roman rhetoric and epis tolography(csp. see pp. 14-25). In numerous publica t ions P W. van der Hors t

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    Preface to the Original Edition xxviipoints out some similarities between the writings in the New Testamentand the early or contemporaneous Greek and Latin works. In his well-written article, 'He llenistic Parallels to the Ac ts of the A post les: 1 1-26 '(ZNWIA (1983) , 17-26) he presents a list of significant parallels toAc ts . H e collected most of these paralle ls personally or obtain ed themfrom a project in Utrecht, the Corpus Hellenisticum Novi Testament!.

    Th e footnote s to the following work attem pt to guide the reader toother explorations; they also express m y indebtedness to th ose w ho havepreceded me in this area of research and th ose w h o are break ing newpaths in our search for under standing. So m e notes are intended for thestudent, others for the specialist. In order not to detract from the flowof an argument I have fo otn ote d som e insights that are very preciousto me. All exotic scripts are transliterated; all translations are my own,unless o therwise noted .

    The major part of the present work took shape as 1 read proofs forthe new edition of the Old Testament Pseudepigrapha; it goes to pressafter the first vo lu m e arrived an d while I do ub le-ch eck the galley s forthe second (and final) volume. This related work has shown me howgreatly indebted 1 am to m any scholars throughou t the wor ld. I fear itwould be unfair to express appreciation to only a select few. The teamthat helped produce the new edition deserves credit for many of theinsights shared in the present book.

    I am grateful to the officers of th e South east Section o f the A m ericanAc ade my o f Re l ig ion and the Commit te e o f the Studiorum NoviTestamenti Societas for inv itat ions that encouraged me to organizemy though ts on some ma jor and centra l que s t ions . A grant from theAlexander von Humboldt St i f tung in Bonn-Bad Godesberg enabledme to complete th is monograph. Professor M. Henge l grac ious lyprovided me with an Arbeitszimmer and access to reference worksin the Institutum Jud aicum . H . L ichtenberger's helpful cr it ic isms aregreatly apprec iated . M . J .H . Ch ar lesworth com piled the exce l lentindexes; I am significantly indebted to her. I am very pleased that theSNTS Editorial Board and the editor of the SNTS Monograph Ser iesurged me to publish the present work in their distinguished series. Iam especially grateful to Professor Graham Stanton and the editorsat Cambridge University Press for helping me polish the presentation.

    October 1983J . H . C .Pr inceton Theolog ica l Seminary andI ns t i tu tum Juda ic um,Eberhard-Karls-UniversitatTubinge n

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    Dedicated to My Mentors ,T o o N u m e r o u s t o M e n t i o n ,

    But Especia l lyH u g h A n d e r s o n

    W . D . D a v i e sMart in Henge land

    Ed Sanders

    and in memory o fthe Rt Rev . John Robinson

    (15 June 1919-5 December 1983)who in troduced me to the

    coUegial ity of the SNTS

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    A B B R E V I A T I O N S

    1. M o d e r n P u b l i c a t i o n sA A R A m e r i ca n A c a d e m y of Re l i g i o nAB An a l e c t a B i b l i caAcO r Acta orientaliaA G A J U A r b e i t e n zur Ge s c h i c h t e des a n t i k e n J u d e n t u ms und des Ur-

    c h r i s t e n t u msAK Arbe i ten zur Ki r c h e n g e s c h i c h t eA L S O An a l e c t a l o v a n i e n s i a b i b l ic a et or ienta l iaA L G H J Arbeiten zur Literatur und Geschichte des hellenistischen Juden tum sALUOS Annual of the Leeds University Oriental SocietyAL W Archiv fur Liturgie- WissenschaftANET Pri tchard , J.B. , ed.. Ancient Near Eastern Texts ( P r i n c e t o n ,

    19693)ANRW H a a s e , W., and H. T e m p o r i n i , eds., Aufstieg und Niedergang

    der romischen Welt (Ber l in , New Y o r k , 1 9 7 9 - )ANT J a m e s , M.R., The Apocryphal New Testament {Oxford, 1924;

    correc ted ed., 1955)APAT Ka u t z s c h , E., ed., Die Apokryphen und Pseudepigraphen des

    Allen Testaments (2 v o l s . , T u b i n g e n , 1900)Apoc. Lit. To r r e y , C. C , The Apocryphal Literature: A Brief Introduction

    ( N e w H a v e n , C o n n . , 1945; r e p r . H a m d e n , C o n n . , 1963)APOT C h a r l e s . R . H . , e d . , The Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha of the

    Old Testament in English (2 v o l s . , O x f o r d , 1913)ArOr Archiv orientdlniA S O R A m e r i c a n S c h o o l s of Orienta l ResearchASTl Annual of the Swedish Theological InstituteA T A N T A b h a n d l u n g e n zur T h e o l o g i e des A l l e n und N e u e n T e s t a m e n t sAT R A nglican Theological ReviewA U P H R Ac t a Un i v e r s it a t is Up s a l i e n s is Hi s t o r ia Re l i g i o n u mAusBR Australian Biblical ReviewBAR Bib l ica l Ar cha eo lo gy R ev iewBASOR Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental ResearchBEvT Be i trage zur e v a n g e l i s c h e n Th e o l o g i eBHH Rcicke, B., and L. Rost , eds . Biblisch-historisches Handwdrterbuch

    (3 v o l s . , G o t t i n g e n , 1 9 6 2 - 6 )BH M Je l l inek , A. Bet ha-Midrasch (2 vo ls . , Jerus a lem , 1967^)Bib BiblicaBiblia Sacra W e b e r , R.,etal., e d s . , BibliaSacra: luxia Vulgatam Versionem

    (2 vo l s . S tut tgar t , 1969)Bibliographic De l l i n g , G., Bibliographic zur jiidisch-hellenislischen und

    XXIX

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    Abbreviations XX Xintertestamentarischen Literatur 19 00 -1 97 0 (TU 106^, Berl in ,19752)

    BibO Bib l ica e t Or ienta l iaBibSt Bib l i sche S tud ienBIFAO Bulletin de I'instilut franfais d'archeologie orientateBiKi Bibel und KircheB i a s e s Bulletin of the International Organ ization for Septuagint andCognate StudiesBJRL, BJRU LM Bulletin of the John Rylands Library, Bulletin of the John Rylands

    University Library of Ma nchesterB J S Br o wn J u d a i c S t u d i e sB-L' H a a g , H . , e d . , Bibel-Lexikon (Zurich, 1968^)BLE Bulletin de litterature ecclesiastiqueBO Bibliotheca orienlalisBSOAS Bulletin of the School of Oriental a nd African StudiesBZ Biblische ZeitschriftB Z A W Be ihefte zur Zeitschrift f i ir die a lt testam entl iche W issensch aftB Z N W Beihefte zur Zeitschrift fur die neutestamentl iche Wissenschaft

    und die Kunde der alteren KircheCB Cultura biblicaCBQ Catholic Biblical QuarterlyC C S L Co r p u s Ch r i s t i a n o r u m, S e r i e s La t i n aC E T E D O C Ce n t r e d e t r a it e me n t e l e c t r o n iq u e d e s d o c u m e n t sC G Ca i r e n s i s Gn o s t i c u sCS CO Co r p u s s c r ip t o r u m c h r i st i a n o r u m o r i e n ta l iu mCTM Concordia Theological Mon thlyDB Vi g o u r o u x , F . , e d . , Dictionnaire de la Bible (5 vo ls . Par i s , 1895-

    1912)DBSup Pirot , L. , et al., e d s . , Dictionnaire de la Bible, Supplem ents (Paris ,

    1 9 2 8 - )D JD Disc over ie s in the Judaean Deser tDTT Dansk teologisk TidsskriftEB Estudios BiblicosE F Ertrage der Fors chun gEnciclopedia de Gu t i e r r e z -La r r a y a , J . A . , ed., Enciclopedia de la Biblia (5 vo l s . .

    la Biblia Barce lona , 1963)Encyclopedia of Palmer , E. H . , et at., e d s . . The Encyclopedia of Christianity

    Christianity ( W i l m i n g t o n , D e l . , 1 9 6 4 - )EncyJud R o t h. C , etal., eds.. Encyclopedia Judaica (\6voh.. Ne w Yo r k ,

    1 9 7 1 - 2 )EO S Eos. Com mentarii Societatis Philologae PolonorumE tB Et u d e s B i b l i q u e sETL Ephem erides theologicae lovaniensesEvT Evangelische TheologieF.xpT Expository TimesEP R O ER Et u d e s P r e l imi n a i r e s a u x Re l i g i o n s Or i e n t a le s d a n s L ' Emp i r e

    R o m a i nFalasha L e s l a u , W . , Falasha Anthology (Yale Judaica Series 6; New

    Anthology Ha v e n , 1 9 5 1 )FGH J a c o b y , F . , ed., Fragmentedergriechischen Historiker(3 v o l s . ,

    L e i d e n , 1 9 2 3 - )F R L A N T F o r s c h u n g e n z u r Re l i g i o n u n d Li te r at u r d e s A l t e n u n d Ne u e n

    T e s t a m e n t s

    http://6voh/http://6voh/
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    Abbreviations XXXIGamPseud

    G C SGDBLGLAJJG N SG N TG o o d e n o u g h

    FestschriftG u n k e l

    Festschrift

    Ha s t i n g s ' DBH A WHeyJHistory [Pfe i f fer ]History [Schiirer]History ... The

    Time of theApostles

    H N THRH S MH S WH T K N THTRH T SHUCAIBIC CID BIDBSlEJIn tIntroductionITQJAJAARJ ACJ A LJ AOS

    H a m m e r s h a i m b , E . , et at., e d s . , De GammeltestamenttigePseudepigrapher ( 2 v o l s . C o p e n h a g e n , 1 9 5 3 - 7 6 )

    D ie griechischen christlichen Schriftsteller der ersten drei Jahrhu n-erteNi e l s e n , B . , a n d B . No a c k , e d s . , Gads Danske BibelLeksikon

    ( 2 v o l s . , C o p e n h a g e n , 1 9 6 5 - 6 )S t e r n , M. , e d . , Greek and Latin Authors on Jews and Judaism,

    vol. 1: From Herodotus to Plutarch (Jerusa lem, 1974)G o o d N e w s S t u d i e sGr u n d r i s s e z u m Ne u e n Te s t a m e n tNe u s n e r , J . , e d . . Religions in Antiquity: Essays in Mem ory of

    Erwin Ramsdell Goodenou gh ( S u p Numen 14; Le id en , 1968)S c h m i d t , H . , e d . , Eucharisterion: Studien zur Religion des

    Alten und Neuen Testaments. H. Gunkel Festschrift, Part II:Zur Religion und Literatur des Neuen Testaments (GiMm gen,1923)

    Hast ings , J . , ed . , Dictionary of the Bible, rev. ed. by F. C. Granta n d H . H . R o w l e y ( N e w Y o r k , 1 9 63 )

    Ha n d b u c h d e r Al t e r t u ms wi s s e n s c h a f tHeythrop JournalP f e i f f e r , R . H . , History of the New T estament Times with an

    Introduction to the Apocrypha ( Ne w Yo r k , 1 9 4 9)Schurer , E.,A History of the Jewish People in the Time of Jesus

    Christ (5 vo l s . , p lus index , t rans . J . MacPherson et al. E d i n b u r g h 1 8 9 7 - 8 )

    H a u s r a t h , A . , A History of New Testament Times: The Time ofthe Apostles ( 4 v o l s . , t r a n s . L . Hu x l e y , Lo n d o n , 1 8 9 5)

    Ha n d b u c h z u m Ne u e n Te s t a me n tHistory of ReligionHa r v a r d S e mi t i c Mo n o g r a p h sHennecke , E. , W. Schneemelcher and R. McL. Wi l son , eds . . New

    Testament Apocrypha (2 voh., L o n d o n , 1 9 6 3 - 5 )He r d e r s t h e o l o g i s c h e r Ko mme n t a r z u m Ne u e n Te s t a me n tHarvard Theological ReviewHa r v a r d Th e o l o g i c a l S t u d i e sHebrew Union College AnnualButtr ick , G. A . , et at., e d s . . The Interpreter's Bible ( 1 2 v o l s . ,

    N e w Y o rk , 1 9 5 2 - 7 )Internat iona l Cr i t i ca l CommentaryBu t t r i c k , G . A. , et al., e d s . . The Interpreter's Dictionary of the

    Bible (4 vo l s . . New York , 1962)Cr i m, K . , etal., e d s . . The Interpreter's Dictionary of the Bible,

    Supplementary Ko / u me ( Na s h v i l l e , T e n n . , 1 9 7 6)Israel Exploration JournalInterpretationD e n i s , A . - M . Introduction auxpseudipigraphes grecs d'Ancien

    Testament (SVTP 1; Le ide n, 1970)Irish Theological QuarterlyJournal asiatiqueJournal of the American Academ y of ReligionJahrbuch fur Antike und ChristentumJewish Ap ocry pha l Li teratureJournal of the American Oriental Society

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    Abbreviations XXXIIJB C

    JB LJ B L M SJEJewish SymbolsJJSJNESJPOSJQ RJRJRASJ S H R ZJSJJSSJ T h CJT SKommentarKSKuhn Fes t schr i f tL a m p eLAOTL C LLegends

    L S J MLTK^L U O S M SM B P A RMcCQMGWJMissionsliteratur

    M. S mi t hFestschrift

    NCEN H CN H LN H SNovT

    Br o wn , R . E . , J . A . F i tz my e r an d R . E . Mu r p h y , e d s . , Th eJerome Biblical Commentary ( En g l e wo o d Cl i f f s , N . J . ,1968)Journal of Biblical Literature

    Journa l o f Bib l ica l Li terature Monograph Ser iesS inger , L, et al., e d s . . The Jewish Encyclopedia (12 vo l s . . New

    Y o rk , L o n d o n , 1 9 0 1 - 6 )G o o d e n o u g h , E . R . , Jewish Symbols in the Greco-Rom an Period

    ( 13 v o l s . . Ne w Yo r k , 1 9 5 3 - 6 8 )Journal of Jewish StudiesJournal of Near Eastern StudiesJournal of the Palestine Oriental SocietyJewish Quarterly ReviewJournal of ReligionJournal of the Royal Asiatic SocietyK u m m e l, W . G . , etal., ed s. , Jud ische Schriften aus h el lenist isch-

    r o mi s c h er Ze i t ( Gu t e r s l o h , 1 9 7 3 - )Journal for the Study of JudaismJournal of Semitic StudiesJourna l for Theo logy and the ChurchJournal of Theological StudiesStrack , H. L. , and P . Bi l l erbeck , Komm entar zum Neuen Testa

    ment aus Talmud und Midrasch ( 5 v o l s . , M u n i c h , 1 9 2 2 - 5 6 )Kirjath SepherJeremias , G. , H. -W . Kuhn and H. S tegemann, eds . , Tradition und

    Glaube: Dasfriihe Christentum in seiner Um welt. FestgabefUrKarl Georg Kuhn zum 65. Geburtstag (Got t ingen , 1971)

    L a m p e , G . W . H . , e d ., A Patristic Greek Lexicon ( Ox f o r d ,1 9 6 1 - 8 )

    J a m e s , M . R . , The Lost Apocrypha of the Old Testament iJED;Lo n d o n , Ne w Yo r k , 1 9 2 0 )

    Loeb Class ica l LibraryGi n z b e r g , L . , The Legends of the Jews (1 \oh., trans. H. S z o l d ,

    P h i l a d e lp h i a , 1 9 0 9 - 3 8 ; r ep r. 1 9 3 7 - 6 6 )Lidd e l l , H. G. , and R. Scot t , A Greek-English Lexicon, rev. byH . S . J o n e s a n d R . Mc K e n z i e ( Ox f o r d , 1 9 40 )Buchberger , M. , J . Hofer and K. Rahner , eds . , Lexikon fiir

    Theologie und Kirche {\ I vo l s . , Fre iburg , 1957-6 7^)Leeds Univers i ty Or ienta l Soc ie ty Monograph Ser iesM i inchener Be i trage zur Papyrusforschun g und Ant iken R echts-

    gesch ichteMcCormack QuarterlyMona tsschrift fur Geschichte und Wissenschaft d es JudentumsDa l b e r l , P . Die Theologie der hellenistisch-jUdischen Missions

    literatur unter A usschluss von Philo und Josephus (Ham burg-Volksdorf, 1954)Neusner , J . , ed . Christianity, Judaism and Other Greco-Rom anCults: Studies for Morton Smith at Sixty (SJLA 12; Le iden ,1975)

    M c D o n a l d , W . J . , et al., e d s . . New Catholic Encyclopedia (1 5v o l s . . N e w Y o rk , 1 9 6 7 - )

    N a g H a m m a d i C o d e xNa g Ha mma d i L i b r a r yNa g Ha m ma d i S t u d ie sNovum Teslamentum

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    Abbreviations XXXlllNovTSup Novum Testamentum, S u p p l e m e n t sNTA New Testament AbstractsN T A P N e w T e s t a m e n t A p o c r y p h a a n d P s e u d e p i gr a p h aNTS New Testament StudiesN T T S N e w T e s t am e n t T o o l s a n d S t u d ie sOCA Orientalia Christiana AnalectaOr OrientaliaOrChr Orientalia ChristianaOrSyr L 'Orient syrienO T M O x f o r d T h e o l o g i c a l M o n o g r a p h sOT S Ou d t e s t a me n t i s c h e S t u d i e nP a u l y - W i s s o w a Wi s s o wa , G . , etal., e d s . , PaulysReal-Encyclopadiederclassischen

    Altertumswissenschaft, n e w e d . ( S t u t t g a r t , M u n i c h ,1 8 9 3 - 1 9 7 2 )

    PCB P e a k e , A . S . , M . B l ac k a n d H . H . R o w l e y , e d s . , Peake's Commentary on the Bible ( Lo n d o n , Ne w Yo r k , 1 9 6 2 )

    PEQ Palestine Exploration QuarterlyP E TS E P a p e r s o f t h e Es t o n i a n Th e o l o g i c a l S o c i e t y i n Ex i l ePesh i t ta The Old Testament in Syriac According to the Peshitta Version

    ( L e i d e n , 1 9 6 6 - )P G Patro log iae graecae , ed . J . MigneP I O L Publ ica t ions de I ' ins t i tu t or ienta l i s te de Louva inP L Patro log iae la t inae , ed . J . MignePseud 1 Fr i tz , K. von ed . , Pseudepigrapha I: Pseudopythago rica, lettres

    de Platon, litterature pseudipigraphe Juive (Entre t iens surI 'ant iqu i te c lass ique 18; G ene va , 1972)

    P T S Patr i s t i sche Texte und StudienP V T G P s e u d e p i g r a p h a Ve t e r i s Te s t a me n t i Gr a e c eRA C Klauser, T. , et al., e d s . , Reallexikon fiir Antike und Christentum:

    Sachworterbuch zur Auseinandersetzung des Christentums mitder antiken Welt ( S t u t t g a r t , 1 9 5 0 - )

    RB Revue bibliqueRBen Revue binidictineRe c h Bi b Recherches b ib l iquesRE J Revue des itudes juivesRESl Revue des Etudes slavesRevislB Revista biblicaRevSem Revue simitiqueRevSR Revue des Sciences ReligieusesRGG^ Gall ing, K.,etal., e d s . . Die Religion in Geschichte und Gegenw art

    ( 6 v o l s . , p lu s i n d e x , Tu b i n g e n , 1 9 5 7 - 6 5 ^)RHP R Revue d'histoire et de philosophic religieuseRHR Revue de I'histoire des religionsRiessler Riess ler , P . , Altjudisches Schrifttum ausserhalb der Bibel

    (H eide lber g, 1927; repr. 1966)RivB Rivista biblicaRO C Revue de I'orient ChretienRQ Revue de Qum ranRS R Religious Studies ReviewRT P Revue de theologie et de philosophicSBFLA Studii biblici franciscani liber annuusS B L S B S Society of Bibl ical Literature Sources for Bibl ical StudyS B L D S Soc ie ty o f Bib l ica l Li terature Disser ta t ion Ser iesS B L M S Soc ie ty o f Bib l ica l Li terature Monograph Ser iesSB T Studies in Bib l ica l Th eo l ogy

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    Abbreviations xxxivS CscsScEsSE ASemSeptuagintaS HS H RSJS J L ASJTSNTS M SS O RS P BSTSt A N TStudienSUNTS u p NumenS V T PT & ST & TTB TTDTDNT

    T E DT E HT H N TThRuT H STL ZTQTST S J T S AT UTfVATTZUSQRVCVTW B CW FW U N TWZHalleWZJenaWZKMZA W

    S o u r c e s c h r i t i e n n e sSeptuag int and Co gnate . S tud iesScience et esprit ^Svensk exegetisk ArsbokSemiticaR a h l f s , A . , e d . , Septuaginta: Id est Vetus Testamentum graece

    iuxta LXX interpretes (2 vols . , Stuttgart , 1935, repr. 1965)S c r i p t a Hi e r o s o l y mi t a n aStudies in the His tory o f Re l ig ionsStudia Juda icaStudies in Juda ism in Late Ant iqu i tyScottish Journal of TheologyStudiorum Novi Testamenti Societas Mo n o g r a p h S e r i e sStudies in Or ienta l Re l ig ionsStudia pos tb ib l icaStudia TheologicaS t u d i e n z u m Al t e n u n d Ne u e n Te s t a me n tEltester, W., ed., Studienzuden TestamentenderzwdlfPatriardten

    (BZNW 36; Berlin, 1969)Studien zur Um welt des Neuen TestamentsS u p p l e me n t s t o NumenStudia in Veter i s Tes tament i PseudepigraphaTexts and StudiesTe x t s a n d Tr a n s l a t i o n sThe Bible TodayTheology DigestKit te l , G. , ed . . Theological Dictionary of the New Testament

    ( 1 0 v o l s . , tr a n s . G . W . B r o mi l e y , Gr a n d Ra p i d s , Mi c h . ,L o n d o n , 1 9 6 4 - 7 6 )

    Tr a n s l a t i o n s o f Ea r l y Do c u me n t sTh e o l o g i s c h e Ex i s t e n z He u t eT h e o l o g i s c h er H a n d k o m m e n l a r z u m N e u e n T e s ta m e n tTheologische RundschauTe x t e s p o u r I'histoire sacr6eTheologische LiteraturzeitungTheologische QuartalschriftTheological StudiesTexts and Studies of the Jewish Theological Seminary of AmericaTe x t e u n d Un t e r s u c h u n g e nBot terweck , G . J . , and H. Ringgren , eds . , Theologisches Worter-

    buch zum Alten Testament ( S t u t t g a r t , 1 9 7 0 - )Theologische ZeitschriftUnion Seminary Quarterly ReviewVigiliae christianaeVetus TestamentumW o r d B i b l i c a ! C o m m e n t a r yWe g e d e r F o r s c h u n gWi s s e n s c h a f t l i c h e Un t e r s u c h u n g e n z u m Ne u e n Te s t a me n tWissenschaftliche Zeitschrift der Martin-Luther-Universitdt.

    Halle-Wittenberg, Gesellschafts- und SprachwissenschaftlicheReihe

    Wissenschaftliche Zeitschrift der Friedrich-Schiller-Universitdt,Jena. Gesellschafts- und Sprachwissenschaftliche Reihe

    Wiener Zeitschrift fiir die Kunde des Morgen landesZeitschrift fiir die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft

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    Abbreviations xxxvZDM G Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenlandischen GesellschaftZKG Zeitschrift fiir KirchengeschichteZNW Zeitschrift fUr die neutestamentliche Wissenschaft und die Kundeder alteren KircheZPEB Te n n e y , M. C , e d . , The Zondenian Pictorial Encyclopedia of the

    Bible ( 5 v o l s . . Gr a n d Ra p i d s , Mi c h . , 1 9 7 5 )ZRCG Zeitschrift fiir Religions- und GeistesgeschichteZTK Zeitschrift fiir Theologie und KircheZW T Zeitschrift fiir wissenschaftliche Theologie

    Additional Abbreviationsaor. aoristA B A n c h o r B i b leAr Ar a b i cA r a m A r a m a i cA r m A r m e n i a nBH Bib l ia He bra icaBT Ba b y l o n i a n Ta l m u dc. circach(s) . chapter ( s )co l ( s ) . c o l u m n ( s )C o p C o p t i cET Engl i sh trans la t ionEth Eth iop icfol (s) . fo l io ( s )Gk GreekHe b He b r e winf. infinitiveJB Jerusa lem Bib leKar KarshuniKJV King Jam es Vers ion1. 11. line(s)Lat Latinlit. literallyLXX S e p t u a g i n tMS(S) Manuscr ip t ( s )MT Ma s o r e t i c Te x tn. nn. note (s)Ni Niphae lN A B N e w A m e r i ca n B i b leRuss RussianSB L Soc iety of Bibl ical LiteratureSlav SlavicSNTS Studiorum Novi Testamenti SocietasSV Standard Vers ionSyr SyriacVat . Vat ican

    II . A n c i e n t D o c u m e n t sBible and Apocrypha

    Ge n Ge n e s i sEx Ex o d u sLev Levit icus

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    Abbreviations xxxviN u m NumbersDeut DeuteronomyJosh JoshuaJudg JudgesRuth Ruth1 S a m 1 Samuel2 S a m 2 Samuel1 Kgs 1 Kings2 K g s 2 Kings1 Chr 1 Chronicles2 C h r 2 ChroniclesEzra EzraN e h NehemiahEsth EstherJ o b J o bP s ( s ) PsalmsPfOV ProverbsEccl ( Q o h ) EcclesiastesSong Song o f SongsIsa IsaiahJer JeremiahL a m LamentationsEzek EzekielD a n DanielH o s HoseaJoel JoelAmos AmosObad ObadiahJonah JonahMicah MicahN a h NahumH a b HabakkukZeph ZephaniahH a g HaggaiZech ZechariahM ai Malachi2 Ezra 2 EzraT o b TobitJdt JudithAddEsth Additions t o EstherWisSol Wisdom o f SolomonSir Sirach1 Bar 1 BaruchLetJer Letter o f JeremiahPrAzar Prayer o f AzariahS u s SusannaB el Be l and the Dragon1 M a c 1 Maccabees2 M a c 2 MaccabeesM t MatthewM k MarkLk LukeJn JohnActs Acts

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    Abbreviations xxxv 11R o m R o m a n s1 Cor 1 Cor inth ians2 Cor 2 Co r inth iansGal Gala t iansE p h Ep h e s i a n sPhi l P h i l i p p i a n sCo l Co l o s s i a n s1 Th e s 1 Th e s s a l o n i a n s2 T h e s 2 T h e s s a l o n ia n s1 Tim I T i m o t h y2 Tim 2 T i m o t h yT it Ti t u sP h l m P h i l e m o nH e b H e b r e w sJas J a m e s1 Pet I Pete r2 Pet 2 Peter1 Jn 1 Jo hn2 Jn 2 Joh n3 Jn 3 Joh nJ u d e J u d eRev Reve la t ion

    PseudepigraphaA p A b A p o c a l y p s e o f A b r a h a mT A b Te s t a me n t o f Ab r a h a mA p A d a m A p o c a l y p s e o f A d a mT A d a m Te s t a me n t o f Ad a mL A E Life o f Adam and EveA h A h i q a rA n o n S a m A n A n o n y m o u s S a m a r i t a n T e x tLetAr is Letter of Ar isteasAr isEx Aris teas the ExegeteAr i s t o b Ar i s t o b u l u sArt A r t a p a n u s2 Bar 2 (Syr iac Ap oca lyps e oO Baruch3 Bar 3 (Greek A poc a lyp se oO Baruch4 Bar 4 BaruchCavTr Cave o f TreasuresCl Ma l Cl e o d e mu s Ma l c h u sA p D a n Ap o c a l y p s e o f Da n i e lDe m De me t r i u sE l M o d El d a d a n d Mo d a dA p E l Apoca lypse o f El i jahH e b A p E l He b r e w Ap o c a l y p s e o f E l i j a h1 En 1 ( Et h i o p i c Ap o c a l y p s e oO E n o c h2 En 2 ( S l a v o n i c Ap o c a l y p s e oO E n o c h3 E n 3 ( He b r e w Ap o c a l y p s e oO E n o c hE up E u p o l e m u sP s - E u p P s e u d o - E u p o l e m u sA p o c E z e k Ap o c r y p h o n o f Ez e k i e lAp Ez e k Ap o c a l y p s e o f Ez e k ie lEzekTrag Ezek ie l the Traged ian4 Ezra 4 Ezra

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    Abbreviations XXXVlllG k A p E z r a Gr e e k Ap o c a l y p s e o f Ez r aQ u e s E z r a Qu e s t i o n s o f Ez r aRe v Ez r a Reve la t ion o f EzraVi s Ez r a Vis ion o f EzraH e c A b He c a t a e u s o f Ab d e r aP s - H e c P s e u d o - H e c a t a e u sH e l S y n P r Hel len i s t i c Synagoga l PrayersT H e z Te s t a me n t o f He z e k i a hF r g s H i s t W r k s F r a g me n t s o f Hi s t o r i c a l Wo r k sTI s a a c Te s t a m e n t o f I s a a cA s c e n i s As c e n s i o n o f I s a ia hM a r t i s M a r t y r d o m o f I s ai a hVi s i s Vis ion o f I sa iahLa d J a c La d d e r o f J a c o bPrJac Prayer o f Jac obTJ a c Te s t a m e n t o f J a c o bJ a n J a m J a n n e s a n d J a mb r e sT j o b Te s t a me n t o f J o bJ o s A s e n J o s e p h a n d A s e n e t hHi s t J o s Hi s t o r y o f J o s e p hP r J o s Prayer o f J osephJub Jubi leesLAB Liber Antiquitatum BiblicarumLo s Tr Th e Lo s t Tr i b e s3 M a c 3 M a c c a b e e s4 M a c 4 Ma c c a b e e s5 M a c 5 M a c c a b e e sP r M a n P r a y e r o f Ma n a s s e hS y r M e n S y r i ac Me n a n d e rA p M o s A p o c a l y p s e o f M o s e sA s M o s A s s u m p t i o n o f M o s e sP r M o s P r a y e r o f M o s e sT M o s Te s t a me n t o f Mo s e sB k N o a h B o o k o f N o a hP s - O r p h P s e u d o - O r p h e u sPJ Paraleipomena JeremiouP h EP o e t P h i l o t h e Ep i c P o e tP s - P h i l o P s e u d o - P h i l oP s - P h o c P s e u d o - P h o c y l i d e sF r g s P o e t W r k s F r a g me n t s o f P o e t i c a l Wo r k sL i v P r o Lives o f the ProphetsH i s t R e c h His tory o f the Rechabi tesA p S e d r Ap o c a l y p s e o f S e d r a c hT r S h e m Treat i se o f ShemS i b Or Siby l l ine Orac lesO d e s S o l O d e s o f S o l o m o nP s s S o l P s a l m s o f S o l o m o nT S o l T e s t a m e n t o f S o l o m o n5 A p o c S y r P s s F i v e Ap o c r y p h a l S y r ia c P s a l m sT h a i Th a l l u sT h e o d T h e o d o t u sT1 2 P Te s t a m e n t s o f t h e Tw e l v e P a t r ia r c h s

    T R e u Te s t a me n t o f Re u b e nTS i m Te s t a m e n t o f S i m e o n

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    Abbreviations xxxixTL e v i Te s t a m e n t o f Le v iTJ u d Te s t a m e n t o f J u d a hTI s s Tes tament o f I s sacharTZ e b Te s t a m e n t o f Ze b u l u nT D a n T e s t a m e n t o f D a nT N a p h Te s t a m e n t o f N a p h t a l iT G a d T e s t a m e n t o f G a dTA s h Te s t a m e n t o f As h e rTJ o s Te s t a m e n t o f J o s e p hTBe n j Te s t a m e n t o f Be n j a m i n

    Vita Vita Adae et EvaeA p Z e p h A p o c a l y p s e o f Z e p h a n i a hA p Z o s A p o c a l y p s e o f Z o s i m u s

    Dead Sea ScrollsAb brev ia t ions are accord ing to J . A . F i tzmyer , S .J . The Dead SeaPublications and Tools for Study ( S BL S BS 8 ; M i s s o u l a , Mo n t . , 1 97C D C a i r o D a m a s c u s D o c u m e n tIQ S Th e Ru l e o f t h e Co mmu n i t yI Q S a Th e Ru l e o f t h e Co n g r e g a t i o nI Q a p G e n A G e n e s i s A p o c r y p h o nIQ M The War Scro l lI Q p H a b T h e H a b a k k u k C o m m e n t a r y2 Q2 4 , 5 Q1 5 , Descr ip t ion o f the New Jerusa lem

    4 Q J N , I I Q J N2 Q a p M o s e s A p o c r y p h o n o f M o s e s3 Q1 5 The Copper Scro l l4 Q p l s Th e I s a i a h Co mme n t a r y4QJer' ' J e r e mi a h4 Q W i l e s W i l e s o f t he W i c k e d W o m a n4 Q A g e s C r e a t Ag e s o f Cr e a t i o n4 QCr y p t i c An As t r o l o g i c a l Cr y p t i c Do c u me n t4 Q P r N a b P r a y er o f N a b o n i d u s4Q'Amram''-= Vi s i o n s o f ' Amr a m o r ' Te s t a m e n t ' o f ' Amr a m4 Q S i r a b b Ange l ic Li turgyl l Q P s " ' ' Th e P s a l ms S c r o l ll l Q P s A p Th e Ap o c r y p h a l P s a l ms i n t h e P s a l ms S c r o l ll l Q T g J o b A Ta r g u m o f J o bl l Q M e l c h The Melk isedek Scro l ll l Q T e m p l e Th e Te mp l e S c r o l l

    'Dead Sea Scroll' PseudepigraphaJubilees (see chapter 2 , n . 35)I QJ u b "' ' Jubi lees2Q19 (2QJub^) Jubi lees2Q20 (2QJub^) Jubi lees3 Q5 ( 3 QJ u b ) Jubi lees4 Q J u b ' f Jubi leesl l Q J u b 1 - 5 Jubi leesU Q J u b M 2 Jubi leesl l Q J u b M 3 J u b il ee s

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    Abbreviations xlTestaments o f the Twelve Patr iarchs ( see chapter 2 , nn . 25 , 26 , 28 )I QTLe v i a r4QTLevi ar^A r a m a i c E n o c h4 Q H e n A s t r ^ ' '4QEn='=4 QHe n Gi a n t s = - f

    A Tes tament o f Lev iA Tes tament o f Lev i(not yet c learly arranged with acknowledged s ig la; see chapter2 , nn. 22 , 25 )1 ( Ar a m a i c ) E n o c h1 ( Ar a m a i c ) E n o c hBo o k o f t h e Gi a n t s

    PhiloAll abbrev ia t ions are accord ing to Studia Philonica

    AntApionLife'.Var

    JosephusJewish AntiquitiesAgainst ApionLife of JosephusJewish Wars

    New Testament Apocrypha and PseudepigraphaE B a r Epis t l e o f B arnaba sG B a r t Go s p e l o f Ba r t h o l o m e wQu e s Ba r t Qu e s t i o n s o f Ba r t h o l o me w1 Cl e m 1 Cl e me n t2 Cl e m 2 Cl e me n tP s e u d C l e m R e c P s e u d o - C l e m e n t i n e R e c o g n i t i o n sD i d D i d a c h eGE b i o n Go s p e l o f t h e Eb i o n i t e sG Eg y p Go s p e l o f t h e Eg y p t i a n sG H e b G o s p e l o f t h e H e b r e w sS h e p H e r m S h e p h e r d o f H e r m e sAploan Apolcalypsis tou hagiou IbannouP r o t J a m e s P r o t o e v a n g e l i u m o f J a m e sAc t s J n Ac t s o f J o h nGM a t t h i a s Go s p e l o f Ma t t h i a sG N i c G o s p e l o f N i c o d e m u sA c t s P a u l A cts o f P aulA p P a u l Ap o c a l y p s e o f P a u lA p P e t Ap o c a l y p s e o f P e t e rG P e t Gospe l o f Pe terP r P e t Preach ing o f Pe terA c t s P h i l Ac ts o f Ph i l ipG P h i l Gospe l o f Ph i l ipA c t P i l A cts o f P i la teRe v S t e p h Reve la t ion o f S tephenA c t s T h o m A c t s o f T h o m a sA p T h o m A p o c a l y p s e o f T h o m a sG T h o m G o s p e l o f T h o m a sG T r Go s p e l o f Tr u t hA p V i r g Apoca lypse o f the Virg in

    Early FathersAdvHaer E p i p h a n i u s , Adversus haeresesA p o s C o n A p o s t o l i c C o n s t i t u t i o n sC o m m G e n P r o c o p i u s o f G a / .a , Comm entary on Genesis, Part 1

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