Chapter2 the methods_of_psychological_research
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Transcript of Chapter2 the methods_of_psychological_research
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The Methods of Psychological Research
Chapter 2pp. 34-72
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The Scientific Method
• How do we advance knowledge in our field of research?– Formulate the research question based on a careful review of the literature
– Generate hypotheses based on what is already known
– Design an experiment using a paradigm and methods appropriate to the research question, incorporating carefully designed controls
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• How do we advance knowledge in our field of research?– Obtain ethics approval for the study
– Collect data with careful attention to random sampling and random assignment
– Analyze data and formulate interpretations using appropriate statistical tools
The Scientific Method
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• How do we advance knowledge in our field of research?– Communicate results in the form of published articles and presentation at scientific conferences (peer review process)
– Replicate!– Generate the next research question based on new results
The Scientific Method
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• What is a scientific hypothesis?– A proposed explanation for a phenomenon
– Based on previous observations or extensions of scientific theories
– A provisional idea whose merit is to be evaluated
– Must be testable and falsifiable– If confirmed, it is not “proven,” but remains provisional (i.e., for the time being)
The Scientific Method
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How do we test hypotheses?• Various methods of gathering data• Descriptive
– To develop description of the phenomenon
• Correlational– Is there an association between two variables?
– DOES NOT IMPLY CAUSATION
• Experimental– Independent variable: manipulate– Dependent variable: measure
The Scientific Method
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Steps in the Scientific Method
• Four main steps of scientific method1.Generate a Question2.Gather Information3.Formulate Hypothesis4.Test Hypothesis and Interpret Results
• Operational Definition
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Descriptive Research
• Goal– Observe and describe behaviour– Not explain causes
• Challenges– Reactivity– External validity
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Techniques of Descriptive Research
1. Naturalistic Observation
2. Case Studies
3. Surveys
4. Psychological tests
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Naturalistic Observation
http://www.oxfam.org.uk/coolplanet/ontheline/explore/journey/france/educ.htm
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Naturalistic Observation
http://www.ok4me2.net/category/science-and-technology/biology/page/5/
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Naturalistic Observation
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Case Studies: Focusing on the Individual
• One or a few individuals who are studied in great depth
• Potential Problems– External validity– Verification
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Surveys: Describing Populations
• Gather a limited amount of information from many people
• Potential problems–Obtaining a representative sample of participants–Are respondents being truthful?–Are respondents’ answers accurate?
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Sampling from a Population
• Population
• Sample
• Random Sampling– Procedure for selecting a representative subset of a target population
– Procedure guarantees that everyone in the population has an equal likelihood of being selected for the example
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Psychological Tests: Assessing Individual Differences
• Tests mainly designed to measure individual differences– Achievement tests
– Aptitude tests
– Intelligence tests
– Personality tests
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Correlation Research: Predicting Behaviour
• Correlation– A statistic that indicates whether two variables are related or vary together in a systematic way
• Correlation Coefficient– Vary from +1.00 (perfect positive relationship) to 0.00 (no relationship) to -1.00 (perfect negative relationship)
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• Correlation coefficient used to summarize whether two measures vary together
• Positive Correlation: One measure goes up, the other tends to go up as well
• Negative Correlation: One measure goes up, the other tends to go down
• Zero Correlation: Knowing value of one measure does not allow you to predict value of the other measure
Correlation Research: Predicting Behaviour
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Correlations and Causality
• Determining whether a relationship (correlation) exists between two variables is important in everyday life
• Correlations are useful for describing patterns of relationships between variables
• Limited in value when it comes to understanding why behaviours occur or co-occur
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Positive and Negative Correlation
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Third Variables
• Reason causality from a correlation is not possible due to presence of other factors
• Two variables can appear to be connected but connection could be due to some third variable
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Experimental Research: Explaining Behaviour
• Experimenters actively manipulate environment in order to observe effect of behaviour– Example:
•Deliberately expose one group of children to violent show, other group to nonviolent show and observe behaviour of each group
• Differs from simply recording, observing behaviour
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Independent and Dependent Variables
• Independent Variable– The aspect of the environment that is manipulated in an experiment. It must consist of at least two conditions.•Example: Violent show and nonviolent show
• Dependent Variable– The behaviour that is measured in an experiment•Example: Amount of aggressive behaviour after watching the show
• Hypothesis tested by observing effect of manipulating independent variable
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Dependent and Independent Variables
IndependentVariable
DependentVariable
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Experimental Control?
• Experimental and control group must be similar except with regard to independent variable
• There must be no confounding variables– Confounding variables: Uncontrolled variables that change along with the independent variable
• Random assignment: Each participant has an equal chance of ending up in any group or condition in the experiment– Helps ensure that overall, experimental and control groups are similar
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The Scientific Method
Can tapes with subliminal messages help smokers quit?
Null Hypothesis (no effect): After listening to a self-help tape, participants will not quit smoking
Alternative Hypothesis: After listening to a self-help tape, participants will quit smoking
Self measures for a period of 6-months (data:self-report)
- # of cigarettes per week- Desire to smoke per week
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The Scientific Method
2 groups
subliminal message no subliminal message
Dependent Variable: Measure – smoking/urges
Independent Variable: Manipulate – type of tape
Experimental Group vs. Control Group
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Expectancies and Biases in Experimental Research
• Participants may guess what the researcher expects to find
• Single-blind study• Double-blind study
• Ways of reducing expectancy effects:– Give placebo to those in the control group
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Generalizing Experimental Conclusions
• Must consider– Would participants have behaved the same way outside of the artificial laboratory situation?•Example: Would children in the television study behave the same way at home or school?
• External validity
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Statistics
• Mathematical techniques for summarizing and analyzing data
• Two main kinds– Descriptive statistics mathematically describe data
– Inferential statistics help researchers decide•Whether data represents population•Whether differences between groups can be attributed to chance alone
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Central Tendency
• Mean– Summarizes observations into a single representative number (arithmetic average)
• Median– Middle point in a set of scores
• Mode– Most frequently occurring score in a set of scores
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Observational Study of Hand Washing
• Mean: (4+4+5+ 8+9)/5 = 6
• Mode = 4
• Median: 4, 4, 5, 8, 9– Median = 5– What happens if there is no middle number?
– 2, 3, 4, 6, 6, 7– Median = (4+6)/2 = 5
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Variability
• Variability– How much the scores in a set differ from one another•Example: Two classes might have the same average exam score, but one set of scores might be much more spread out
• Standard Deviation– Average distance of scores from the mean
• Range– Difference between the lowest score and the highest score
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Inferential Statistics: Interpreting Data
• Mathematical techniques that help researchers estimate the likelihood that recorded behaviours are –representative of a population or –the likelihood that differences or relationships between observations are due to chance
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Inferential Statistics
• Based on laws of probability
• Example:– Does a gender difference in scores mean there’s a real gender difference in the population?
– Consider: What is the likelihood of getting a difference of a certain size or greater by chance alone?
• Researchers calculate probability that results could have happened by chance– If less than 5% chance > conclude the difference is real (statistically significant)
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Treating Research Participants Ethically
• Overall goal– Respect rights, dignity of participants
• Major components of research with human participants– Informed consent– Debriefing– Confidentiality
• Ethical treatment of animal research subjects
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Informed Consent
• Process of gaining permission and providing explanation of– Any risks (physical or emotional) or other factors that might affect decision to participate
– What procedures are involved
• Participants may stop without penalty
• May deceive about the true purpose, but not about factors that affect decision to participate
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Debriefing and Confidentiality
• Debriefing– After the experimental session is over, telling participants more about the true purpose
– Explain any deception that took place
• Confidentiality– Researcher does not discuss personal information obtained from the research without permission
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Ethics of Animal Research
• Benefits of animal research– Increases experimental control
•Enables research that can’t be conducted with human participants
• Ethical issues in animal research– Informed consent can’t be obtained– May involve injury or death to the animal
• Researchers who conduct animal research must– Care for animals properly
•Minimize pain and discomfort
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Summary: Conceptual Problems
• What is the best way to observe behaviour?– Naturalistic observation, case studies, surveys and psychological tests allow researchers to observe behaviour
– Statistics are used to summarize and interpret findings
• How can we predict behaviour?– Correlation research allows researchers to predict future behaviour
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Summary: Conceptual Problems
• How do we determine the causes of behaviour?– Experimental research allows researchers to determine causes of behaviour, if they are properly controlled
• How do we make sure that our research participants are treated ethically?– Informed consent, debriefing, and confidentiality help ensure that researchers treat participants with dignity
– Research with animals involves different ethical standards but humane treatment is required