CHAPTER THREE€¦ · Web viewCHAPTER OBJECTIVES. Based on thorough reading and careful...

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458. All rights reserved.

CHAPTER TWOGENETICS: CELLS AND MOLECULES

CHAPTER OUTLINE

GENETICS

The Study of GeneticsGenetic Metaphors: Blueprints, Recipes, or What?

THE CELL

Cell AnatomyInsights and Advances: Cloning Controversies

DNA STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

DNA Structure I: The Molecular LevelDNA Function I: ReplicationDNA Function II: Protein SynthesisDNA Structure II: Chromosomes and Cell DivisionInnovations: The Wide World of RNAInsights and Advances: Biochemical Individuality

MOLECULAR TOOLS FOR BIOANTHROPOLOGICAL RESEARCH

Indirect versus Direct Research Methods PCR, Mitochondrial DNA, and Ancient DNA

CHAPTER OBJECTIVES

Based on thorough reading and careful consideration of Chapter Two, students should be able to:

1. Define the concept of genetics.

2. Explain the importance of the study of genetics.

3. Identify genetic metaphors.

4. Describe the anatomy of an animal cell.

5. Explain DNA structure and function at the molecular level.

6. Explain DNA in relationship to chromosomes and cell division.

7. Describe molecular tools for bioanthropological research, including indirect methods, direct sequencing methods, polymerase chain reaction, mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), and ancient DNA.

8. Define and explain molecular genetics, including the following, terms: somatic cell, stem cell, gamete, chromosome, mitosis, and meiosis.

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LECTURE AND DISCUSSION TOPICS

Each of these topics is intended to generate ideas for either a lecture/recitation format or discussion in the classroom. For most topics, students should be able to respond and participate in discussions based solely on reading the text. For others, you may need to provide further reading or other forms of information so that students can develop some personal perspective and become equipped to make independent decisions about the topics.

1. The following are topics from the text that may benefit from additional explanation in lecture: dominant and recessive traits, alleles, homozygous, heterozygous, genotype, phenotype, principle of independent assortment, and principle of segregation. Sickle-cell anemia is discussed in the text and is a useful example of a public health problem.

2. Refer to the Insights and Advances Box: Cloning Controversies. Review the methodology of cloning, the advantages of cloning in agriculture and some of the drawbacks to animal cloning. Furthermore, you may want to review the reasoning for and against human cloning.

3. Introduce the concept of PCR (polymerase chain reaction) and direct sequencing and their uses in modern forensic sciences. It would be interesting to share several murder cases with students that were solved with these techniques or to show how these techniques have cleared many convicted felons of their supposed crimes.

4. Show one of several films on molecular biology. Discuss the importance of the interactions of the various cell organelles. A discussion of the origin of the mitochondrion in the animal cell would be an interesting example of evolutionary process here.

5. Discuss the statement made by Roger Williams that “…everyone deviated from the norm in some way.”Even though this statement was made in the 1950s, it is interesting that further developments in DNA studies support this reasoning.

CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES

1. If you have a biotechnology program on your campus or if you have a course in microbiology, it would be of interest to your students to see how an electrophoresis gel is created and how it is run to create DNA sequences. Essentially, you could have an “in-school” field trip.

2. Invite a biologist into class to lecture about a biological understanding of evolution. Check your library or rental catalogs for films on evolution and natural selection, DNA, molecular genetics, forensics, and DNA fingerprinting. Such films can often provide visual explanations that are clearer and more complete than simple lecture or text information.

3. Invite a philosopher to discuss the philosophy of science, with emphasis on the discussion of the scientific revolution brought about by Darwin and Mendel.

4. Arrange a trip to one of your biology labs to have students view stained slides of eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells. Have them identify and draw the individual structures of the cell.

5. Invite a forensic scientist from a government or private lab to speak about modern techniques such as PCR or DNA fingerprinting.

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RESEARCH AND WRITING TOPICS

Encourage your students to utilize the free tool OneSearch with Research Navigator™, included with this textbook as a supplement. They will have to register to use this service. Once registered, students can use this tool to research the Internet to find valid sources for research papers, saving them much time in their efforts to identify relevant sources.

1. Have students research the various possible uses of cloning in both plants and animals. This could lead to a vibrant discussion or a term paper assignment.

2. Have your students complete written or oral biographical reports on one of the following people and how their scientific ideas contributed to our modern understanding of biology: James Watson, Francis Crick, Rosalind Franklin, and Linus Pauling.

3. Have students replicate some of the genetics experiments of Mendel using quick growing plants or quick breeding animals (e.g., fruit flies).

4. Divide the class into two parts and have half of the students argue in favor of reproductive human cloning while the other half argue against after researching the subject.

5. Have your students draw (in color) cell structures while labeling all of the organelles. Ask them to write out a description of the function of each organelle.

6. Ask students to prepare a short essay on the similarities and differences between sex cells, somatic cells, and stem cells.

PRINT RESOURCES

MADDOX, BRENDA. 2003. Rosalind Franklin: The Dark Lady of DNA. New York, Perennial.

RIDLEY, MATT. 2000. Genome. New York, HarperCollins.

WATSON, JAMES D. 2001. The Double Helix: A Personal Account of the Discovery of the Structure of DNA. New York, Touchstone Books.

FILMS, VIDEOS, AND OTHER NONPRINT RESOURCESFilms from Penn State Audio-Visual Services, (Phone: 800/826-0132) unless otherwise noted:

Cell Division: Mitosis and Meiosis (22 minutes)Cell Structure (22 minutes)Children of Eve (58 minutes)Continental Drift: The Theory of Plate Tectonics (21 minutes)Drifting of the Continents (51 minutes)The Living Machine (60 minutes) University of MinnesotaThe Living Planet: A Portrait of the Earth: 1--Building of the Earth Parts 1 and 2 (57 minutes)The Not-So-Solid Earth (30 minutes)Charles Darwin (24 minutes) University of Minnesota, 800/847-8251Darwin's Finches (11 minutes)The Day the Universe Changed: 8--Darwin's Revolution (53 minutes)Evolution and the Origin of Life (36 minutes)Evolution: Origins of Change, 1--Heredity and Mutation (21 minutes)

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Double Helix (1 hour 48 minutes) 1987. Films for the Humanities and Sciences.

RESEARCH NAVIGATOR™ EXERCISES

1. Please review the Insights and Advances Box titled “Cloning Controversies.” What problems exist with the cloning of animals? Look over many videos and articles on cloning at the following website: http://www.globalchange.com/clonlink.htm. Is human cloning strictly a scientific question? What ethical systems are important in understanding the questions that surround human cloning? What are the drawbacks to human cloning? What are the advantages to human cloning?

2. Review the Insights and Advances Box titled “Biochemical Individuality.” Review the article of Forensic Serology on the following website: http://www.policensw.com/info/forensic/forensic6a.html. How can an understanding of blood type and forensic serology help avoid false criminal charges? What other uses exist for this practice?

3. Look at the websites on polymerase chain reaction (PCR) at the following sites: http://www.faseb.org/opa/bloodsupply/pcr.html, http://www.accessexcellence.org/RC/VL/GG/polymerase.html,http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/P/PCR.html. What are the advantages of PCR?” Summarize how it is performed.

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http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/P/PCR.html

http://www.accessexcellence.org/RC/VL/GG/polymerase.html

http://www.ultranet.com/~jkimball/BiologyPages/T/Taxonomy.html#EmbryonicDevelopment

http://volcano.und.nodak.edu/vwdocs/volc_images/tectonic_plates.html

http://stommel.tamu.edu/~baum/paleo/paleogloss/node30.html


TEST QUESTIONS

Chapter 2 Genetics: Cells and Molecules

1. A basic understanding of heredity _________.

a. is a relatively new phenomenab. did not happen until we fully understood DNAc. can be found in almost all human societiesd. requires a thorough understanding of genetics and reproduction

(Answer c; page 37)

2. The term “gene” was coined by _________.

a. Jean Lamarckb. Wilhelm Johannsenc. Charles Lyelld. Gregor Mendel

(Answer b; page 38)

3. The term “gene” was coined after DNA was observed.

a. Trueb. False

(Answer b; page 38)

4. Cellular and molecular genetics involves the study of _________.

a. pedigrees of related individualsb. how species divide into populationsc. the evolutionary relationships among speciesd. cells and DNA

(Answer d; page 38)

5. Scientists working on genetic therapies for disease are working in which genetic field?

a. phylogeneticsb. population geneticsc. Mendelian geneticsd. molecular genetics

(Answer d; page 38)

6. Classical or Mendelian genetics involves the study of _________.

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a. pedigrees of related individualsb. how individuals vary within populationsc. the evolutionary relationships among groups of speciesd. cells and DNA

(Answer a; page 38)

7. Classical geneticists focus more on _________ than _________.

a. molecules/ pedigreesb. cells/ populationsc. traits/ moleculesd. populations/ traits

(Answer c; page 38)

8. A geneticist tracking how various traits are passed from one generation to the next is engaged in _________.

a. phylogeneticsb. population geneticsc. Mendelian geneticsd. molecular genetics

(Answer c; page 38)

9. Population genetics involves the study of _________.

a. pedigrees of related individualsb. how individuals vary within populationsc. the evolutionary relationships among speciesd. cells and DNA

(Answer b; page 38)

10. A geneticist studying the variation between different groups of organisms of the same species is engaged in _________.

a. phylogeneticsb. population geneticsc. Mendelian geneticsd. behavioral genetics

(Answer b; page 38)

11. Population geneticists only study traits at the molecular level.

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a. Trueb. False

(Answer b; page 38)

12. The genetic field of phylogenetics is concerned with _________.

a. determining evolutionary relationships between speciesb. studying varying groups within the same speciesc. constructing pedigreesd. none of these

(Answer a; page 38)

13. A geneticist constructing tree-like diagrams that visually indicate relationships between species is engaged in _________.

a. behavioral geneticsb. molecular genetics c. phylogenetics d. population genetics

(Answer c; page 38)

14. Phylogenetic analysis often employs the methods of molecular genetics.

a. True b. False

(Answer a; page 38)

15. Behavioral genetics is the study of how _________.

a. behavior influences geneticsb. pedigrees are influenced by genetic relationshipsc. phylogenies effect behaviord. genetics influence behavior

(Answer d; page 39)

16. Which of the following is the most controversial field?

a. behavioral geneticsb. molecular genetics c. phylogenetics d. population genetics

(Answer a; page 39)

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17. Human biological variability arises from _________.

a. mostly genetic influencesb. mostly cultural influencesc. both of thesed. neither of these

(Answer c; page 39)

18. Which of the following is NOT a metaphor for genes used by modern scientists?

a. blueprintb. homunculusc. reciped. information storage

(Answer b; page 39)

19. Which of the following is the perfect metaphor for genes and how they behave?

a. homunculusb. recipec. information storaged. none of these

(Answer d; page 39)

20. The basic building block of life is the _________.

a. cellb. genec. homunculusd. organism

(Answer a; page 40)

21. Which of the following is an example of a multicellular organism?

a. bacteriab. protozoac. wormsd. all of these

(Answer c; page 40)

22. The Marine sea slug is commonly studied because it possesses _________ cells.

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a. largerb. coloredc. mored. fewer

(Answer d; page 40)

23. Which of the following is true of prokaryotes?

a. they are single-celled organismsb. they lack intercellular compartmentsc. they include bacteria d. all of these

(Answer d; page 40)

24. A single-celled organism with a nucleus is an example of a _________.a. prokaryoteb. eukaryote

(Answer b; page 40)

25. Organelles are common to _________.

a. prokaryotesb. eukaryotes

(Answer b; page 40)

26. In eukaryotes, the piece of cellular anatomy that separates the genetic material from the rest of the cell is called the _________.

a. nucleusb. cytoplasmc. organelled. plasma membrane

(Answer a; page 40)

27. Prokaryotes are simple cells with just a nucleus but no organelles.

a. Trueb. False

(Answer b; page 40)

28. A cell’s plasma membrane _________.

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a. separates the genetic material from the rest of the cellb. is a fluid-filled space within a cellc. contains a number of structures essential to cellular functiond. none of these

(Answer d; page 40)

29. A cell’s nucleus _________.

a. separates the genetic material from the rest of the cellb. is a fluid-filled space within a cellc. contains a number of structures essential to cellular functiond. is the permeable outer boundary of the cell

(Answer a; page 40)

30. The part of the cell responsible for regulating the transport of materials into and out of the cell is the _________.

a. nucleusb. cytoplasmc. organelled. plasma membrane

(Answer d; page 40)

31. The _________ contains organelles.

a. prokaryoteb. nucleusc. cytoplasmd. all of these

(Answer c; page 40)

32. Fossil prokaryotes appeared before eukaryotes.

a. Trueb. False

(Answer a; page 40)

33. The first eukaryotes appear in the fossil record around _________ years ago.

a. 3.4 billion

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b. 1.5 billionc. 850 milliond. 600 million

(Answer b; page 40)

34. Multicellular organisms have dominated most of the history of life on earth.

a. Trueb. False

(Answer b; page 40)

35. Somatic cells _________.

a. are the sex cellsb. have the same function as gametesc. are the cells of the body that are not gametesd. only exist in prokaryotic organisms

(Answer c; page 40)

36. Tissues are comprised of _________.

a. somatic cellsb. stem cellsc. gametesd. RNA

(Answer a; page 40)

37. The _________ are directly involved in reproduction.

a. somatic cellsb. gametesc. stem cellsd. none of these

(Answer b; page 40 )

38. Adult stem cells are totipotent.

a. Trueb. False

(Answer b; page 40)

39. Embryonic _________ may be helpful in curing cellular disorders like Parkinson’s disease.

a. gametes

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b. somatic cellsc. germ cellsd. stem cells

(Answer d; page 41)

40. Which of the following can be found within the nucleus of a eukaryotic cell?

a. mitochondriab. ribosomesc. RNAd. all of these

(Answer c; page 43)

41. In most eukaryotic cells, the most prominent structure is the __________.

a. nucleusb. mitochondriac. ribosomesd. DNA

(Answer a; page 41)

42. Deoxyribonucleic acid has one main function – protein synthesis.

a. Trueb. False

(Answer b; page 43)

43. RNA is essential for carrying out the _________ function of DNA.

a. cell replicationb. energy productionc. cytoplasmicd. protein synthesis

(Answer d; page 43)

44. The two main functions of DNA are _________.

a. protein synthesis and cell reproductionb. protein synthesis and ATP productionc. ATP production and cell reproduction

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d. there is only one function of DNA – protein synthesis

(Answer a; page 43)

45. Which of the following organelles is responsible for the production of ATP?

a. the nucleusb. the endoplasmic reticulumc. mitochondriad. ribosomes

(Answer c; page 43)

46. Mitochondria have their own DNA separate from that within the cell’s nucleus.

a. Trueb. False

(Answer a; page 43)

47. Ribosomes appear as little knobs on the _________.

a. nucleusb. mitochondriac. cytoplasmd. endoplasmic reticulum

(Answer d; page 43)

48. Ribosomes have their own DNA separate from that within the cell’s nucleus.

a. Trueb. False

(Answer b; page 43)

49. Proteins are synthesized in a cell’s _________.

a. RNAb. nucleusc. mitochondriad. ribosomes

(Answer d; page 43)

50. DNA has to be able to do three things. What are they?

a. replicate, create ATP, and synthesize proteinsb. coordinate the activity of proteins, make the cell’s energy, and self-replicatec. replicate, make proteins, and coordinate the activity of proteinsd. none of these

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(Answer c; page 43)

51. The basic unit of DNA is a molecule called a _________.

a. nucleotideb. basec. thymined. prokaryotic cell

(Answer a; page 43)

52. Nucleotides come together to form _________.

a. proteinsb. cellsc. basesd. none of these

(Answer d; pages 43, 44)

53. A nucleotide consists of three parts:

a. a phosphate, a sugar, and a ribosomeb. a sugar, a phosphate, and a basec. a phosphate, a base, and a nucleusd. a sugar, a base, and a ATP particle

(Answer b; page 43)

54. The two classes of bases include the _________.

a. cytosinesb. thyminesc. purinesd. adenines

(Answer c; page 43)

55. In DNA, _________ bond to .

a. sugars/ purinesb. thymines/ pyrimidinesc. phosphates/ uracilesd. sugars/ phosphates

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(Answer d; page 44)

56. DNA base combinations are always _________.

a. A-T or C-Gb. A-G or C-Tc. G-T or A-Cd. none of these

(Answer a; page 44)

57. RNA is a single stranded molecule.

a. Trueb. False

(Answer a; page 44)

58. Which of the following bases is found only in RNA?

a. thymineb. uracilc. guanined. adenine

(Answer b; page 44)

59. Virtually every cell of the body contains the same copy of DNA.

a. Trueb. False

(Answer a; page 45)

60. DNA replication requires an entire original strand of DNA to _________.

a. be destroyedb. mutatec. splitd. all of these

(Answer c; page 45)

61. Permanent changes in the DNA of a cell are called mutations.

a. Trueb. False

(Answer a; pages 46)

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62. Hormones, antibodies, and hemoglobin are all _________.

a. enzymesb. amino acidsc. catalystsd. proteins


63. Proteins are comprised of long chains of __________.

a. hormonesb. amino acidsc. hemoglobind. enzymes

(Answer b; page 47)

64. Some of the amino acids essential to creating proteins cannot be synthesized by the body.

a. Trueb. False

(Answer a; page 47)

65. The base-pair sequence of DNA is known as _________.

a. a polypeptideb. a hormonec. the genetic coded. none of these

(Answer c; page 48)

66. The genetic code is comprised of _________, each representing _________.

a. amino acids, polypeptidesb. codons, genesc. polypeptides, genesd. codons, amino acids

(Answer d; page 48)67. Most of the amino acids are represented by more than one codon.

a. Trueb. False

(Answer a; page 48)

68. Which of the following structures is smallest?

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a. geneb. codonc. organelled. cell

(Answer b; page 48)

69. Which of the following best defines a gene?

a. a three-base code for an amino acidb. a three-base code for a polypeptidec. a multiple-codon code for an amino acidd. a multiple-codon code for a polypeptide

(Answer d; page 48)

70. Protein synthesis is a two-step process involving _________.

a. transcription and replicationb. replication and translationc. transcription and translationd. mutation and replication

(Answer c; page 48)

71. Transcription occurs in the .

a. cytoplasmb. ribosomec. messenger RNAd. nucleus

(Answer d; page 48)

72. mRNA _________.

a. carries genetic information from the nucleus to the cytoplasmb. splits a DNA molecule during transcriptionc. is completed replicatedd. carries amino acids to a ribosome to be attached to other amino acids

(Answer a; page 49)

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73. tRNA _________.

a. carries genetic information from the nucleus to the cytoplasmb. splits a DNA molecule during transcriptionc. is completed replicatedd. carries amino acids to a ribosome to be attached to other amino acids

(Answer d; page 50)

74. mRNA post-transcriptional processing involves the mRNA losing exons and keeping introns.

a. Trueb. False

(Answer b; page 50)

75. The majority of DNA does not do anything but replicate.

a. Trueb. False

(Answer a; page 51)

76. Most of time, DNA is in its chromatin state. That is to say, it is _________.

a. coiled into chromosomesb. tightly packed c. in its diploid stated. existing in uncoiled strands

(Answer d; page 51)

77. During cell division, the DNA exists _________.

a. as chromosomesb. in its chromatin statec. outside the celld. as RNA

(Answer a; page 51)

78. Sex cells possess a half of the chromosomes of the somatic cells. This is referred to as the . number of chromosomes.

a. homologousb. heterozygousc. haploidd. homozygous

(Answer c; page 51)

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79. Which of the following best defines the term allele?

a. a sex cellb. the location of a gene on a chromosomec. the state of the DNA before replicationd. a version of a gene

(Answer d; page 51)

80. Diploid cells have the full amount of chromosomes.

a. Trueb. False

(Answer a; page 51)

81. An individual who is homozygous for a gene has _________.

a. different alleles for the geneb. no alleles for that genec. two of the same alleles for that gened. only one locus for that particular gene

(Answer c; page 51)

82. Two identical daughter cells result from which process?

a. mitosisb. translationc. mutationd. meiosis

(Answer a; page 51)

83. Messenger RNA brings the amino acids to the ribosome to be assembled into protein chains.

a. Trueb. False

(Answer b; page 52)84. MicroRNA affect gene expression by _________ mRNAs.

a. destabilizingb. splittingc. stabilizingd. none of the above

(Answer a; page 53)

85. Every cell in an individual’s body has the same number of chromosomes.

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a. Trueb. False

(Answer b; page 54)

86. DNA is replicated during which phase of the cell cycle?

a. prophaseb. anaphasec. telophased. interphase

(Answer d; page 55)

87. During prophase _________.

a. the nucleus is destroyedb. chromosomes formc. the cell orients for divisiond. all of these

(Answer d; page 56)

88. Complete diploid daughter cells at each end of the cell exist directly following which phase of the cell-cycle?

a. anaphaseb. metaphasec. interphase d. telophase

(Answer a; page 57)

89. Meiosis results in _________.

a. haploid cellsb. gametesc. sex cellsd. all of these

(Answer d; page 57)

90. A zygote has the haploid number of chromosomes.

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a. Trueb. False

(Answer b; page 57)

91. The reduction division is another term for the _________.

a. first meiotic divisionb. second meiotic divisionc. meiotic prophased. none of these

(Answer a; page 57)

92. During the first meiotic prophase, the genes are shuffled between chromosomes in a process called _________.

a. crossing over b. recombinationc. interphased. meiotic division

(Answer a; page 57)

93. Which of the following best describes the results of the second meiotic division?

a. two daughter cells all with the exact same chromosomesb. four daughter cells with tetrad chromosomesc. four haploid gametesd. two diploid daughter cells

(Answer c; pages 57, 58)

94. A karyotype is a photograph of chromosomes.

a. Trueb. False

(Answer b; page 58)95. What is the diploid number of human chromosomes?

a. 22b. 46c. 32d. 2

(Answer b; page 58)

96. Monosomy and trisomy are examples of _________.

a. mutations

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b. types of DNAc. nondisjunctive errorsd. autosomes

(Answer c; page 59)

97. An individual with trisomy 21 has _________ of chromosome 21.

a. no copies b. only one copy c. two copies of d. three copies

(Answer c; page 59)

98. Studying genetics via phenotype is inferior because _________.

a. environment plays a strong role in governing phenotype b. there is no relationship between phenotype and genesc. genes do not actually affect phenotypes all that muchd. none of these

(Answer a; page 60)

99. _________ is used to discover protein variation within the same species.

a. The immunological methodb. Protein sequencingc. Protein electrophoresis d. DNA sequencing

(Answer c; page 60)

100. The most direct form of direct DNA analysis is _________.

a. DNA sequencingb. protein sequencingc. cytogeneticsd. the immunological method

(Answer a; page 61)

101. The most common form of direct DNA analysis is _________.

a. DNA sequencingb. protein sequencing

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c. cytogeneticsd. PCR

(Answer b; page 61)

102. Which of the following best defines polymerase chain reaction?

a. the process of replicating or amplifying small segments of DNA b. studying immune system proteins to learn the relationship between speciesc. the process of mapping an organism’s entire DNA sequenced. studying chromosome structure

(Answer a; pages 62)

103. All of your mtDNA comes from your mother.

a. Trueb. False

(Answer a; page 63)

104. Which of the following is NOT true of mitochondrial DNA?

a. it contains much ‘unused’ genetic materialb. it varies little from generation to generationc. it is inherited clonally from generation to generationd. it gets all its variation from a crossing-over phase during meiosis


105. Contamination is of large concern when working with samples of _________.

a. ancient DNAb. mtDNA in generalc. non-human DNAd. non-human mtDNA

(Answer a; page 64)

106. The ancient DNA studied is usually mtDNA because mtDNA

a. is more durableb. varies so little from generation to generationc. is so abundant

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d. is much bigger than nuclear DNA

(Answer c; page 63)

107. Ancient DNA is usually studied using the _________ method.

a. indirectb. protein synthesisc. PCRd. hybridization

(Answer c; page 63)

Short Essay

108. Explain the various types of genetics outlined in your text.

109. Outline the “blueprint” and “recipe” metaphors for genetics. What are the strengths and weaknesses of each?

110. What are stem cells? Explain their medical significance.

111. Describe the structure of DNA. Relate this structure to DNA’s functions.

112. Describe specifically how proteins are created from the information encoded in DNA. Be sure to use the terms gene, mRNA, and ribosome.

113. Outline the life cycle of a somatic cell from prophase to interphase.

114. In what ways does meiosis differ from mitosis?

115. How does meioses contribute to variation within a species?

116. Describe two chromosomal abnormalities, one due to monosomy and one due to trisomy.

117. Explain two ways DNA may be directly used in bioanthropological research.

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