*Chapter 21Italy, 1400 to 1500Gardners Art Through the Ages, 13e

Ancient Through Medieval (30 %)Greece and Rome (10-15 %)Early Christian, Byzantine, Early Medieval (5-10 %)Romanesque (3-7 %)Gothic (7-10 %)Renaissance to Present (50 %)Fourteen Through Sixteenth Centuries (12-17 %)Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries (10-15 %)Nineteenth Century (10-15 %)Twentieth Century and Contemporary Art (10-15 %)Beyond European Artistic Traditions (20 %)Africa (including ancient Egypt); the Americas; Asia: Oceania; the ancient Near East; and global Islamic tradition.MAKE SURE YOU READ CHAPTER 21!!!!!!

SUMMARYThis chapter acquaints the student with the scope of the Renaissance or "rebirth" as this period is labeled. This chapter also develops the argument that the Renaissance was born in the 14th century. Much of the artistic formulations had been developed in the fourteenth century, the focus on humanism and its expansion into education and rediscovering the works of ancient Greece and Rome. Humanism also emphasized commitment, responsibility and moral duty. This in turn became the foundation for civic leadership, which also promoted commissions of art to extol the virtues of the city and the individual. It was during this century that the German Johann Guttenberg developed movable type that streamlined the printing press and made books more readily available. There was a concerted effort to acquire information in a very diversified range of topics from geology and optics, to engineering and medicine. The economic fluctuations in Italy also forwarded the development of artists and schools; the condottieri became power brokers and set individual cities as centers of humanism and learning, which was also reflected in art patronage.

Rebirth of Italian Culture

Major factors:The spread of humanism Growing interest in classical antiquity

Political and economic changes: new class of wealthy patrons

Of Wealth and Power:Rise of princely courts Control of cities by despots

The Spread of Humanism:Humanism flourished in the 15th century.

Three tenants that underlay Humanism:Civil conductTheory of educationScholarly discipline

Emphasis was placed on education and knowledgeindividual potential civic responsibility and moral duty.

NORTHERNITALIANRealism through excessive details

Intentional references to Gothic Architecture

Intuitive Perspective

Great art in the form of Oil Paints, Altarpieces and smaller paintings

Van Der Goes, Van Eyck, Van Der Weyden, CampinRealism through mathematics and linear perspective

Intentional references to Classical Architecture and figure studies

Linear Perspective

Great art in the form of Frescoes and larger Temperas Masaccio, Donatello, Ghiberti, Brunelleschi, Botticelli

DAY ONE: Italian Renaissance SculptureGHIBERTIBRUNELLESCHIDONATELLOVERROCCHIODAY TWO: Italian Renaissance PaintingMASACCIOBOTTICELLIUCCELLOMANTEGNADEL CASTAGNOLIPPIPERUGINOGHIRLANDAIODAY THREE: Italian Renaissance Painting continued & ArchitectureBRUNELLLESCHIDI BARTOLOMMEOALBERTIDAY FOUR: Chapter 21 TestSCHEDULE

Baptistry of San Giovanni,Florence, Italy, ca 1059- Andrea Pisano (1270-1348) Designed the south doors between 1330 and 1335.1401 Competition for the second set of doors requiring each entrant to submit a relief panel depicting the sacrifice of Isaac.This biblical event centers on Gods order to Abraham that he sacrifice his son Isaac as a demonstration of Abrahams devotion to God. Topic may have been a reflection of Florences impending threat of invasion from surrounding Visconti soldiers.

*COMPARE/CONTRAST

*Figure 21-2 FILIPPO BRUNELLESCHI, Sacrifice of Isaac, competition panel for east doors, baptistery, Florence, Italy, 14011402. Gilded bronze, 1 9 x 1 5. Museo Nazionale del Bargello, Florence. Sturdy and vigorous interpretation of the theme.Abraham seems suddenly to have summoned the dreadful courage needed to kill his son.Lunges forward, robes flying. Saving angel darts in from the left.Figures demonstrate his ability to observe carefully and represent faithfully all the elements in the biblical narrative.Panel consists of several cast pieces.

*Figure 21-3 LORENZO GHIBERTI, Sacrifice of Isaac, competition panel for east doors, baptistery, Florence, Italy, 14011402. Gilded bronze relief, 1 9 x 1 5. Museo Nazionale del Bargello, Florence. The interest in humanism and mathematics in fifteenth-century Italy can be seen in the competitive panel for the Baptistery doors by Ghiberti (21-3). Here Ghiberti has created the first classicized nude since Antiquity, while the spatial arrangement within the frame shows knowledge of mathematics and spatial illusion. Ghiberti has created a more focused image of the sacrifice Abraham was willing to make to God, a presentation that also shows the moral imperative to duty, which the Florentines wanted to follow.Cast panel only two pieces. Ultimately, the Baptistery doors become a monument, not only to religion, but also to the city. Another work which shows the period's new interest in humanism and patronage is the Pazzi Chapel. (review on Thursday) Medieval narrative method shown in the figures and their varying degrees of projection and postures, which move gracefully through a convincing stage space.

Ghiberti, who demonstrated his interest in perspective in his Sacrifice of Isaac, embraced Donatellos innovations. Ghibertis enthusiasm for a unified system for representing space is particularly evident in his famous east doors.

Michelangelo later declared

these as so beautiful that

they would do well for the

gates of Paradise.

Each of the panels contains a relief set in plain moldings and depicts a scene from the Old Testament. The complete gilding of the reliefs creates an effect of great splendor and elegance.

Figure 21-10 LORENZO GHIBERTI, east doors (Gates of Paradise), baptistery, Florence, Italy, 14251452. Gilded bronze, 17 high. Modern copy, ca. 1980. Original panels in Museo dellOpera del Duomo, Florence. http://www.museumsinflorence.com/musei/Baptistery_of_florence.html#

*Figure 21-11 LORENZO GHIBERTI, Isaac and His Sons (detail of FIG. 21-10), (Gates of Paradise), baptistery, Florence, Italy, 14251452. Gilded bronze, 2 7 1/2 x 2 7 1/2. Museo dellOpera del Duomo, Florence. Perspective techniques were applied to relief sculpture, as well as to painting, as can be seen from the panel from Ghiberti's east doors of the Florence Baptistery 1425-52 (21-11). In this image, the meeting of Isaac and his Sons is set before a complex architectural setting. There are many figures and a multitude of architectural details, yet the composition is very clear and uncluttered; the figures move easily and gracefully in this rational, logically constructed space. For example, the left foreground figures of the women move naturally and fluidly through the space, walking and talking in a natural pose. This is also the humanist influence, observation of the way people move, naturally and realistically. What is meant by Kliener when he describes this pieces as using aerial perspective?the grandeur of the architecture reflects the dignity of the events shown in the foreground-Alberti

*Figure 21-8 DONATELLO, Feast of Herod, panel on the baptismal font of Siena Cathedral, Siena, Italy, 14231427. Gilded bronze , 1 11 1/2 x 1 11 1/2. Represents Donatellos mastery of relief sculpture.Bronze relief on the baptismal front in the Siena CathedralNARRATIVEThe fateful birthday banquet hosted by Herod Antipas which resulted in the decapitation of Saint John the Baptist. Herod Antipas, one of the sons of Herod the Great, was the ruler of Galilee. He divorced his first wife in order to marry Herodias, the wife of his brother (or half-brother). John the Baptist rebuked him for this and angered Herodias. Herodiass (huh-roh-dee-uhs) daughter, Salome (sal-uh-mey ), pleased Herod with her dancing at the feast, and Herod offered to grant her any wish. Consulting with her mother, Salome requested the head of John the Baptist (who had previously been imprisoned by Herod). John was decapitated, and his head was brought forth on a platter. Depicted in art, the subject will include figures seated at a banqueting table, Salome dancing or performing acrobatics, the decapitation of John, and the presentation of Johns head on a tray or in a bowl. Extracted from this narrative context, the decapitated head of John the Baptist also appears in art as an independent, devotional image

*Figure 21-5 DONATELLO, Saint Mark, Or San Michele, Florence, Italy, 14111413. Marble, 7 9 high. Modern copy in exterior niche. Original sculpture in museum on second floor of Or San Michele, Florence. Incorporated Greco Roman sculptural principles. Donatello took a fundamental step forward to portraying motion in the human figure by recognizing the principle of weight shift. (contrapposto)As the saints body moves his garments moves with it, hanging and folding naturally from and around different body parts so that the viewer senses the figure as a clothed nude, not a stone statue. Figure 5-40 POLYKLEITOS, Doryphoros (Spear Bearer). Roman marble copy from Pompeii, Italy, after a bronze original of ca. 450440 BCE, 6 11 high. Museo Archeologico Nazionale, Naples.Figure 5-34 Kritios Boy, from the Acropolis, Athens, Greece, ca. 480 BCE. Marble, 2 10 high. Acropolis Museum, Athens. Which of these figures is MOVING?

*Figure 21-12 DONATELLO, David, late 14401460. Bronze, 5 2 1/4 high. Museo Nazionale del Bargello, Florence. The Medici family commissioned Donatello to create this bronze statue for the Palazzo Medici courtyard. This was the first freestanding nude statue created since ancient times.

This statue portrays the biblical David, the young slayer of Goliath and the symbol of the independent Florentine republic. David possesses the relaxed classical contrapposto stance and the proportions and beauty of Greek Praxitelean gods.

The Medici family chose the subject of David, perhaps because they had seen Donatellos previous statue of David which is located in the center of political activity in Florence. This shows that the Medici family identified themselves with Florence, and the prosperity of the city. Donatello was fascinated by the classical nude figures he saw when he was in Rome as these idealized forms represented man at his most glorious. Donatello's bronze David c.1428-32 (21-12) clearly reflects this interest, even though it represents a Biblical subject. It is the first freestanding nude figure since classical times. The figure also illustrates Donatello's rediscovery of the classical device of contrapposto, a device in which the figure's weight is thrown on one foot with the consequence that one side of the body is shown relaxed, while the other has a contrasting tension. This pose had been discovered by the ancient Greeks in the fifth century BC and had been continued by the Romans, as in Polykleitoss Doryphorus c.450-440 BC (5-40) and the Augustus Primaporta c.20 BC (10-27). What narrative in Donatello portraying with this free standing nude sculpture? And what liberties did the artist take in rendering this figure that marks the work distinctively Florentine?

*Figure 21-13 ANDREA DEL VERROCCHIO, David, ca. 14651470. Bronze, 4 1 1/2 high. Museo Nazionale del Bargello, Florence. In contrast to Donatellos David is Verrocchios David c.1465-70 (21-13). This figure presents a young man clothed in the armor and leather of a warrior, not a simple shepherd. The body is more muscular and developed than Donatellos David. The presentation is one of assured accomplishment as the young man confronts the viewer with his victory over the Philistine, Goliath. Verrocchio's work embodies the humanist theme in a more generalized manner, suggesting a Medieval sensitivity, rather than Donatellos execution of the classical heritage of Rome. How does Verrocchio representation of David differ from Donatello?

*Figure 21-16 ANDREA DEL VERROCCHIO, Bartolommeo Colleoni (equestrian statue), Campo dei Santi Giovanni e Paolo, Venice, Italy, ca. 14811496. Bronze, 13 high. Figure 10-59 Equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius, from Rome, Italy, ca. 175 CE. Bronze, 11 6 high. Musei Capitolini, Rome. Figure 21-15 DONATELLO, Gattamelata (equestrian statue of Erasmo da Narni), Piazza del Santo, Padua, Italy, ca. 14451450. Bronze, 12 2 high.

Which sculpture is the most powerful?

*The growth of portraiture in this period reflected the Renaissance concern with individualism and a desire to leave monuments that reflected the accomplishments of individuals. One of the most important monuments created by the sculptor Donatello about 1445 to 1450 is a portrait of Erasmo da Narni, known as the Gattamelata (honeyed-cat) (21-15). A thankful populace erected this commemoration of the famous mercenary leader in the city square of Padua. It was also of the first times since the Roman period that monumental sculpture was removed from a religious context; its sole purpose was to praise an individual. An earlier example of mounted knight The Bamberg Rider c.1235-40 (18-50) shows the figure within the medieval context of attachment to the architecture. However Gattamelata stands on his own, as had been the case with Donatello's earlier figure of St. Mark 1411-13 (21-5). Figure 21-15 DONATELLO, Gattamelata (equestrian statue of Erasmo da Narni), Piazza del Santo, Padua, Italy, ca. 14451450. Bronze, 12 2 high. How did this work reflect traditions of portraiture during the period?

By not representing Gattalmelata as larger than life, Donatello, emphasized the character of the man. He did not create a heroic monument, but a portrait representing an Italian military leader, an utterly confident condottiere and a man of his times.

*Figure 21-20 MASACCIO, Holy Trinity, Santa Maria Novella, Florence, Italy, ca. 14241427. Fresco, 21 10 5/8 x 10 4 3/4. Perhaps the most important manifestation of humanism in of art in this period was the development of linear perspective in Florence in the 1420s. Credit for the invention or discovery is generally given to Brunelleschi, the architect of the Pazzi Chapel. Brunelleschi is said to have cut a hole in a panel, then looked through the hole at a cityscape and painted exactly what he saw. One important aspect of this exercise was that it limited the spectator to a single position in space and then related the painted composition to the exact position of the spectator's eye. The basic principles of perspective can be seen in Masaccio's Trinity fresco in the Church of Santa Maria Novella in Florence c.1428 (21-20). In linear single-point perspective all the orthogonals (those lines that are perpendicular to the picture plane) meet at a single point on the horizon. This is called the vanishing point. The orthogonals of the ceiling are above our eye level. If each were extended, they would converge at a single point at the base, which would correspond to our eye level. Notice symmetry created by the pyramidal composition. How many triangles can you count?

Notice the significance of the donors (Renaissance interest in the individual), classical architecture, and the memento mori at the base.

I was once what you are, and what I am you will become.

Masaccio, Holy TrinitySanta Maria Novella, Florence, Italyca. 1428

Masaccios fresco embodies two principal Renaissance interests--realism based on observation and the application of mathematics in the new science of perspective. The composition is painted on two levels of unequal height.

In the coffered barrel-vaulted chapel reminiscent of a Roman triumphal arch, the Virgin Mary and St. John appear on either side of the crucified Christ. God the Father emerges from behind Christ, supporting the arms of the cross. The Dove of the Holy Spirit hovers between God and Christ.

Also included are portraits of the donors of the painting, who kneel in front of the pilasters.

Below the altar-- a masonry insert in the depicted composition--the artist painted a tomb containing a skeleton. An Italian inscription above the skeleton reminds spectators that I was once what you are, and what I am you will become.

Masaccios brief career reached its height in his collaboration with a painter known as Masolino on the fresco decoration of the Brancacci Chapel in the Church of Santa Maria del Carmen in Florence. The chapel was originally dedicated to St. Peter and the frescos illustrate events in his life.

*Figure 21-18 MASACCIO, Tribute Money, Brancacci Chapel, Santa Maria del Carmine, Florence, Italy, ca. 1427. Fresco, 8 4 1/8 x 19 7 1/8. TRIBUTE MONEY. What are FIVE distinctive characteristics? NARRATIVE in Art: Peter and Tax Collector shown 3 different timesCOLOR use of wide range of hues and used contrasting colors for shadingPERSPECTIVE: Atmospheric AND linear perspectiveLIGHTING: Masaccio modeled figures with strong highlights and shadowsHALO: Masaccio conceived of the halo as a foreshortened gold disk

Masaccio, Tribute Money, Brancacci Chapel, Florence, Italy, ca. 1427.Masaccio presented this narrative in three episodes within the fresco. In the center, Christ, surrounded by his disciples, tells Saint Peter to retrieve the coin from the fish, while the tax collector stands in the foreground, his back to spectators and hand extended, awaiting payment. At the left, in the middle distance, Saint Peter extracts the coin from the fishs mouth, and at the right, he thrusts the coin into the tax collectors hand.

Masaccio realized most of the figures not through generalized modeling with a flat neutral light lacking an identifiable source but by a light coming from a specific source outside the picture.

Masaccio Expulsion of Adam and Eve from Eden, Brancacci Chapel, Florence, Italy, ca 1425This was painted in an awkwardly narrow space (see next slide) at the entrance to the Brancacci Chapel. It displays the representational innovations of Tribute Money. For example, the sharply slanted light from an outside source creates deep relief, with lights placed alongside darks, and acts as a strong unifying agent.

Masaccio also presented the figures moving with structural accuracy and with substantial bodily weight. Further, the hazy, atmospheric background specifies no locale but suggests a space around and beyond the figures. Adams feet, clearly in contact with the ground, mark the human presence on earth, and the cry issuing from Eves mouth voices her anguish.

The angel does not force them physically from Eden, rather, they stumble on blindly, driven by the angels will and their own despair. The composition is starkly simple, its message incomparably eloquent.Notice that Adams and Eves body types and poses are derivative of ancient Roman statuary. Compare Masaccios Adam to Jan van Eycks Adam from the Ghent Altarpiece. Eve has the modest Venus pose.

*Figure 21-28 SANDRO BOTTICELLI, Birth of Venus, ca. 14841486. Tempera on canvas, approx. 5 9 x 9 2. Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence. Sandro Botticelli was one of the best known artists who produced works for the Medici. He painted this tempera on canvas for the Medici family.

A poem on the theme of the famous Birth of Venus by Angelo Poliziano was what inspired Botticelli to create this lyrical image.

Zephyrus (the west wind) blows Venus, born of the sea foam and carried on a cockle shell to her sacred island, Cyprus. The nymph Pomona runs to her with a brocaded mantle. How has Botticelli used linear and atmospheric perspective to create the illusion of space?PomonaVenusCyprusZephyrusChloris

Human Body in Art. The Medici Venus. 1st Century Greek StatueThe central image, known as the modest Venus, is based on the antique statue of Venus in the Medici collection.Commission may be related to Neoplatonism, a philosophy favored by the Medici. Medici the Elder had founded an academy in Florence devoted to the study of classical texts. Neoplatonism is highly complex, but basically it is characterized by a sharp opposition of the spiritual (the ideal or idea) and the carnal (matter that can be overcome by severe discipline and aversion to the world of the senses).For the Florentine Neoplatonists, the celestial Venus was the classical equivalent of the Virgin Mary

Figure 5-62 PRAXITELES, Aphrodite of Knidos. Roman marble copy of an original of ca. 350340 BCE. 6 8 high. Musei Vaticani, Rome.

http://www.aiwaz.net/birth-of-venus-and-la-primavera-conjoined/a115

An Interesting new interpretation of Botticelli's mythological paintings Birth of Venus PrimaveraZephyrPomonaVenusChlorisZephyrHamadryad Greek Chloris/ Roman FloraVenusCupid3 Graces:Gods of joy, charm & beautyMercury

Sandro Botticelli, Adoration of the Magi, c 1475.Sandro Botticelli, Adoration of the Magi, c 1481-82.Adoration of the Magi by BotticelliFor most of the fifteenth century, the Epiphany was celebrated in Florence with a great festival. Expensively clad citizens reenacted the journey of the three kings to Bethlehem with processions through the streets. Shortly before this work was painted, however, the elaborate pageantry of the festival was curtailed. Preachers complained that excessive luxury obscured the day's religious significance.Botticelli's painting seems to reflect this new concern. He places Jesus at the center of a powerful X formed by the opposing triangles of kneeling worshipers and the roof of the manger. The viewer, rather than being overwhelmed by rich detail, is instead aware of the quiet distance between him and the holy figuresand like the worshipers in the painting leans toward the infant. This yearning to close the gap between human existence and the divine was a frequent Neoplatonic theme.

*Figure 21-26 PAOLO UCCELLO, Battle of San Romano, ca. 1455 (?). Tempera on wood, approx. 6 x 10 5. National Gallery, London. How has Uccello used linear perspective to convey space?- Commissioned as one panel in a series of three for the Medici bedchamber.The scene commemorates the Florentine victory of the Sienese in 1432.In the panel illustrated Nicolo da Tolentino, a friend and supporter of Cosimo de Medici, leads the charge against the Sienese Orange fruit known as mela medica (medicinal apples) = Medici means apples

*Figure 21-47 ANDREA MANTEGNA, interior of the Camera Picta (Painted Chamber), Palazzo Ducale, Mantua, Italy, 14651474. Fresco. Another type of portrait which the15th century Italian artists explored was the large group portrait, which presented the family as a dynasty. For example, the entire family of the Duke of Mantua was painted by Mantegna in the famous frescoes for the Camera degli Sposi 1474 (Room of the Newlyweds) or as it is sometimes known the Camera Picta (Painted Room) in the Ducal palace in Mantua (21-47). This work gives the viewer another look into the lives of the rich and powerful, Ludovico Gonzaga and his wife Barbara von Hohenzollern, with their family and court. On the right wall sits Ludovico and Barbara with children and attendants; they are presented as if at court on a quiet day, informally. On the left wall is the arrival of Cardinal Francesco Gonzaga, complete with horses and attendants, the son who had joined the papal court in Rome. With this dynastic portrait of power and influence, the Gonzagas were memorializing their intention to rival the other great houses in Italy. Family Portrait

*Figure 21-48 ANDREA MANTEGNA, Camera Picta (Painted Chamber), Palazzo Ducale, Mantua, Italy, 14651474. Fresco, 8 9 in diameter. The ceiling from the Camera degli Sposi (21-48) also illustrates the artists grasp of the laws of perspective. It is one of the most startling of all images, for it is strongly foreshortened and is the first example of an illusionistic painting style that became extremely popular in the Baroque period. On this ceiling, Mantegna has created an image, almost voyeuristic, of court members along with the putti looking down into the room. He has also used antique symbols to solemnize the union between Ludovico Gonzaga and Barbara von Hohenzollern. For example, the peacock looking down into the room is an icon for the Roman goddess Juno, the patron goddess of marriage. Mantegna is complimenting the Gonzaga house by the seeming approval of the ancient goddess, as well as demonstrating his knowledge of Roman literature.

What makes this painting amazing?

*Figure 21-49 ANDREA MANTEGNA, Foreshortened Christ, ca. 1500. Tempera on canvas, 2 2 3/4 x 2 7 7/8. Pinacoteca di Brera, Milan. Mantegna's sharply foreshortened view of the Dead Christ c.1501 (21-49). Here, Mantegna has attempted to show the body feet first, or as an object viewed as though extended in a plane not perpendicular to the line of sight. The apparent visual contraction is compensated by the size of the feet; Mantegna has taken artistic license and made them smaller so our eye and mind will accept the figure fitting into the space it occupies. Human Body in Art.How have the proportions been exaggerated?

*Figure 21-40 PERUGINO, Christ Delivering the Keys of the Kingdom to Saint Peter, Sistine Chapel, Vatican, Rome, Italy, 14811483. Fresco, 11 5 1/2 x 18 8 1/2. In Christ Delivering the Keys of the Kingdom to St. Peter 1481-83 (21-40), Perugino conceived one of the favorite perspective exercises of fifteenth-century Italian artists, a city square or piazza. The piazzas, which were often paved with marble squares, were popular with artists because the structure of converging orthogonals was already laid out for them. The moldings on the surrounding buildings added other ready-made elements for the perspective structure. By placing the centralized church in the center of the composition, Perugino avoided one of the problems that often arose from a strict application of the laws of perspective. The lines converging in a single point tended to create a visual hole in the center of the canvas. The square tile pavement of the piazza serve to give the correct relationships between the sizes of the figures that are placed at varying distances from the spectator. One becomes intrigued with Perugino's solution to formal problems of the painting itself. The theme of the work is the unification of vision with theory, of art with science, and using those ideas in support of the Church and its mandate as depicted by Perugino. This was the tremendous challenge for fifteenth-century Italian artists, marrying science and philosophy to religion in a coherent and rational fashion, meeting the needs of the Church as the articulator of this vision.LINEAR PERSPECTIVE

*Figure 21-30 FILIPPO BRUNELLLESCHI, cutaway view of the dome of Florence Cathedral, Florence, Italy, 1420-1436 ( after Piero Sanpaolesi). Perhaps the structure which most epitomizes the accomplishments of humanism, and the marriage of religion and philosophy based on mathematics, is the cathedral of Florence 1420-36 (21-30). With this building, Brunelleschi was able to solve the problem of placing the dome, but also effectively tied the dome to the structure, uniting the humanistic themes into one structure. The cathedral became the focus for the city of Florence and it summarizes the discoveries and changes the 15th century wrought for Italy Brunelleschis broad knowledge of Roman construction principles and his analytical and inventive mind permitted him to solve an engineering problem that no other 15th-century architect could have solved. The challenge was the design and construction of a dome for the huge crossing of the unfinished Florence Cathedral.

The space to be spanned was much too wide to permit construction with the aid of traditional wooden centering. Nor was it possible [because of the crossing plan] to support the dome with buttressed walls.

In 1420, officials overseeing cathedral projects awarded Brunelleschi and Ghiberti a joint commission. Ghiberti later abandoned the project and left it to his associates.

*Figure 21-31 FILIPPO BRUNELLESCHI, interior of Santo Spirito (looking northeast), Florence, Italy, designed 14341436; begun ca. 1436.Identify some of the architectural elements of Brunelleschis interior.

*Figure 21-33 FILIPPO BRUNELLESCHI, facade of the Pazzi Chapel, Santa Croce, Florence, Italy, begun ca. 1440.

Applying Roman Mathematical Logic

The chapel that was the Pazzi familys gift to the church of Santa Croce in Florence presented Brunelleschi with the opportunity to explore this interest in a structure much better suited to such a design than a basilican church.

The chapel was not completed until the 1460s, long after Brunelleschis death, and thus the exterior does not reflect Brunelleschis original design. The narthex (the entrance hall leading to the nave of a church.) seems to have been added as an afterthought, perhaps by the sculptor-architect Giuliano da Maiano.

It is suggested that the local chapter of Franciscan monks who held meetings in the chapel needed the expansion. The exterior (21-33) of the chapel also shows the circle and square symmetry that Brunelleschi sought. The portico entry reflects an interest in the classical designs of antiquity. To gain a clearer image of the impact that this new architecture made, compare the exterior of Ste-Chapelle with the Pazzi Chapel (21-33). Both chapels are small and intimate, yet each reflects the period in which it was constructed and also satisfied the desires of the patrons who commissioned each one. Ste-Chapelle was designed to resemble a reliquary and be devotional, while the Pazzi Chapel was created to enhance the patron's image and indicate the donor family's stature within the city hierarchy

*Figure 21-34 FILIPPO BRUNELLESCHI, plan of the Pazzi Chapel, Santa Croce, Florence, Italy designed ca. 1423, begun 1442. The plan Brunelleschi designed combines the favorite Renaissance forms: the square and the circle (21-34). ). The building nearly realized the centralized plan that was to fascinate Renaissance architects. The emphasis was on the central, dome-covered space. The wall was articulated with simple, geometric, modular forms that can be related with simple arithmetic ratios. The Chapel is also an excellent illustration of architecture scaled to the person. By contrast, the scale of Medieval churches was intended to overwhelm people, to make them feel small in the presence of God, as with the interior of Amiens (18-19). But the scale of Brunelleschi's chapel was designed to make people feel as though they were welcome by a more loving God.

*Figure 21-35 FILIPPO BRUNELLESCHI, interior of the Pazzi Chapel (looking northeast), Santa Croce, Florence, Italy, designed ca.1423, begun 1442, with glazed terracotta roundels by Luca della Robbia.Applying Roman Mathematical Logic

This chapel was the Pazzi familys gift to the church of Santa Croce in Florence. The artist is Filippo Brunelleschi, who began to design this chapel in 1440 and it was not completed until after his death.

The interior trim is in gray stone or pietra serena (serene stone). Medallions with glazed terracotta are featured on the inside representing the Four Evangelista and decorated wall panels represent the Twelve Apostles.

Brunelleschi used this opportunity to create a structure more suited to a compact and self-contained central floor plan as seen in the Pantheon. He used a basic unit that allowed him to construct a balanced, harmonious, and regularly proportioned space.

*Figure 21-37 MICHELOZZO DI BARTOLOMMEO, interior court of the Palazzo Medici-Riccardi, Florence, Italy, begun 1445. -The Medici palace interior surrounded by a round-arched colonnade was the first of its kind. Palazzo Medici Riccardi has a particularly fascinating history, rich in art and also in political, cultural and worldly events. The history of this palazzo, one of the finest and most famous in Florence, is an integral part of the history of the city, marking out all the important stages in its development. Built in the mid fifteenth century by Michelozzo on commission from the Medici, the building became the prototype of Renaissance civil architecture. The robust and austere pile of the mansion, originally designed as a sort of cube, was for at least a century the most direct and efficacious symbol of the political and cultural primacy of the Medici in Florence.the Palazzo Medici designed by Michelozzo appeared as a completely new style of building within the Florentine urban panorama, capable of combining tradition (pietra forte, or fine grained sandstone, and rustication) with the new Renaissance concepts. Novel elements were, among others, the loggia open to the street on the corner between Via Larga and Via de Gori, used for the transaction of business, the internal colonnaded courtyard as the fulcrum of the entire building, the garden at the back, on Via Ginori, complete with internal loggia and equipped with wall a reaching as high as the first storey of the palazzo. More specifically, the corner loggia, the courtyard visible from the street and the stone bench running round the exterior on which people could sit, established a direct relation between the inhabitants of the mansion and the other citizens.For almost a century the main branch of the Medici family resided in the palazzo. http://www.palazzo-medici.it/eng/palazzo.htm Figure 21-36 MICHELOZZO DI BARTOLOMMEO, facade of the Palazzo Medici-Riccardi, Florence, Italy, begun 1445. Kneeling Windows replaced the original loggia.

*Alberti believed in the fusion of the classicism of the Greeks (past) and the modernity of Christianity (present Alberti himself adopted many Roman elements in his buildings, such as converting the column articulation of the Colosseum to the flat facade of the Rucellai Palace c.1452-70 (21-38). He also used the triumphal arch with attached pilasters as the basis for his design of the facade of Sant' Andrea, Mantua (21-44) and decorated its barrel vaults (21-46) with classical Roman coffering. Alberti created a small beautifully proportioned classical facade for Santa Maria Novella, Florence c.1458-70 (21-39). In his writings Alberti stressed the importance of harmonic ratios of measure, of mathematics as the basis for beauty. These harmonic ratios were related to the old Greek concept of the harmony of the spheres, and thus tied the macrocosm to the microcosm. He used the basic and perfect geometric forms of square and circle in his facades, forms that unite heaven and earth. For the humanists, the perfect circle that had no end was the symbol of the unity, the infinite essence and the uniformity of God. The square symbolized earth; bringing the two together, therefore, created a symbolic unity between heaven and earth. Alberti believed that the centralized church was the ideal type and tried, but never succeeded, in building one. Figure 21-44 LEON BATTISTA ALBERTI, west facade of SantAndrea, Mantua, Italy, designed 1470, begun 1472.Figure 21-46 LEON BATTISTA ALBERTI, interior of SantAndrea (looking northeast), Mantua, Italy, designed 1470, begun 1472.Figure 21-39 LEON BATTISTA ALBERTI, west facade of Santa Maria Novella, Florence, Italy, ca. 14561470.http://www.artist-biography.info/artist/leon_battista_alberti/

Figure 21-38 LEON BATTISTA ALBERTI BERNARD

OROSSELLINO, Palazzo Rucellai, Florence, Italy, ca. 14521470.ALBERTI

*How does the renovation of this church by Alberti demonstrate his ideas about Classical form and harmonic relationships between parts? Figure 21-39 LEON BATTISTA ALBERTI, west facade of Santa Maria Novella, Florence, Italy, ca. 14561470.Alberti designed a small, pseudo-Classical, pediment-capped temple front for the upper part of the facade and supported it with a broad base of pilaster-enframed arcades. The height of the facade equals the width, so that the entire structure can be contained in a square. The upper portico is exactly one-fourth the size of the main square, while a cornice separates the two halves of the main square. The segments of the lower portion are all created in sizes that can be expressed in a simple numerical relationship to the whole.

Figure 21-43 PIERO DELLA FRANCESCA, Flagellation of Christ, ca. 1455-1465. Oil and tempera on wood, 1 11 1/8 X 2 8 . Galleria Nazionale delle Marche, Urbino. *

*Figure 21-41 LUCA SIGNORELLI, Damned Cast into Hell, San Brizio Chapel, Orvieto Cathedral, Orvieto, Italy, 14991504. Fresco, 23 wide.How was Signorelli influential? His interests in portraying muscular bodies in violent actions expressed visually horrific consequences and great emotion. He fits the twisting figures into a coherent presentation. He showed great skill in presenting the foreshortened human figure in action. Signorelli furthered the developments initiated by Pollaiuolo in presenting a variety of poses and foreshortenings of the human figure.

*Figure 21-21 FRA ANGELICO, Annunciation, San Marco, Florence, Italy, ca. 14381447. Fresco, 7 1 x 10 6.Fra Angelico was the Dominican painter-friar who combined elements of the new style of art with traditional religious devotional works that did not conflict with the content of the works

*Figure 21-22 ANDREA DEL CASTAGNO, Last Supper, the refectory, convent of SantApollonia, Florence, Italy, 1447. Fresco, 15 5 x 32. Figure 21-42 PIERO DELLA FRANCESCA, Enthroned Madonna and Saints Adored by Federico da Montefeltro (Brera Altarpiece), ca. 14721474. Oil on wood, 8 2 x 5 7. Pinacoteca di Brera, Milan. In Pieros Enthroned Madonna and Saints Adored by Federico da Montefeltro (Brera Altar) 1472-64 (21-42), all of the figures must obey the laws of Renaissance space, hence the appropriate focus is channeled on the centering of the Virgin and the diagonal line of the Child drawing our attention to Federico. Andrea del Castagno's The Last Supper 1447 (21-22) follows all the rules of perspective. The converging orthogonals of the benches, the walls, and particularly the ceiling follow the Renaissance developments in perspective. The Medieval similarity in this image of the Last Supper is the separation of Judas from the other Apostles, clearly identifying him for the viewer as the betrayer. Piero della Francesca produced the fresco cycle in San Francesco, Arezzo. Why is this fresco cycle significant? He allowed the architectural background to organize and control the groupings of figures. As the architectonic nature of the work begins to unfold, the mood of the cycle takes on a solemnity and stillness that compliments the theme. It becomes spatially clear and precise.

*Figure 21-23 FRA FILIPPO LIPPI, Madonna and Child with Angels, ca. 1455. Tempera on wood, 2 11 1/2. x 2 1. Galleria degli Uffizi, Florence.This Virgin's secular beauty is undeniable; she wears a huge pearl over her finely coiffured hair and a string of pearls receding in a striking triangle from her high forehead. Her sculpted face, the shadows playing on her cheek, her bowed nose and strong lips - all is crisply yet tenderly seen. She sits on an ornate piece of furniture in a grey stone window through which we see cultivated fields, soaring rocks, a distant city. This is crucial to the painting's intimacy; it brings the Madonna forward. Her shadow is on the frame in a painting lit from the right - another physical, as opposed to spiritual detail. She is in front of it, like an actor at the front of a stage. She inspires passionate filial devotion in Christ, who is lifted up on the shoulders of two angels. The angel in the foreground is the painting's riskiest figure. He doesn't seem to be playing his part at all; he seems to be a real child, forgetting his pose, looking back at the painter, laughing. This is one of the most beautiful paintings of the Florentine Renaissance, a daring example of the humanizing of religion that goes back to Giotto and, intellectually, to St Francis of Assisi. Just as St Francis used humble imagery to make Christianity accessible, Renaissance painters made the relation between Mary and child that of a real mother and baby. Here, the Madonna is a beauty to whom Christ and Lippi are in thrall.

How is Mary presented?

*Figure 21-25 DOMENICO GHIRLANDAIO, Giovanna Tornabuoni(?), 1488. Oil and tempera on wood, 2 6 x 1 8. Thyssen-Bornemisza Collection, Madrid. We see a full range of fifteenth-century Italians in portraits like Ghirlandaio's magnificently dressed young woman, painted in 1488 (21-25) (assumed to be Giovanna Tornabuoni). She is presented in profile showing the richly patterned sleeve of her garment against the soft gold of the overdress. Her hair also mirrors that patterning, while on her breast is a pearl pendant, illustrating the wealth of the two families. Giovanna was a member of the powerful Albizzi family and married into the Tornabuoni family. It could be suggested that the artist Ghirlandaio, portrayed this young woman in profile because she died in childbirth, a not uncommon happening in fifteenth century Europe. The background of the painting reveals a quote from the Roman poet Martial, which honors Giovanna, but also indicates the erudition of the family. What features characterize the work of Domenico Ghirlandaio?Ghirlandaio was a synthesizer, not an innovator. His work provides an excellent picture of Florence at the end of the fifteenth century. He depicted detailed representations of the life, pageantry, costume, and material wealth of the citizens.

*Figure 21-24 DOMENICO GHIRLANDAIO, Birth of the Virgin, Cappella Maggiore, Santa Maria Novella, Florence, Italy, 14851490. Fresco, 244 x149.Another type of social portrait, one which ties the family to the Church, is Ghirlandaios Birth of the Virgin 1485-90 (21-24). In this fresco he gave us a marvelous glimpse of upper-middle class Florentine life. In this panel the artist has chosen one of the daughters of the house of Tornabuoni to represent the family in this religious scene. It is thought that the young woman leading the ladies is Ludovica, daughter of Giovanni Tornabuoni. She leads the ladies as witnesses to the event in serene stateliness. The interior of this room presents two views; the right side focuses the viewers attention on the birth and the first bath, while the left side shows a small scene of the Visitation, the women at the top of the stairs. This juxtaposition aligns this panel in context with the Dominicans as Santa Maria Novella was a Dominican patrimonial. Ghirlandaio has created a testament to the devotion of the Tornabuoni family as well as a statement regarding their important status within the hierarchy of the Florentine community.

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