Chapter1f5 150328080338-conversion-gate01

CHAPTER 1: TRANSPORT

QUESTIONS

1. What is leukaemia?2. Does a cockroach have blood?3. Does a cockroach have

haemoglobin? How do the body tissues obtain oxygen?

4. Where is the hole for a patient who has a hole in the heart?

QUESTIONS

5. Why do some patients reject the organs they received from transplant?

6. Can we be infected with AIDS if we touch a HIV positive patient?

7. Does the blood clot in the blood vessels? Why?

8. What causes the heartbeat?

QUESTIONS

1. What is leukaemia?It is blood cancer in which the leukocytes count decreases while erythrocytes count increases.

2. Does a cockroach have blood?Yes. It has fluid called haemolymph which acts as a medium of transport.

QUESTIONS3. Does a cockroach have

haemoglobin? How do the body tissues obtain oxygen?No. oxygen enters the body directly through the spiracles at the sides of the body. Oxygen is then transported along the tracheal system directly into the body tissues.

4. Where is the hole for a patient who has a hole in the heart?Septum

QUESTIONS

5. Why do some patients reject the organs they received from transplant?The patient’s body recognises the transplanted organ as a foreign object. This triggers an immune response in which antibodies are produced to attack the organ. This may lead to death in a patient.

QUESTIONS

6. Can we be infected with AIDS if we touch a HIV positive patient?We would not be infected if there is no exposed wound at the point of contact between the two persons.

QUESTIONS

7. Does the blood clot in the blood vessels? Why?No. The blood inside the body contains heparin which prevents blood clotting in the blood vessels.

8. What causes the heartbeat?It is the result of the closing of the bicuspid and tricuspid valves as well as the semilunar valves.

Sistem Pengangkutan

Organisma Multisel

Diperlukan oleh

haiwan tumbuhan

Berlaku dalam

haiwan

Sistem peredaran

Mekanisme pembekuan darah

Sistem limfaLimfa

Salur limfa

Nodus limfa

Sistem pertahan

an

Sistem imun

darah

Salur darah

jantung

Sistem tertutup

Sistem terbuka

Ganda dua

tunggal

Tak lengkap

lengkap

jenis

dibahagikan

perlu

contributes

termasuk

Terdiri drp comprises

Bila musnah

Sel darah, plasma darah

mengandungi

Sistem Peredaran• Membawa nutrien dan oksigen

ke sel• membawa hasil buangan keluar

daripada sel.• melindungi badan daripada

jangkitan• mempunyai tiga komponen

utama;–medium–pam–salur

• medium diperlukan untuk membawa bahan ke seluruh sistem peredaran

• manusia dan haiwan darah• invertebrata (serangga)

hemolimfa• darah adalah sejenis tisu penghubung

yang terdiri daripada plasma, sel- sel darah dan platlet.

• Jantung berfungsi sebagai pam berotot yang mengedarkan darah seluruh badan.

• Salur darah adalah salur yg mengandungi arteri, kapilari dan vena yg bersambung dengan jantung untuk mengangkut darah ke seluruh tisu badan.

Sel darah merah

Sel darah putih (Granulosit)

Basofil

Eosinofil

Neutrofil

Sel darah putih (agranulosit)

monosit

Limfosit

Fungsi darah

• oksigen daripada peparu ke sel seluruh badan, karbon dioksida daripada sel badan ke peparu.

• Angkut nutrien, hormon dan antibodi ke seluruh badan.

• Angkut hasil buangan keluar daripada sel ke organ perkumuhan.

• Kawal atur– pH darah– Suhu badan– Kandungan air dalam sel

• Melindingi kita– drp kehilangan banyak darah apabila

cedera melalui mekanisma pembekuan darah menyembuh luka.

– drp penyakit dan bantu melawan jangkitan.

Fungsi darah…samb

Fungsi hemolimfa

• Transports water, inorganic salts and organic compounds throughout the haemocoel. Angkut air, garam tak organik dan sebatian organik seluruh hemoselom.

• tidak mengangkut gas respirasi.• Dalam serangga, gas respirasi

diangkut melalui sistem trakea.

Komposisi darah manusia

The differences between arteries, capillaries and veins

Characteristic

ArteriesCapillarie

sVeins

WallThick,

muscular, elastic

One-cell thick, no muscle

or elastic tissue

Thin, less muscular

, less elastic

Lumen SmallVery small

Large

Valve No valve No valveHave

valvesBlood

pressureHigh Very low Low

Characteristic

Arteries Capillaries Veins

Direction of

blood flow

From the heart to the

organs

From arteries to

veins

From all parts of the body to the

heart

Blood content

Oxygenated blood

except the pulmonary

artery

Oxygenated blood at the

arteriole ends &

deoxygenated blood at the venule

ends

Deoxygenated blood except the pulmonary

vein

Function

To transport blood

quickly at high

pressure from the

heart to the tissues

Allow rapid gaseous

exchange between the

blood and the body cell by diffusion

Allow blood from the tissues to return to the heart

The human heart1

2

3

4

5

6

1

24

3

The flow of blood in the heart

1. Oxygenated blood from the lungs enters the left atrium through the pulmonary veins.

2. Deoxygenated blood from the rest of the body enters the right atrium via the vena cava.

3. As blood fills the atria contract and push the blood through the bicuspid and tricuspid valves into the two ventricles.

The flow of blood in the heart… cont

4. When the ventricles contract, the semi-lunar valves are forced open and blood is pushed into the pulmonary arteries and the aorta.

5. Deoxygenated blood is pumped through the pulmonary arteries to the lungs.

6. Oxygenated blood is pump through the aorta to the rest of the body.

Jantung Manusia

The pumping of the heart• Each time the heart contracts, it

acts as a pump which sends blood throughout the body.

• The heart is made up of a strong muscle, called the cardiac muscle.

The pumping of the heart… cont

• The cardiac muscle cells are interconnected

• This interconnection allows electrical impulses to spread rapidly through the heart and, at the same time, stimulates the cardiac muscle cells to contract in a coordinated movement.


• The cardiac muscle is myogenic.

• This means it contracts and relaxes without the need to receive stimulation by nerve impulses to make it contract.

• The contractions of the heart are initiated and coordinated by a pacemaker.


• The pacemaker is a cluster of specialised heart ,muscle cells that set the rate of contraction.

• It is located in the wall of the right atrium.

• The pacemaker generates electrical impulses which spread rapidly over the walls of both atria, causing the atria to contract rhythmically.


• The heart’s primary pacemaker is the sinoatrial (SA) node because it keeps the heartbeats regular.

• From the SA node, the impulses are relayed to the atrioventricular (AV) node, located at the bottom of the right atrium.

• From the AV node, bundle of His fibres, bundle branches and Purkinje fibres send the impulses to the apex of the heart and throughout the walls of the ventricles.

pengecutan otot jantung menghasilkan pengepaman jantung

1. The SA node generates electrical impulses.

2. The electrical impulses spread rapidly over the walls of both atria, making the walls contract simultaneously. Contractions of the atria help to pump blood into the ventricles.

3. The electrical signals reach the AV node. The bundle of His fibres, bundle branches and Purkinje fibres send the impulses to the apex of the heart.

4. The electrical impulses spread to the ventricles, causing them to pump and push blood out to the lungs and body

mekanisme pengawalaturan tekanan darah

Mekanisme kawal atur tekanan darah• Tekanan darah adalah daya yang

mengepam darah sepanjang ateri dan kapilari.

• Apabila darah mengalir sepanjang salur, ia memberi tekanan terhadap dinding salur

• Tekanan darah lebih tinggi dalam arteri berbanding dalam vena.

• mengalir daripada kawasan bertekanan tinggi ke bertekanan rendah.

• Semasa pengecutan ventrikel, tekanan darah paling tinggi dalam aorta dan arteri besar apabila darah dipam ke dalam aorta dan arteri pulmonari.

Mekanisme kawal atur tekanan darah … cont.

• semasa rehat, seorang dewasa yg sihat mempunyai tekanan darah pada 120/80 mmHg.

• Nilai pertama dikenali tekanan sistolik, tekanan tertinggi direkod dalam arteri apabila ventrikel mengecut.

• Nilai kedua, tekanan diastolik, tekanan terendah dicatat semasa pengenduran denyutan jantung.

Tekanan darah Elektronik

Perbezaan sistem peredaran manusia, ikan dan amfibia.

Perbezaan sistem peredaran manusia, ikan dan amfibia

kriteria manusia ikan Amfibia

Ganda dua tunggal Ganda dua

Lengkap - Tak Lengkap

4 ruang Jantung

2 ruang jantung

3 ruang jantung

ProduceTrombokinase

Wound in skin

Platelet gather StickyForms a temporary plug in leaking vessel

Fibrinogen

Fibrin

Forms the threads of the clot

Later

Harden (scab)

Mechanism of blood clotting

Need Vitamin K

Trombokinase

Ion CalciumProthrombinThrombin

Whenever an injury occurs a chain reaction is set off.

Wound in skin

Wound in skin

Platelets gather at a site of the injury and become sticky

Platelet

Forming a temporary plug in the leaking vessel

Wound in skin

Temporary plug

Prothrombin (non-active enzyme) need ion calcium to

convert into thrombin.

Need Vitamin K

Trombokinase

Ion CalciumProthrombinThrombin

Thread of clot

• Thrombin converts soluble fibrinogen (plasma protein formed by the liver) into insoluble fibrin.

• Fibrin forms the threads of the clot.

• A mesh-like network of fibrin traps red blood cells together, forming the blood clot, which later hardens into a scab.

Consequences of an impaired Blood Clotting Mechanism

• Haemophilia is a hereditary disease due to the lack of certain gene for the production of certain clotting factors.

• This is an impaired clotting mechanism which causes serious bleeding particularly in the joints.

• The afflicted person may die as a result of excessive bleeding from even minor cuts and bruises because blood clotting cannot take place.

Haemophilia


• Sometimes a local blood clot (thrombus) is formed on the damaged rough inner wall of the artery. This may cause blockage of the artery, a condition known as thrombosis.

• When a thrombus dislodges and is carried away by blood circulation, it is known as an embolus. The embolus may be trapped in a small artery where it blocks the blood flow. This condition is called embolism.

Thrombosis


• The blocked coronary artery cuts off the supply of oxygen and nutrients to the heart muscles, hence causes heart attack.

Thrombosis

Formation of the Interstitial Fluid and Lymph

CO2O2


• When the blood flows from arteries into capillaries, there is higher hydrostatic pressure at the arterial end of the capillaries.

• This high pressure forces some fluid out through the capillary walls into the intercellular spaces between the cells.

• Once the fluid leaves the capillary walls, it is called interstitial or tissue fluid. The interstitial fluids fills the spaces between the cells and constantly bathes the cells.


• The interstitial fluid that has not been reabsorbed into the bloodstream goes into the lymph capillaries. Once inside the lymph capillaries, the fluid is known as lymph.

Composition of the Interstitial Fluid• The composition of the

interstitial fluid is similar to the blood plasma.–Consists of water, dissolved

nutrients, hormones, waste products, gases, small proteins and leucocytes.

–Has no erythrocytes, platelets and large protein molecules (albumin, globulin and fibrinogen)

Importance of the Interstitial Fluid

• Interstitial fluid is important because :– It forms the internal environment of

the body.– It bathes the cells and supplies

them with oxygen and nutrients which diffuse from the blood through the interstitial fluid into the cells.

–Excretory waste products (carbon dioxide and urea) diffuse out of the cells into the interstitial fluid.

Structure of the Lymphatic System

• The lymphatic system is a one-way system consisting of a network of lymph capillaries, lymphatic vessels and lymph nodes.

• The lymph capillaries are blind-ended tubes located in the spaces between the cells.

• The interstitial fluid that has not been reabsorbed into the bloodstream goes into the lymph capillaries. Once inside the lymph capillaries, the fluid is known as lymph.


• Lymph is the colourless fluid found in the lymphatic vessels.

• Lymph capillaries converge into larger lymphatic vessels.

• Lymph nodes are located at intervals along the lymphatic vessels. The lymph nodes produce lymphocytes that help to protect the body against infections.


• Lymph contains a higher number of lymphocytes than blood.

• Within the lymphatic vessels are one-way valves to ensure the continuous flow of the lymph to prevent the backflow of the lymph.

The Relationship between the Lymphatic System and Circulatory System• Lymph is returned to the circulatory

system via the thoracic duct and the right lymphatic duct.

• The vessels from the left side of the body flow into the thoracic duct. The thoracic duct is the largest lymphatic vessel in the body that carries lymph to the left subclavian vein back into the bloodstream.

• The right lymphatic duct transport lymph from the right side of the head and chest into the right subclavian vein.

Role of the Lymphatic System in Transport• Collects the interstitial fluid and

returns it to the circulatory system.• Fats and fat-soluble vitamins are

absorb through lacteals and transported to the blood circulatory system.

• The lymph nodes filter out bacteria and other foreign particles. Phagocytes present in the nodes engulf and destroy foreign particles.

• Lymphocytes produce antibodies which aid in the destruction of pathogens and the neutralization of toxins.

Defence system

specificNon specific

1st line 2nd line3rd line

• Skin

• mucous membrane

Phagocyte

Phagocytosis

lymphocyte

antibody

passive active

naturalartificial

natural artificial

immunisation

immunity

Divided into

Divided into is

through

produce

gives

Divided into

Divided into Divided into

are

Carry out

eg

ROLE OF CIRCULATORY SYSTEM IN THE BODY’S DEFENCE SYSTEM

• Beside transport function, our circulatory system also defends the body against disease abolition of the disease-causing microorganisms or pathogens.

• There are three lines of defence mechanisms in our body:– The first line of defence: prevention of pathogens

entering the body.– The second line of defence: killing the pathogens

that entered our body by action or phagocytic white blood cells.

– The third line of defence: killing the pathogens by means of antibody actions.

Body’s Defence Mechanisms

• Prevention of pathogens entering the body by mean of physical and chemical barriers.

• A non-specific defence, that is never differentiate among various type of pathogens.

i. Skin– As a physical barrier, skin is made up of a

dead keratinised layer, tough enough for pathogens to penetrate.

– If there is a scratch or cut, the blood clots to seal the wound and avoids infections.

– Also acts as chemical barrier as it secretes sweat which contains salt. Sebaceous glands produce sebum which contains acid and oil. All these substances are unfavourable for growth of microorganisms.

– Sweat also contain lysozyme which destroy pathogens.

The First Line of Defence

ii. Tears and Saliva– Contain lysozymes which protect the

eyes and mouth from pathogen invasion.

iii. Gastric juice in stomach– Contain hydrochloric acid which

destroys most pathogens in foods and drinks taken.

iv. Mucous membranes– Secrete mucus in nasal cavity and

trachea to trap the dust particles and spores.

– The cilia in the respiratory track sweep the trapped particles to the pharynx and stimulates sneeze or cough to expel out the pathogens.

The First Line of Defence

• The killing action brought by some of the white blood cells like neutrophil and monocyte. They are called phagocytes and the process is phagocytosis.

• It is also a non-specific defence.• Phagocytosis occur when pathogens get

through the first line defence. Phagocytes move to the infected area due to the stimulation by chemicals released by damaged cells, example cut skin.

• Sometimes the phagocytes are killed by toxins produced by the pathogens.

• Dead bacteria, tissue cells and phagocytes may accumulate to form pus at the site of injury

The Second Line of Defence

• The steps involved in phagocytosis by a phagocyte e.g. Neutrophil

pathogen

pseudopodium

vacuole

• Neutrophil moves toward a bacterium by using its pesudopodia.

• Pseudopodia elongate and surround the bacterium.

• Neutrophil engulfs the bacterium to form a vacuole.

• Enzymes (lysozyme) are released into the vacuole to digest the pathogen.

• Useful product of digestion is the absorbed and assimilated by phagocyte

• The third line of defence in the body is antibody.

• Antibody is a kind of protein released by lymphocyte in response to the presence of foreign substance, called antigen in our body.

• Lymphocytes are white blood cells found in lymph nodes and in the blood circulatory system. There are two types of lymphocytes, B-lymphocyte that secretes antibodies and T-lymphocyte that helps B-lymphocyte in antibody production.

• An antigen is a substance (usually protein) normally found on the outer surface of pathogen. Different types of pathogen act as different types of antigen.

The Third Line of Defence

• The third line of defence is a specific defence because when a specific antigen invades the body, lymphocyte is stimulated and produces specific antibody to destroy these specific antigens.

• This response is known as immune response because it resists the body from pathogens or diseases.

• After any infection, some lymphocytes remain in the body as memory cells which may last for several months or years. This memory cells help to defend the body against next infection by the same antigen. During this period, someone is sad to be immuned for that particular disease.

• Therefore, the word ‘immunity’ refers to the ability of an organisms to defend itself against infection by pathogens.


• What is the mechanism used by antibodies to destroy antigen?

– Antibody binds to the specific antigen binding site

– Hence, inactivates antigen by several ways


Neutralisation

Antibody or antitoxin coats the bacterial toxin or viral binding sites


Agglutination

Agglutinates bacteria cell and stops their moving and stimulate phagocytosis

Disintegration (lysis)

Breakdown the bacterial cell wall.


Opsonisation

Attaches itself to the bacteria surface and stimulates phagocytosis.

AIDS

• Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome• Caused by HIV – Human

Immunodeficiency Virus• Attacks the central nervous system

and helper T-cells in the body’s immune system.

• Helper T-cells are essential to activate B-cell lymphocyte in antibody production.

• HIV needs 8-10 years of incubation period before the symptom appears.

AIDS

• The immune system of infected person gradually becomes weakened and defenceless against many pathogens.

• Decreases in function of central nervous system followed by body weight loss.

• Eventually death occurs. The patient does not die from AIDS itself but from other secondary infections such as pneumonia and meningitis, tuberculosis, fungal infections or certain forms of cancer like Kaposi’s sarcoma

AIDS – Transmission Methods

• HIV only survive in body fluid such as semen, blood and vaginal fluid.

• Therefore, HIV can be transmitted through :– sexual intercourse– Blood transfusion– Injection with contaminated needle used to

inject drugs• HIV infected mother can pass HIV to her baby

through placenta or breast milk.• HIV cannot be spread by touching, sharing of food

or through the use of public toilets.

Appreciating a Healthy Cardiovascular System

• Disorder of the heart and blood circulatory system; hypertension, artherosclerosis, coronary thrombosis, arteriosclerosis, angina, stroke.

• Factors that contribute to cardiovascular diseases;– Obesity– A diet high in saturated fat and

cholesterol in daily life and low in fibres.– Salty foods– Lack of exercise– Cigarette smoking– Mental stress

Plants

Water & mineral

Food

xylem phloem

Vascular tissues

involves

stem root leaf

structure

translocation

need

Transported by

Relate toRelate

to

involvesRoot

pressure

Transpirational pull

Factors

1. Air movement2. Temperature3. Light intensity4. Relative

humidity

Capillary action

affecting

Transpiration

Results in

Found in

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Education

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