CHAPTER-VII TALCOTT PARSONS ELEMENTS OF...

CHAPTER-VII

TALCOTT PARSONS ELEMENTS OF CONFLICT

Parsons (1951) categorized pattern variables for the social

system. These variables are exhaustive in the possible orientations an

actor can have in a given situation and are core qualities of social

interactions. He noted that the variables reflect a defined set of

options whose permutations and combinations reflect an actor‘s

orientation within a social system and influence patterns of

interactions.

Parsons developed a general theory for the study of society

called action theory, based on the methodological principle of

voluntarism and the epistemological principle of analyticalrealism. The

theory attempted to establish a balance between two major

methodological traditions: the utilitarian-positivist and hermeneutic-

idealistic traditions. For Parsons, voluntarism established a third

alternative between these two. More than a theory of society, Parsons

presented a theory of social evolution and a concrete interpretation of

the "drives" and directions of world history.

Parsons analyzed the work of Émile Durkheim and Vilfredo

Pareto, and evaluated their contributions through the paradigm of

voluntaristic action. Parsons was also largely responsible for

introducing and interpreting Max Weber's work to American

audiences. Although he was generally considered a major

structuralised functionalist scholar, in an article late in life, Parsons

explicitly wrote that the term "functional" or "structural functionalist"

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Action_theory_(sociology)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voluntarism_(action)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epistemological

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytic_philosophy



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89mile_Durkheim

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vilfredo_Pareto



http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Max_Weber

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structural_functionalist

were inappropriate ways to describe the character of his theory. For

Parsons, "structural functionalism" was a particular stage in the

methodological development of the social science, and "functionalism"

was a universal method; neither term was a name for any specific

school. In the same way, the concept "grand theory" is a derogatory

term, which Parsons himself never used.

Pattern variablesare five dichotomies, developed by Talcott

Parsons, to draw out the contrasting values to which individuals

orient themselves in social interaction. One side of the dichotomies

reflects the value patterns dominant in traditional society

(Gemeinschaft), the other reflects the dominant values of modern

society (Gesellschaft). Social change can be defined as alterations that

occur in the social structure and social relationship. Alterations may

occur in norms, values, cultural products and symbols in a society.

Institutions, patterns of interaction, work, leisure activities, roles,

norms and other aspects of society can be altered over time as a result

of the process of social change.

Parsons asserted that there are two dimensions to societies:

instrumental and expressive. By this he meant that there are

qualitative differences between kinds of social interaction. He observed

that people can have personalized and formally detached relationships

based on the roles that they play. The characteristics that are

associated with each kind of interaction are called the Pattern

Variables.

Role being the most vital element of the social system, its

performance generates forces of strain or tension. The extent of strain

depends on the way role expectations are institutionalized in society

and also on the degree to which the values of role expectations are

internalized by social actors. In relation to motivational orientation

and value orientation, in the performance of roles, each actor faces

dilemmas. These dilemmas emanate from strains in an individual's

choice of or preference within a range of orientations both related to

needs and to values.

Though these dilemmas are often seen dichotomously they in

fact are placed along a continuum. The actor must choose between

the options, before she or he can act with respect to the situation. For

example, in a situation, which requires an actor to choose between

universalistic values or particularistic values, the actor can choose

only one of them. Parsons argues that there are a strictly limited and

defined set of alternatives or choices that can be made, and the

relative primacies given to choices constitute the ''patterning of

relational institutions.'' These choices or alternatives are called

orientation selection.

Since the present study is focused on the role conflict of

individuals in the society, hence, to correlate the findings of the study

with Talcott Parsons pattern variables is quite relevant and of utmost

importance.

The five basic pattern variables are noted in Table 7.1.

Table 7.1

Pattern Variables

Self vs. Collective Interest

Universalism vs. Particularism

Achievement vs. Ascription

Specificity vs. Diffuseness

Affectivity vs. Affective Neutrality

Self vs. Collective Interest

This pattern variable reflects whether an actor‘s focus is self-

oriented or oriented toward the collective. The actor is considered to

have a self-orientation if the pursuit of private interests is paramount

to the collective interest (Parsons, 1951). It looks at an actor‘s interest

in satisfying personal concerns rather than concerns that are shared

with members of the collective. Parsons suggested that the self vs.

collective dichotomy is actually a category that can have influence

upon the other pattern variables and can be influenced by

institutional factors.

Universalism vs. Particularism

This pattern variable category focuses upon the actor‘s role

expectations. If the actor‘s orientation is universal, his interaction

toward all others is the same. If the actor‘s orientation is particular,

his/her interaction is based upon the fulfilment of an obligation that

is specific toward an individual or based upon a particular

relationship with the individual. Parsons (1951) noted that the

fulfilment of contractual agreements can be a reflection of universal

generalization. The polar alternative is the fulfilment of an obligation

based upon an individual‘s membership to a particular group

(Parsons, 1951).

Achievement vs. Ascription

This pattern variable category focuses upon the actor‘s

perspective regarding goal attainment. If an actor‘s orientation

emphasizes performance, then the actor‘s focus is considered to be an

achievement. The expectation is that the actor achieves goals and

success through performance. The polar alternative is if the actor‘s

orientation emphasizes attributes or status within a system to attain

goals. Orientation that emphasizes an actor‘s membership group is

considered to be a focus upon ascription (Parsons, 1951).

Specificity vs. Diffuseness

This pattern variable category focuses upon the actor‘s interest

and interaction with social objects. An actor‘s interest in a social

object can be specific toward a particular object or can be broader

with a more diffuse scope. If an actor has an orientation of specificity

toward an object, it means that interaction with the social object is

based upon specific terms. If an actor has a diffuse orientation, the

actor‘s perspective toward social objects is broad and is not limited

toward the specific object (Parsons, 1951).

Affectivity vs. Affective Neutrality

This pattern variable category determines whether an actor

expresses their orientation toward social objects in terms of immediate

gratification (affectivity) or in terms of moral interests (affective

neutrality). An actor with an affectivity orientation derives or seeks to

derive pleasure or gratification from their interactions. Parsons (1951)

noted that an actor is unable to subsist without immediate

gratification. However, a social system may require the renunciation of

an actor‘s gratification in effort to attain the social system‘s goals

(Parsons, 1951). An actor who remains impartial in their interactions

does not obtain or seek to obtain personal gratification in their

encounters and attempts to maintain neutrality in their interactions.

PATTERN VARIABLE GROUPING

Parsons (1951) recognized that actors‘ roles within a social

system are composed of complex patterns that can define behaviour.

Identification of an actor‘s orientation for each pattern variable offers

insight into an actor‘s behaviour within their specific roles.

Institutional forces are a fundamental element of a social system and

can define social roles and establish expectations for social

interactions. These forces can influence an actor‘s orientation

patterns.

Pattern variables can be grouped based upon their relevance to

an actor‘s value or motivational orientation in a given social system.

Parsons (1951) suggested the universalism-particularism and

achievement-ascription pattern variables are more closely related to

value orientation than the other pattern variables. In contrast,

specificity-diffuseness and affectivity-affective neutrality are more

closely related to an actor‘s motivational orientation. The pattern

variable self-collective can be considered neutral in reference to value

and motivational orientations‘ reference points. Grouping of the

pattern variables and assessing potential interrelationships between

variables provides the basis for a more comprehensive assessment of

social interaction.

Table 7.2 provides the scheme for pattern variable grouping.

Table 7.2

Grouping of Pattern Variables

Orientation Grouping

Integerative Self, Collective

Value Universalism, Partcularism, Achievement,

Ascription

Motivational Specificity, diffuseness, Affectivity, Affective

Neutrality

Value Orientation

The pattern variable dichotomies universalism-particularism

and achievement-ascription are most directly related to an actor‘s

value orientation. They are important variables when assessing an

actor‘s orientation toward role expectations and goals. These pattern

variables are concerned with the norms that exist within the social

system. The universalism-particularism variable focuses upon the

actor‘s role expectations and the actor‘s view of the role‘s norms and

values as universal or particular. Achievement-ascription focuses

upon the actor‘s view of whether the role emphasizes goal attainment

based upon performance or personal attributes.

Motivational Orientation

The pattern variable dichotomies specificity-diffuseness and

affectivity-affective neutrality are most directly relevant to an actor‘s

motivation. Parsons noted that an actor must have a motivational

focus to function within a social system. The motivational pattern

variables are important when assessing an actor‘s personality needs.

The specificity-diffuseness dichotomy focuses upon whether an actor‘s

role requires specificity or diffuseness during social interactions. The

affectivity-affective neutrality dichotomy focuses upon whether the

actor receives immediate gratification or is impartial in their social

interactions.

Integrative Orientation

The self-collective orientation pattern variable is an important

integrative component for actors. It has significance in that it serves

as a critical internal reference point and can influence the focus of

other pattern variables. In contrast, the other pattern variables have

reference points that are external to the actor and are based upon

interaction with others within the social system.

Combinations of Value Orientations

Table 7.3 offers the possible combinations of the value

orientation variables. The potential interrelationships between

universalism-particularism and achievement ascription describe the

major social value orientations. Each cell can be further evaluated in

relation to the pattern variables that are related to motivational

orientation. All of these combinations can then be assessed in regards

to an individual‘s focus upon self or the collective. This type of

evaluation can result in 32 possible combinations of the 5 pattern

variable dichotomies. However, Parsons (1951) noted that in the

evaluation of a social system and an actor‘s interaction within the

social structure, the value- and motivational- orientation pattern

variable dichotomies are emphasized. The pattern variable dichotomy

of self vs. collective is typically omitted from the evaluation of

interactions within a social system because of its symmetrical relation

to the whole scheme. The integrative orientation can be used to

subdivide any of the cells within the Tables 7.3. Parsons

categorization of an actor‘s pattern variable orientation can be the

foundation upon which an actor‘s interaction within a social system

can be evaluated.

Table 7.3

Integration of Value-Orientation Pattern Variables

Universalism Particularism

ACHIEVEMENT

Universalistic

Achievement Pattern

Particularistic

Achievement Pattern

Expectation of active

achievement in

accord with

Expectation of active

achievement relative to

and/or on behalf of the

universalized

standards and

generalized rules

relative to other

actors

particular relational

context in which the

actor is involved

ASCRIPTION

Universalistic

Ascription Pattern

Particularistic

Ascription Pattern

Expectation of an

orientation of action

to a universalistic

norm defined either

as an ideal state or as

embodied in the

status-structure of

the existing society

Expectation of an

orientation of action to

an ascribed status

within a given

relational context

Universalistic-Achievement Pattern

The universalistic-achievement pattern puts the actor‘s

emphasis on universally defined goals and a focus on achievement to

obtain the particular goals. Active achievement occurs in accordance

with accepted rules and standards. The combination of universalism

orientation with achievement orientation places the emphasis upon a

selected process of goal attainment. The choice of the means to

achieve and the particular goal to be pursued is based upon the

individual. Pragmatism epitomizes this orientation.

Universalistic-Ascription Pattern

The universalistic-ascription pattern puts an emphasis on the

achievement of an ideal state in the structure of an existing society.

When universalism is combined with an ascriptive emphasis, the

primary relevance of universal standards shifts the emphasis to

attaining a social system‘s desired structure based upon an

individual‘s or group‘s membership status. It is possible that the

universalistic elements of this combination of orientations can

introduce strain into the system when there is a focus upon

universalism concurrent with an attempt to maintain a status quo

that is based upon membership status.

Particularistic-Achievement Pattern

The particularistic-achievement pattern puts emphasis of

achievement in the particular social context in which the actor is

involved. The focus is on an actor‘s relationship with social objects

with whom he is interacting with an attempt to achieve within a given

social structure. The actor with a particularistic achievement

orientation adapts to the goals of the social system.

Particularistic Ascription Pattern

The particularistic-ascription pattern places emphasis upon an

actor‘s action within an ascribed status of the social structure. It is

perceived as that the actor is adapting his action within an order or

social status for which he is not responsible. When considering the

integration of the value orientation pattern variables, one can also

focus upon whether the actor has a self or collective orientation. The

universalistic-achievement pattern and the particularistic-ascription

pattern have an emphasis upon the self orientation. The

universalistic-ascription pattern and the particularistic-achievement

pattern have an emphasis upon the collective orientation. In these

patterns, there is a focus of responsibility toward the social system

rather than emphasis upon self.

An analysis of a social system requires an evaluation of the

patterns of interactions and their relationship to the social system‘s

functions. It is the dominant value orientation pattern that can

influence behavior within a given social structure. Differentiation

between social systems may correspond to value orientation patterns.

However, social structures are not only a function of value orientation

patterns, but are a result of the integration of value orientation

patterns with pattern variables that emphasize motivation. The

integration of value orientations and motivational orientations are

outlined in Tables 7.4 to 7.7. Additionally, all of these patterns can be

accessed from the perspective of a self or collective orientation.

Table 7.4

Universalistic-Achievement Patterns

Universalism

Affectivity Affective Neutrality

A C

H I E

V E

M E

N T

Specificity

Expectation of

specific affective

expressions towards

a class of objects on

Expectation of specific

disciplined action

towards a class of

objects on the basis of

the basis of

achievement

achievement

Diffuseness

Expectation of

specific diffuse

expressions towards


the basis of

achievement

Expectation of diffuse

disciplined action

towards a class of


achievement

Table 7.5

Universalistic-Ascription Patterns

Universalism


A S

C R

I P T

I O N

Specificity

Expectation of

specific affective

expressions towards


the basis of qualities


disciplined action

towards a class of


qualities

Diffuseness

Expectation of

specific diffuse

expressions towards


the basis of qualities


disciplined action

towards a class of


qualities

Table 7.6

Particularistic-Achievement Patterns

Particularism


A C

H I E

V E

M E

N T

Specificity

Expectation of

specific affective

expressions towards

a class of objects in

a particular

relationship with

the actor on the

basis of

performance


disciplined action

towards a class of

objects in a particular

relationship with the

actor on the basis of

performance

Diffuseness

Expectation of

specific diffuse

expressions towards


a particular

relationship with

the actor on the

basis of

performance


disciplined action

towards a class of




performance

Table 7.7

Particularistic-Ascription Patterns

Particularism


A S

C R

I P T

I O N

Specificity

Expectation of

specific affective

expressions towards


a particular



qualities


disciplined action

towards a class of




qualities

Diffuseness

Expectation of

specific diffuse

expressions towards


a particular



qualities


disciplined action

towards a class of




qualities

ELEMENTS OF CONFLICT IN PRESENT STUDY

In the present study there are four elements of Talcott Parsons

Pattern Variables:

Self Orientation-Collectivity Orientation

Affectivity-Affective Neutrality

Universalism-Particularism

Ascription-Achievement

Relevance of Talcott Parsons pattern variables in work-family

conflict, social support and job satisfaction is discussed hereunder:

Work-Family Conflict

The work-family conflict has 18 statements, which are of the

nature of self orientation-collectivity orientation. Maximum score of

each statement is 5. If the obtained score is more than or equal to 2.5,

then the statement represents the pattern of self orientation, if it is

less than 2.5 then it represents the pattern of collectivity orientation.

In the present study, following pattern has been observed as shown in

Table 7.8.

Table 7.8

Pattern Variables and WFC

Statement Public Sector Private Sector

S1 Self Orientation Self Orientation




S5 Collectivity Orientation Self Orientation





S10 Collectivity Orientation Collectivity Orientation


S12 Collectivity Orientation Collectivity Orientation




S16 Collectivity Orientation Self-Orientation



The Self Orientation-Collectivity Orientation Pattern Variable of

Talcott Parson was represented through different statements related to

work-family conflict. S1, S2, S3, S4, S6, S7, S8 and S17 in public

sector secured more than 2.5 score of agreement. Similarly, S1, S2,

S3, S4, S5, S6, S7, S8, S9, S11, S13, S14, S15, S16, S17 and S18 in

private sector secured more than 2.5 score of agreement. These

statements belonged to the individual‘s problems, emotions and

efforts. Their score of more than 2.5 means individual dominated in

these statements. That is why these statements are self oriented and

the work-family conflict arises out of self orientation as per Talcott

Parsons Pattern Variable. The S10 and S12 in both the sectors and

S5, S9, S11, S13, S14, S15, S16 and S18 in public sector score less

than 2.5, which meant that individual could not make her presence

strongly. These statements represented Collectivity Orientation.

Therefore, the approach on these statements did not lead towards

work-family conflict

Social Support

In case of Social Support, the pattern was found to be

Affectivity-Affective Neutrality. If the obtained score is more than or

equal to 2.5, then it represented affectivity, other affective neutrality.

Table 7.9 observes the pattern.

Table 7.9

Pattern Variables and Social Support

Statement Public Sector Private Sector

Supervisors

1 Affectivity Affectivity




Co-Workers





Husband





Relatives/Friends





As it is clear from the above pattern in Social Support, all the

statements in relation to different social support elements like

supervisors, co-workers, husband and relatives/friends represents the

pattern variable of Affectivity as the obtained score came to be more

than 2.5 in all the cases. This show the social support elements are

effective and play positive role in mitigating the work-family conflict.

Job Satisfaction

The applicability of pattern variables in job satisfaction is shown

in Table 7.10.

Table 7.10

Pattern Variables and Job Satisfaction

Job Satisfaction/Pattern

Variable

Public Sector Private Sector

Universalism-Particularism

Bank Policy & Administration Universalism Universalism

Working Conditions Universalism Universalism

Welfare Services Universalism Universalism

Self Orientation-Collectivity

Orientation

Overall Supervision Collectivity

Orientation

Collectivity

Orientation

Responsibility Collectivity

Orientation

Collectivity

Orientation

Affectivity-Affective

Neutrality

Relation with Supervisors Affectivity Affectivity

Relation with Peer Affectivity Affectivity

Relation with Subordinates Affectivity Affectivity

Recognition Affectivity Affectivity

Ascription-Achievement

Achievement Achievement Achievement

Advancement Achievement Achievement

Possibility of Growth Achievement Achievement

Measurement of Job satisfaction in relation to pattern variable

is done with the help of the following:

Universalism-Particularism: If the mean score is more than or

equal to 2.5 then it represents Universalism, otherwise Particularism.

Self Orientation-Collectivity Orientation: If the score is more

than or equal to 2.5, then it represents Collectivity Orientation,

otherwise Self Orientation

Affectivity-Affective Neutrality: If the score is more than or equal

to 2.5, then it represents Affectivity, otherwise Affective Neutrality.

Ascription-Achievement: If the score is more than or equal to

2.5, then it represents Achievement, otherwise Ascription.

In the present study, the aspects of job satisfaction represented

similar pattern variables. In case of Bank Policy & Administration,

Working Conditions and Welfare Services, Pattern Variable of

Universalism has been represented. In case of Overall Supervision and

Responsibility the Pattern Variable of Collectivity Orientation was

represented while Relation with Supervisors, Relation with Peers and

Relation with Subordinates represents Affectivity. In case of

Achievement, Advancement and Possibility of Growth, the Pattern

Variable of Achievement has been represented. The Talcott Parsons

Pattern Variables represented by different aspects of job satisfaction

are of positive role and nature. Hence, we can conclude that the job

satisfaction in banks will help to reduce the work-family conflict.

Therefore, overall it can be said that the approach on various

statements related to work-family conflict is of SelfOrientation, not of

Collectivity Orientation. Therefore the Self Orientation Pattern

emerged as strong conflict-inducing element of Talcott Parsons

Pattern Variables. On the other hand, the element like social support

and job satisfaction focuses on Affectivity, Universalism, Collectivity

Orientation and Achievement and not on Particularism, Self

Orientation, Affective Neutrality and Ascription. Therefore social

support and job satisfaction emerged as the conflict-reducing

elements of Talcott Parsons Pattern Variables.

MAIN FINDINGS

The findings that emerged from the study are as under:

The conflict arising out of self orientation and collectivity

orientation does not lead to work-family conflict.

Social support elements are effective and play a positive role in

mitigating the work-family conflict.

Job satisfaction helps in reducing the work-family conflict. So,

higher the job satisfaction lesser would be the work-family

conflict.

On the whole, it can be said that self orientation approach has

been adopted for the various statements related to work-family

conflict. Therefore the Self Orientation Pattern emerged as a strong

conflict-inducing element of Talcott Parsons Pattern Variables. On the

other hand, the elements such as social support and job satisfaction

focus on Affectivity, Universalism, Collectivity Orientation and

Achievement and not on Particularism, Self Orientation, Affective

Neutrality and Ascription. Thus social support and job satisfaction

emerged as the conflict-reducing elements of Talcott Parsons Pattern

Variables. So, it can be said that the results of this study correspond

with the Talcott Parsons Pattern Variables.

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