Chapter3 Slide 4

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Career theory - Organisational

Perspectives



Overview

The Individual & the OrganisationSchein¶s theory of Organisational Career

The Psychological Contract Model of the

Career Management system psychological contractingidentity process theory

Women, careers and the work/familyinterfaceMinority group careersFuture directions



S chein (1971)Theory of the Organisational Career

The µorganisational career¶ is about how individualsmove through an organisation.Individuals (micro-level) ~ Organisation (macro-level)µCareer¶ denotes a decision making process regarding

who to move, when, how and at what speed.The Self is conceptualised as µsocially constructed¶ - anactor whose behaviour/roles are influenced by thesocio-cultural demands of the organisation.

Analysis of organisational careers uses concepts of:structural variables (the stable elements of theorganisation)

process variables (org. ~ indv¶l via µsocialisation¶ +indv¶l ~ org. via µinnovation¶)



S chein¶s µ

S tructural Variables¶

Individuals move along 3 dimensions, movementcontrolled by boundaries :

Hierarchical boundaries (vertical levels)

Inclusion boundaries (centrality)Functional boundaries (dept, functional gp)

Types of movement :

Vertical (across hierarchical boundaries)Radical (across inclusion boundaries)Circumferential (across functional boundaries)ADAPTION + SOCIALISATION >>> µSELF¶



S chein¶s µProcess Variables¶

Career Movement is a repetitive process, eachincorporating 3 broad stages

Learning/Socialisation (N.B. Organisationalsubcultures)

PerformanceObsolescence or Learning New Skills

Career = sequence of µboundary passages¶Sources of career problems relate to boundary movements

i.e.

career movement is in one direction (i.e. lateral)inability to gain acceptance, thus centrality to new groupsub-culture norms are incompatible with the organisation¶s



S chein¶s µCareer Process¶ hypotheses :

Organisational socialisation will occur primarily in connectionwith the passage through hierarchical and inclusion boundaries,efforts at education and training will occur primarily with

passage through functional boundariesInnovation (the individual's influence on the org.) will occur inthe middle of a given stage of the career, at a maximum distancefrom past or future boundary passageThe process of socialisation (the org¶s influence on theindividual) will be more prevalent in early stages of the orgcareer; innovation more prevalent in later stages - although it is

possible both will be present in all stagesSocialisation will involve the unstable social selves, innovationwill involve the stable social selvesChanges in stable social selves from socialisation will occur

under coercive persuasion.



E valuation of S chein¶s model U seful heuristic for understanding the reciprocity of influence between the individual and the organisationRaises the notion that pursuit of a career requires self-reflection.Perception of µboundaries¶ used as a basis for research intoµglass ceiling¶, psychological contracting etc.

Other, related µorganisational career¶ theoriesKanter (1989) Entrepreneurial Careers (new values/org. capacity)Gunz (1989) Routes through an organisation

BU T

Assumes only one type of organisation (static,hierarchical)Socialisation is a one-way processRole Innovation Vs Organisational Innovation

Is descriptive, not predictive, with regard to Movement



Psychological Contract Model of Career Management (Herriot, 1992; Herriot & Pemberton, 1996)

Psychological Contract : µthe beliefs and expectationsindividuals hold about the nature of the µexchangerelationship¶ between themselves and the organisation¶Psychological Contracting : µthe invisible glue that bindsindividuals to the organisation over time¶ (Herriot, 1992)Characteristics of a µPsychological Contract¶

They are generally implicitThey undergo continual re-negotiation over time

µOrganisational Career¶ is µthe sequence of renegotiationsof the psychological contract which the individual andorganisation conduct during the period of that individual¶semployment¶Psychological Contract is the key interfacing concept

between the individual and the organisation



Herriot (1992); Herriot & Pemberton (1996)continued...

Changes in organisations (less hierarchical, fewer µjobs for life¶) has impacted upon the contractual balance (i.e.

benefits to individual Vs. organisation) of the psychological contract >>> µpsychological deals¶

How can an organisation continually adapt to itsenvironment, yet maintain its central continuity?Herriot (1992) suggests org¶s should operate withintwo overarching frameworks :

Diversity of Values ± different career anchors, temporal changes in values (life-

stage, career stage)

Psychological Contracting ± Individuals and Organisations take each other¶s needs and

viewpoints into consideration




How an organisation can manage employees¶ psychological contracts :career audits - expectations & beliefs

provide info. systems about internal vacancies & their requirementscareer counselling (career anchors)work shadowing

mentoring schemes (aid socialisation)development opportunities (nurturing expertise, not just

professional expertise)systems geared to individual needs (part-time, job share,career breaks, child-care, paternity leave, secondments)




Conditions required for satisfactory psychologicalcontractingfull knowledge of terms & conditions of employmentaccurate representation of the current µsituation¶ by both

partiesneither party should be coerced or put under duressneither party should be expected to commit an immoral actas a consequence of the contract

Successful psychological contracting >>> impacts on humanresource strategy (active participation and collaboration of ALL employees in support of the strategic business plan)



W omen & CareersAssumptions about Women & Work in µtraditional¶ career

literaturewomen are fundamentally different from men in their interface with the workplace (Gallos, 1989); they do not

pursue a µcareer¶Work and organisational life seen to be more central to themale identity than females¶ (females priorities being non-economic i.e. domestic)Women interface with the workplace in a transactionalterms (short-term, supplementary relationships to central

µdomestic¶ role); men¶s interface is relationalThere are differences between sexes in careers, becausemen and women are intrinsically different in their basicneeds and interests (Bakan, 1966; Chodorow, 1978)

Women : affiliative Vs Men : upward progression, status, power



rapid changes in educational policy - morewomen are highly educated >>> more women in

skilled/professional roles (Nicholson & West,1988) blurring of boundaries between home and work (teleworking)

blurring of traditional µmale¶ and µfemale¶ roles.Smaller families, more labour saving householddevices >>> reduced need for µhome-maker¶



R esearch on W omens¶ CareersVery little done!

Women as µhonorary men¶ : Millward & Brewerton (in press) : psychological contracts of full-time female Vs male workers (5orgs). Found females were largely relational.Women are more heterogeneous in employment patterns and

biographical profiles than men (Hakim, 1996)

The extent to which work is the primary source of identity for women may depend on the extent to which they can reconcileneeds with the masculine nature of organisationalresponsibilities (David & Hearn, 1996)Different kinds of jobs afford different µidentities¶.... Tajfel(1978) µSocial Identity Theory¶ : Individuals identify withgroups and organisations partly to enhance self-esteem >>>>high profile women in male dominated professions oftendevelop attitudes, needs and values on a par with malecounterparts (Terborg, 1977).



W ork~Family InterfaceWork~Family interface critical to understanding µcareer¶

(thus developmental perspectives on career developmentalso relevant)

Emphasis in early literature on (a) description and (b) problem-focused (identifying adjustment and interface

difficulties) Dual Career Families (Hall & Hall, 1979)

Where both partners in a relationship are in pursuit of career development. Issue : children!

Sequential Career - man continues, woman either (a) stops pursing career, looks after children (b) career break (c) pursues career after children

Simultaneous Career - man and woman continue careers and

have children >>> stress from allocation of home tasks.



Hall & Hall (1980) : Home Task Allocation PatternsEach party is highly involved in different spheres (e.g.woman at home, man at work)

Each party is highly involved in their own career withoutconcern for perfection in the home domain (e.g. employnannies, cleaners)Each party is highly involved in their own career, and

wants the other person to do more at homeEach party is highly involved in both home and work

B enefits of Dual Careers ( R osin, 1990)Greater financial security

Children have role models of both sexesMen - alternative source of success and satisfaction outsideof work Share experiences with partner :similar career/life stages

NB. Redefine µcareer success¶



Minority Group Careers

Thomas & Alderfer, 1989 : very little research, as minoritygroups excluded from managerial/professional careers(focus of traditional careers literature)Organisations are not meritocracies (Tharenou, 1997)

Wells & Jennings (1983) : processes by which minorityemployees are prevented from attaining higher org levelsµwhite entitlement¶ - mgmt insistence of right to controlresource allocation, perpetuating privilege.µscandalous paradox¶ - minority employee who achieves isseen as scandalous; achievements are illegitimateµlegitimist impulse¶ - status anxiety and fear of mgmt thattheir µrightful¶ position is being undermined.

Small amount of research conducted focuses almost

exclusively on Black Americans.



The Future...Both objective and subjective faces of µcareer¶ are

essential to its analysis; subjective increasingly morerelevantObjective notions of career still predominate perceptionsof µcareer success¶, but alternatives are being

contemplatedIncreasingly flexible, fluid org structures allow moreopportunity for employees to µmake¶ their own career.But, increased autonomy and personal responsibility for careers are coupled with less security

Need for further interdisciplinary research into theconcept of career & career development (i.e. sociology,economics..)

Need for further research on women, minority groups,

non-managerial/non-professional careers.



Additional R eferences

Davidson, M.J. (1997). The Black and EthnicMinority Woman Manager : Cracking the concreteceiling. Paul Chapman Publishing, London.[658.409089]

Haslett, B., Geis, F.L., Carter, M.R. (1996). TheOrganizational Woman : Power and paradox.Ablex Publishing Corporation, New Jersey.

[658.406082]

Mayo, A. (1991) Managing Careers :Strategies for organizations. IPM, London [658.312]

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