Chapter VI

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

In the last five chapters the position of women in Theravada

Buddhism was discussed in detail. Now a summary of each chapter

may be given.

Chapter I

Discrimination against women is a feature common in all

societies. Whether in Africa, America, Asia or Europe, the prejudices

and obstacles that women have had to encounter and surmount seem

almost identical. The peculiar stigma attached to women all over the

world is based on religious bias. "Woman" is depicted as a temptress

and is warned against in almost all religions of the world. Women's

basic stigma therefore originates in religion. The study focused on this

matter of discommendation against women in Theravada Buddhism.

Women have also been regarded as the source of all the sins of

the world and have been blamed for the misfortunes of men in this

world and the next. There was also the belief that as women, no

salvation could be gained—they had to be reincarnated as men before

they were able to gain their salvation.

Certain fanatical religious cults have also prohibited women from

reading the religious scriptures. The punishment for doing so was to

have their tongues cut off. They were also discouraged from entering

places of worship if they were at all allowed to participate in religious

practices; such participation was confined to their own homes, by

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attending to household religious ceremonies. Such hindrances and

obstructions in the matter of moral and spiritual enlistment of women

still exist in varying degrees in certain parts of the world, even though

many barriers have been removed. Present day women claims equal

right in all areas including religion.

In contrast to such hindrances and bigoted religious practices,

Buddhism can certainly claim to have the least discriminatory attitudes

against women. This study would concentrate more on the Theravada

Buddhist rules and regulations concerning the position of women.

There is not the slightest doubt that the Buddha was one of the

religious teachers who gave women equal and unfettered opportunities

in the field of spiritual development. Although he had pointed out on

several occasions the natural tendencies and weaknesses of women,

he had also given due credit to their abilities and capabilities. He truly

paved the way for women to lead a full religious life. They were able to

develop and purify their minds and realize the bliss of Nibbana just as

men were. The testimonies of the Theris (Nuns) in the days of the

Buddha speak out amply this fact.

The Buddha opened the gates for the full participation of women

in the field of religion by making them eligible for admission to what was

known as the Bhikkuni Sangha, the Order of Nuns- that truly opened to

women new avenues of culture and social service and ample

opportunities for public life. This brought to women recognition of their

importance to society, and greatly enhanced their social status.

This philosophical study on the role of women in the Theravada

Buddhism has gone to substantiate equal status in social life for each

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and every Buddhist woman. The chapter clearly states, the objectives

of research and methodology.

Chapter II

The study on the status of women in the Buddhist society in India

is considered. Most of the worst conditions of women regarding

religious matters are outlined.

The laws of Manu stand for domination of the male over the

female. He advocates strict rules of Dharma which outlined the duties of

women, particularly a fixed set of norms to be followed in the religious

rituals. If women failed to follow Sthri-Dharma, they had to undergo

serious punishment. Thus there was discrimination against women in

early Indian society.

The tyranny of man over women was cruel; her status was

pathetic; unbelievable domination in all aspects of her life by men.

Women were divorced, abandoned, sold or resold for mere whims of

men.

In view of social norms, wife was who considered as the property

of the husband could be used for the purpose of gambling or any other

profit oriented games in the society. In fact, early Indian society has

ruled out property right to women.

In the age of the later Samhitas, Brahmans and Upanishads the

position of women improved a little. Some consideration was made

towards women on her socio - political rights, such as abolition of pre-

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historic sati system and sanctioning remarriage facilities; the

suppressed women changed their social status in the society.

The pre - Buddhist society emphasized inferiority of women to

men and labeled women a weak sex physically. The religious texts

gave limited women's participation in the matter of family, marriage,

marital status etc.

The qualities of sati-Dharma such as loyalty, chastity and humility

aroused the value of Indian epics such as Ramayana and

Mahabharatha strengthened some positions of women in the religious

matters.

The happiness of the heavens was within the easy reach of the

good householder and the good virgin wife. She was chaste, active and

attentive to household duties. She was obedient loving her husband

and wiling to die for him. She was praised for her womanly qualities. It

is okay. But Brahmanical ideals were molded with discriminative

inequalities in social and religious matters.

Major religion, Brahmanism kept women in dark room. They were

prohibited to enjoy the equal rights with men.

Women had to receive training at home from father, brother and

near relatives. They were prohibited from receiving religious training,

performing religious activities. _ „= / '. • >

/ ' . • • ' . , ^ '

According to the Law of Manu, no sacrifice, no voW, no fast must • / • • • ' J V * :

be performed by women. He also said a women's and npan'̂ s happmess

after death was ensured only by the performance of their funeral rites

74

by their son. And the mother was duly honored only if she was the

mother of a son. It is noticeable that both unmarried women and

widows were considered undesirable persons.

It was a well-known fact that women were grossly ill-treated from

cradle to graveyard and they experienced only suffering, misery and

sorrow throughout their life. The male dominated society and

Brahmanism never gave them an opportunity even to explore their

potential to live a complete life. Women lost all their social and political

rights. Irrespective of age a women was not supposed to act on her

own. At home she was always directed by man. For violation, she was

punished.

In the post Buddhist era Buddha gave full-strength to women by

recognizing her equality in the matter of religious rights and social

rights. This kind of support from the blessed one, regenerated in the

women power, confidence and faith in herself to lead good life and to

achieve Nibbana.

The Buddha pointed out that women had a dignified and

important role to play in society. With great insight he fitted her

harmoniously into the social fabric. She is a loveable member of the

household, held in place by numerous relationships and respect.

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Chapter III

Buddha was an enlightened person. He was an ethical teacher

and reformer. He found in his mission successful efforts to attain

Nibbana by himself, through exploring the four Noble truths and eight

noble paths. Buddha Dharma stands for the growth of women in

religious matters.

According to the rule of Tilakkhana which means the common

characteristics of all things: both men and women are creatures of

nature; therefore, they are changing both in their physical and mental

aspects such as feeling or sensation which are influenced by external

factors. Human beings are subject to happiness or suffering.

According to the Buddha, based on the rule of Karma, all genders

have equal rights in living. They are equal in sharing the result based

on their own karma.

There is a close relationship between causes and effects

(results). Good actions create good results and bad actions create bad

results to any person in the society whichever the religion he/she may

follow. So, Buddhism treats human beings with justice. Buddha's

teaching of precept, concentration and wisdom can end suffering and

enter into the service to humanity.

With some limitations Buddha allowed female Sangha to take up

the leadership positions in Sangha life. The Bhikkunis were granted the

right of moving resolutions in the Sangha assembly with regard to the

admission of women. Buddha even did not prohibit admission to

pregnant women in the Sangha.

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By the efforts of Buddha's teaching women went on to fulfill their

roles as daughter, mother, wife, sister and nun (Bhikkunis). Quite a

number of these women gained some level of enlightenment and a few

even become Arhats.

The Buddha taught that both women and men should respect

each other's duties. The relationship should be pure, faithful and

loveable.

Chapter IV

The Buddha accepted and saw the equal right and potential of

men and women alike to achieve the height of spiritual development.

Theravada Buddhism continued with same thoughts of Buddha's

ideology. In the earliest form of Buddhism called Theravada, there was

a conscious effort to follow the Buddha's lifestyle as closely as possible.

The Vinaya came out as the rules and regulations to assist this. All

scholars of Buddhism hold that there are more rules for women than

men only to protect them in a sexist society. The Vinaya allowed men to

be present at nun's religious ceremonies just to protect them.

Buddha established both an order of Bhikkus and an order of

Bhikkunis. The two orders protected the rules governing them, they

were identical. His belief is that women could become Arhats in the

same way men could. This was validated by the enlightenment of paay

of his female followers.

In Therigatha, Bhikkunis like Subha, Uppal^vatina,"'Hfea,

Gautami, Soma, Vijaya Lala, Upacala are referred' to as having

77

renounced the world out of unhappiness with life in general. They

accepted a life of devotion in order to overcome mundane suffering and

it is said that they made the best use of the opportunities which the

religion provided.

The admission of women into the order was permitted by

Gautama on strict conditions. There were eight conditions that were laid

down and recorded. These rules were precise and definite. The aim of

these rules was to preserve and encourage the integrity of the women's

order as a body independent of the relation with the secular world. The

eight chief rules were not the embodiment of ceremonial and

disciplinary aspects of Gautama's monastic system. The formations of

these rules were taken up in such a way that they were able to meet

some of the essential factors of conventional life. But these rules were

always sub-ordinate to the order of Almsmen.

In Theravada Buddhism we can see that order of Bhikkunis was

more progressive and rules were emphasized in a systematic way. It is

in the Theravada Buddhism that women were not despised and looked

down upon but were given wisdom and liberation.

In this thesis, the researcher explains the status of women in the

pre-Buddhist period, the changes in the Buddhist era and the changes

in the status of women in Thailand in order to present the influential role

of Theravada Buddhism on the society. This religion has helped to raise

the status of women in every aspect. In the olden days, women were

treated inferior to men; but after Buddhist Dhamma concepts were

introduced, those practices including Sati have been given up.

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Chapter V

In this chapter, the status of women in Thai Theravada Buddhism

is projected. It is of the view that Thai Buddhism particularly recognized

the equal roles among men and women in the religious matters.

Thai history clearly shows that both men and women shared their

daily duties and rights equally. Thai women were held in high esteem

and were treated well by men. During Sukhothai era women were

protected and given plenty of opportunity to enjoy the life happily with

their husband. It shows how the king gave special importance to

women.

But during the Ayudhya period, the status of women began to

deteriorate. Men were allowed to practice polygamy and wives were

divided into different classes. Such laws were degrading women's

position in society. Throughout the history of Thailand women were

struggling hard to stand on par with men.

A new vibrant urban economy helped Thai women to get number

of opportunities to develop their financial status. Parents encouraged

daughters to obtain advanced education. This support benefitted

women to manage their family finance.

The first sign of equality between women and men in Thailand

occurred in 1901 when the educational system was first open to girls.

The four year compulsory education act was enacted in 1921. Later on

her position in finance improved.

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Thailand in 1949 gave political right to women at the national

level. After 1970s the Thai government provided marital status to men

and women equally in the family matters. These changing roles brought

a change in social values of Thai women. But deep rooted cultural

values are continued with some restriction regarding women's

participation in Thai society.

But that is not all. In the matter of rituals, it should be said that

northern Thai society does not allow women to circumbulate the Stupa

or enter the main hall where the sacred relics are placed in the centre

because women are believed to be not clean. It is a black spot. Until

these are replaced by egalitarian beliefs, Thai women will continue to

find themselves unable to express fully their human potential.

Women had responsibility to make family more economically

strong. However, despite improved status and increasingly active roles

of women in economic and social realms, women are making their way

in fields previously closed to them, becoming successful educators,

doctors, lawyers and businesswomen. These changing roles will

definitely bring about a change in social values.

Since Buddhism allows women to think progressively, besides

the principles and tenets laid down, Thai women are able to see better

prospects in life. In the current 1997 constitution, regard for equality

between men and women was added. It upholds the principles of

gender equality and builds grounds for positive action to realize that

equality.

Generally, in the period of Buddha, status of women in the mortal

world as a wife, daughter, mother, widow, and worker improved and

180

they were respected and praised. Daughters also received better

treatment from their parents as Buddhism does not believe in the

importance of sons in performing rituals in the funeral of their fathers.

Buddhism wholeheartedly welcomes the female-child into the family.

Female-education was encouraged. Meanwhile, wives played more

and more important roles in the household. With their husbands, wives

had a right to be happy and were praised; they were not treated as

house servants as was in yesteryears. Mutual courtesy and faithfulness

were the equalities of both. Child marriage was not in vogue. Adultery

and barrenness were conditions of divorce; marriage was not

obligatory. For the mother, Buddhism had a very respectful, high-

esteemed place because mothers have to perform difficult activities

throughout their lives including providing essential support to their

children. She is self-sacrificing and benevolent. Additionally, the

widows could become the Buddhists; their status was thus raised. They

were not looked down upon or detested by other people, resulting in

their higher life quality; widow-remarriage was tolerated; Sati or burning

of the widow on the funeral pyre was unknown. Womanhood is not a

curse. There is no impediment in the path of her spiritual progress. A

nun could teach and preach laymen and laywomen; and could interpret

Dhamma with the help of monks.

In addition to the social status, religious status of women was

better because they did not have to rely on their husbands in

performing the religious activities, but could perform those activities

freely, following the concept of self-dependence. Women can be

ordained and attain Arhatship. Since women had an opportunity to be a

part of the Buddhism, they gained more trust and praise from people in

the society, resulting in their better social status as well.

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In terms of several concepts and Dhamma principles in

Buddhism, Tilakkhana (The Three Characteristics), Karma Rule,

Dukkha (suffering) and nirvana have influenced the Buddhists to see

the equality between men and women, because all human beings are

under the rules of Tilakkhana and Karma and they all have to

experience suffering in this mortal world. Nirvana is the top goal in

Buddhism and men and women can attain this stage if they

intentionally practice it.

Studying about the ideas of Theravada Buddhism based on the

Tripitaka (the Three Baskets), the researcher would like to present the

conclusion in three main points as follows:

1. Theravada Buddhism is concerned that there are physical and

mental differences between men and women. For the physical aspect,

women are weaker than men, therefore, it is difficult for women to

protect themselves. Moreover, women have to handle physical

sufferings such as menstrual period, pregnancy and delivery, therefore,

naturally, women have to suffer more, compared to men.

When the mental aspect is considered, women and men have

different nature. Although women are patient, they are gentle, sensitive

and anxious; they are less steadfast than men.

The researcher believed that these differences could not make

one gender inferior or superior to another; because men andvj^men

can use these differences to support and compliment eacl^t^»^.-,^.,'y/>"'*

Sometimes, the social norms and beliefs influence thfe^^feJii^/'bf "51 • C •' ' ) '

men and women in the society that requires labor, \t^^refore, men are )

••V i

182

considered superior to women. However, the society has changed, and

men and women both have played a vital role in the industry and

society and intellectual capacity is more important than labor force.

Today in the modern world, people are judged based on their

knowledge and ability; women and men should have similar status in all

aspects. As a result, the physical difference is no longer the

reasonable factor forjudging that women are inferior to men.

2. Buddha opened the doors for women's entrance to monastic

life by allowing them to join the order of Bhikkunis. Women were

accepted in terms of their intelligence and success in that Path. At the

same time, Bhikkunis were slightly inferior to Bhikkhus as they had to

follow a larger number of strict regulations because both of them were

different in nature.

But because of their physical difference, there were some

additional rules for them. These rules were added in order to maintain

the security of Bhikkunis.

This opportunity given by the Buddha raised the status of women

in society. Because there were several liberlisations in the activities and

methods, women had better status but they could not be equal to men

in all angles. There were limitations also. These limitations included

culture, tradition and belief in society dunng that period. Sudden

changes would go against belief and culture of the people during that

period and this would lead to the resistance to the improvement of

women's status and religious dissemination of the Buddha. It must be

said that time and environment in that period played a vital role in

deciding the scope and method for improving the women's status.

183

3. There is physical difference between men and women but

there is no difference in terms of intelligence and capacity. Buddha's

permission for women ordination in Buddhism reflected that women are

accepted in terms of their intelligence and capacity. They can

understand, perform religious activities and attain nirvana like men.

Buddhism has accepted the capacity of women long time ago.

Additionally, Buddha categorized Buddhist assemblies into four

groups: Bhikkhus, Bhikkhunis, laymen and laywomen. This implies that

women are equal to men in terms of their capacity.

The presence of Bhikkhuni could be seen as the attempt and

method the Buddha used for raising the status of women in both the

Dhamma world and mortal world; because in pre-Buddhist period and

the in the period of Buddha, religious status greatly influenced the

social status of people. The religious status would specify or present

the social status of an individual. The permission for women ordination

in Buddhism was like giving freedom to women, encouraging them to

make their own decisions in adopting any religion. This could be implied

that women were accepted as intelligent persons who had a mission,

responsibility to human life, right and freedom. Women could perform

any activities as they wished.

In addition to these three main points, the researcher brings

attention to the Theravada Buddhist evidences showing that women

were blamed fiercely for their bad and terhble behavior and they were

blamed more than men. There was caution about women as they had

an influence on the virginity of men. In fact, human beings could be

good or bad and both men and women also have positive and negative

points.

184

However, Buddhism does not only explain the negative side of

women, but the negative points of men were also mentioned.

Meanwhile, Buddhism praised women who performed good deeds for

their families and society as well.

The analysis is that Buddhism does justice to women, by

advocating equality between men and women. This conforms to the

ideas and ideals of today.