Chapter Three Chapter Three LexiconLexicon

1. 1. What is word?What is word?

A unit of expression that has A unit of expression that has universal intuitive recognition by universal intuitive recognition by native speakers, whether it is native speakers, whether it is expressed in spoken or written expressed in spoken or written form. – A vague definition. form. – A vague definition. Three senses are involved in Three senses are involved in

defining “word”, none of which is defining “word”, none of which is satisfactory to cope with all the satisfactory to cope with all the situations.situations.

1.1 Three senses of “word”1.1 Three senses of “word”

A physical unit:A physical unit: a cluster a cluster of sound segments or of sound segments or letters between two letters between two pauses or blanks, egpauses or blanks, eg Phonological: Phonological: Orthographic: Orthographic: It is It is

wonderfulwonderful.. Three words are Three words are

recognized.recognized.

However, in casual However, in casual speech or writing, it speech or writing, it often becomes:often becomes: Phonological: Phonological: Orthographic: Orthographic: It’s It’s

wonderful.wonderful. Are they two words or Are they two words or

three?three?

A set of forms: A set of forms: walk, walks, walk, walks, walking, walkedwalking, walked

How many words are there?How many words are there? I usually have dinner at 6 but I usually have dinner at 6 but

yesterday I had it at seven.yesterday I had it at seven. How many times did the word How many times did the word

““havehave” occur?” occur?

A lexical item or a lexemeA lexical item or a lexeme

A A lexical itemlexical item is an entry in a is an entry in a dictionary. A dictionary. A lexemelexeme WRITEWRITE includes all of its grammatical includes all of its grammatical forms:forms: write, writes, writing, wrote, writtenwrite, writes, writing, wrote, written

A A grammatical unitgrammatical unit: :

sentencesentence

clauseclause

phrasephrase

wordword

morphememorpheme Problem: Problem: blackboardblackboard

1.2 1.2 Identification of wordsIdentification of words Stability:Stability: stable linguistic units. stable linguistic units.

chairmanchairman, but not , but not **manchairmanchair

Relative uninterruptibility:Relative uninterruptibility: though though we recognize three components in we recognize three components in the word the word disappointmentdisappointment, we , we cannot pause and add another cannot pause and add another component in between, as in component in between, as in **disinterestappointmentdisinterestappointment.. But we can add another word between But we can add another word between

words: words: Paul, (John) and MaryPaul, (John) and Mary ... ...

A minimum free form:A minimum free form: the the smallest unit that can constitute smallest unit that can constitute a complete utterance by itself, ega complete utterance by itself, eg ——Is Jane coming tonight?Is Jane coming tonight? ——Possibly.Possibly. Hi.Hi. Wonderful.Wonderful.

1.3 1.3 Classification of wordsClassification of words

VariableVariable vs. vs. InvariableInvariable Words: Words: Variable words:Variable words: write, writes, write, writes,

writing, wrote, written; cat, cats.writing, wrote, written; cat, cats. Invariable words:Invariable words: since, when, since, when,

seldom, through, etc.seldom, through, etc.

GrammaticalGrammatical vs. vs. LexicalLexical Words: Words: Grammatical/Function words:Grammatical/Function words:

conjunctions, prepositions, articles, conjunctions, prepositions, articles, pronouns.pronouns.

Lexical/Content words:Lexical/Content words: nouns, verbs, nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs.adjectives, adverbs.

Closed-classClosed-class vs. vs. Open-classOpen-class Words: Words: Closed-class words:Closed-class words: New members cannot New members cannot

normally be added, eg normally be added, eg pronouns, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, auxiliariesauxiliaries..

Open-class words:Open-class words: New members can be New members can be added, eg added, eg nouns, verbs, adjectives, and nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbsadverbs..

Word class:Word class: known as known as Parts of Parts of SpeechSpeech in traditional grammar. in traditional grammar. Noun, verb, adjective, adverb, Noun, verb, adjective, adverb,

preposition, pronoun, conjunction, preposition, pronoun, conjunction, interjection, article, etc.interjection, article, etc.

Some new terms in word class:Some new terms in word class: Particle:Particle: infinitive infinitive toto, negative , negative notnot, ,

subordinate units in phrasal verbs subordinate units in phrasal verbs ““get get byby””, “, “look look backback”, etc.”, etc.

Auxiliary:Auxiliary: do, have do, have Modal verbs:Modal verbs: can, will, may, must, can, will, may, must,

etc.etc.

Pro-forms:Pro-forms: substitutes for other substitutes for other terms.terms. Pronoun:Pronoun: he, she, I, they, everyonehe, she, I, they, everyone Pro-adjective:Pro-adjective: Your car is red. Your car is red. SoSo is is

his.his. Pro-verb:Pro-verb: He speaks English better He speaks English better

than he than he diddid.. Pro-adverb:Pro-adverb: He hopes to win and I He hopes to win and I

hope hope soso too. too. Pro-locative:Pro-locative: He went He went therethere..

Determiner:Determiner: all the articles, all the articles, demonstratives, and quantifiers demonstratives, and quantifiers that appear before the noun and that appear before the noun and its modifiers.its modifiers. As many as three determiners may As many as three determiners may

be used in each case and there is a be used in each case and there is a fixed order when there is more than fixed order when there is more than one.one.

Pre Central Post Modifier Noun all her many good ideas her many good ideas all her good ideas good ideas many good ideas all good ideas what a good idea the one good idea a few ideas both my father’s parents

Predeterminers:Predeterminers: all, both; half, one-all, both; half, one-third, three-quarters …; double, twice, third, three-quarters …; double, twice, three times …; such, whatthree times …; such, what (exclamative)(exclamative)

Central determiners:Central determiners: the; this, these, the; this, these, that, those;that, those; PossP; PossP; we, us; you; which, we, us; you; which, whatwhat (relative), (relative), whatwhat (interrogative); (interrogative); a, another, some, any, no, either, a, another, some, any, no, either, neither; each, enough, much, more, neither; each, enough, much, more, most, less; a few,most, less; a few, a littlea little

Postdeterminers:Postdeterminers: every; many, several, every; many, several, few, little; one, two, three …; (a) dozenfew, little; one, two, three …; (a) dozen

*their all trouble*their all trouble *five the all boys*five the all boys *all this boy*all this boy *all both girls*all both girls

2. 2. MorphologyMorphology

Morphology:Morphology: the study of word- the study of word-formation, or the internal formation, or the internal structure of words, or the rules structure of words, or the rules by which words are formed from by which words are formed from smaller components – smaller components – morphemesmorphemes..

2.1 2.1 MorphemesMorphemes

The smallest unit of language in The smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit expression and content, a unit that cannot be further divided that cannot be further divided into smaller units without into smaller units without destroying or drastically altering destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical.or grammatical.

2.2 2.2 Types of morphemesTypes of morphemes

FreeFree vs. vs. BoundBound morphemes: morphemes: Free morphemes:Free morphemes: those that may those that may

constitute words by themselves, eg constitute words by themselves, eg boy, girl, table, nationboy, girl, table, nation..

Bound morphemes:Bound morphemes: those that those that cannot occur alone, eg cannot occur alone, eg -s, -ed, dis-, -s, -ed, dis-, un-un-..

Root:Root: the base form of a word the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed that cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity, eg without total loss of identity, eg friendfriend as in as in unfriendlinessunfriendliness. .

Roots may be Roots may be free:free: those that can stand by those that can stand by

themselves, eg themselves, eg black+boardblack+board; ; nation+-alnation+-al; or; or

bound:bound: those that cannot stand by those that cannot stand by themselves, eg themselves, eg --ceiveceive in in receive, receive, perceive, conceiveperceive, conceive..

Affix:Affix: the type of formative that the type of formative that can be used only when added to can be used only when added to another morpheme. Normally another morpheme. Normally divided into divided into prefixprefix ( (dis-, undis-, un--) and ) and suffixsuffix (-(-en, -ifyen, -ify).).

Base:Base: a morpheme to which an a morpheme to which an affix is added, egaffix is added, eg friendfriend root > baseroot > base friendlyfriendly root/base + suffix > root/base + suffix >

basebase unfriendlyunfriendly prefix + base > prefix + base >

basebase unfriendlinessunfriendliness base + suffix > base + suffix >

base?base?

Stem:Stem: a morpheme or a morpheme or combination of morphemes to combination of morphemes to which an which an inflectionalinflectional affix may be affix may be added, eg added, eg friend+-s; write+-ing, friend+-s; write+-ing, possibility+-espossibility+-es..

Inflection:Inflection: grammatical endings, grammatical endings, eg plural, tense, comparative, eg plural, tense, comparative, etc.etc.

Derivation:Derivation: combination of a combination of a base and an affix to form a new base and an affix to form a new word, eg word, eg friend+-ly > friendlyfriend+-ly > friendly..

2.3 2.3 Word-formationWord-formation

In flec tiona lM orpho logy

D er iva tiona l/L ex ica l

M orpho logy

Morphology

InflectionInflection

Nominal forms:Nominal forms: boys, boy’s boys, boy’s Verb forms:Verb forms: wants, wanted, wants, wanted,

wantingwanting Adjective/adverb forms:Adjective/adverb forms: smaller, smaller,

smallestsmallest

CompoundingCompounding

Two or more free roots combine Two or more free roots combine to make a new word.to make a new word. Noun compounds:Noun compounds: daybreak, daybreak,

playboy, haircut, windmillplayboy, haircut, windmill Verb compounds:Verb compounds: brainstorm, brainstorm,

lipread, babysitlipread, babysit Adjective compounds:Adjective compounds: gray-haired, gray-haired,

insect-eating, dutyfreeinsect-eating, dutyfree Preposition compounds:Preposition compounds: into, into,

throughoutthroughout

Endocentric & exocentricEndocentric & exocentric Endocentric:Endocentric: one element serves one element serves

as the head, the relationship of as the head, the relationship of “a kind of”; eg“a kind of”; eg self-controlself-control: a kind of control: a kind of control armchairarmchair: a kind of chair: a kind of chair

Exocentric:Exocentric: there is no head, so there is no head, so not a relationship of “a kind of not a relationship of “a kind of something”, egsomething”, eg scarecrowscarecrow: not a kind of crow: not a kind of crow breakneckbreakneck: not a kind of neck: not a kind of neck

Written forms of compoundsWritten forms of compounds Solid: Solid: blackboard, teapot, blackboard, teapot,

bodyguardbodyguard Hyphenated: Hyphenated: wedding-ring, wave-wedding-ring, wave-

lengthlength Open: Open: coffee table, washing machinecoffee table, washing machine

Free variation: Free variation: businessman, business-man, businessman, business-man,

business manbusiness man winebottle, wine-bottle, wine bottlewinebottle, wine-bottle, wine bottle no one, no-one, nooneno one, no-one, noone

DerivationDerivation Class-changing:Class-changing:

N>V: N>V: lengthen, hospitalize, discardlengthen, hospitalize, discard N>A: N>A: friendly, delightful, speechlessfriendly, delightful, speechless V>N: V>N: worker, employee, inhabitantworker, employee, inhabitant V>A: V>A: acceptable, adorableacceptable, adorable A>N: A>N: rapidness, rapidityrapidness, rapidity A>V: A>V: deafen, sweetendeafen, sweeten Adj>Adv: Adj>Adv: exactly, quicklyexactly, quickly

Class-preserving:Class-preserving: N>N: N>N: nonsmoker, ex-wife, bookletnonsmoker, ex-wife, booklet V>V: V>V: disobey, unfastendisobey, unfasten A>A: A>A: grayish, irrelevantgrayish, irrelevant

3. 3. Lexical changeLexical change

Formation of new wordsFormation of new words Phonological changePhonological change Morphosyntactic changeMorphosyntactic change Semantic changeSemantic change Orthographic changeOrthographic change

3.1 3.1 Word-formation through Word-formation through lexical changelexical change

Invention/CoinageInvention/Coinage Mostly brand names: Mostly brand names: Kodak, Coke, nylon, Band-aid, Kodak, Coke, nylon, Band-aid,

Xerox, LycraXerox, Lycra

BlendingBlending transfer+resistor>transistortransfer+resistor>transistor smoke+fog>smogsmoke+fog>smog motorist+hotel>motelmotorist+hotel>motel breakfast+lunch>brunchbreakfast+lunch>brunch modulator+demodulator>modemmodulator+demodulator>modem dance+exercise>dancercisedance+exercise>dancercise advertisement+editorial>advertorialadvertisement+editorial>advertorial education+entertainment>edutainmeducation+entertainment>edutainm

entent information+commercial>infomerciinformation+commercial>infomerci

alal

Back-formationBack-formation diagnose < diagnosis diagnose < diagnosis enthuse < enthuse <

enthusiasm enthusiasm laze < lazylaze < lazy liaise < liaison liaise < liaison reminisce < reminisce <

reminiscence reminiscence statistic < statistics statistic < statistics televise < televisiontelevise < television

burgle, commentate, edit, peddle, burgle, commentate, edit, peddle, scavenge, sculpt, swindlescavenge, sculpt, swindle

air-condition, babysit, brainstorm, air-condition, babysit, brainstorm, brainwash, browbeat, dry-clean, brainwash, browbeat, dry-clean, house-hunt, housekeep, sightsee, house-hunt, housekeep, sightsee, tape-recordtape-record

articulate, assassinate, coeducate, articulate, assassinate, coeducate, demarcate, emote, intuit, demarcate, emote, intuit, legislate,legislate,marinate, orate, vaccinate, marinate, orate, vaccinate, valuatevaluate

AbbreviationsAbbreviations ClippingClipping

Back-clippings: Back-clippings: ad(vertisement), ad(vertisement), chimp(anzee), deli(catessen), chimp(anzee), deli(catessen), exam(ination), hippo(potamus), exam(ination), hippo(potamus), lab(oratory), piano(forte), lab(oratory), piano(forte), reg(ulation)sreg(ulation)s

Fore-clippings: Fore-clippings: (ham)burger, (ham)burger, (omni)bus, (violin)cello, (heli)copter, (omni)bus, (violin)cello, (heli)copter, (alli)gator, (tele)phone, (earth)quake(alli)gator, (tele)phone, (earth)quake

Fore-and-aft clippings: Fore-and-aft clippings: (in)flu(enza), (in)flu(enza), (de)tec(tive)(de)tec(tive)

AcronymAcronym AIDS, Aids:AIDS, Aids: Acquired Immune Acquired Immune

Deficiency SyndromeDeficiency Syndrome ASAP:ASAP: as soon as possible as soon as possible CD-ROM:CD-ROM: compact disc read-only compact disc read-only

memorymemory WASP:WASP: white Anglo-Saxon white Anglo-Saxon

protestantprotestant dink(y):dink(y): double income, no kids double income, no kids nilk(y):nilk(y): no income, lots of kids no income, lots of kids

InitialismInitialism AI:AI: artificial intelligence artificial intelligence a.s.a.p.:a.s.a.p.: as soon as possible as soon as possible ECU:ECU: European Currency Unit European Currency Unit HIV:HIV: human immunodeficiency virus human immunodeficiency virus PC:PC: personal computer personal computer PS:PS: postscript postscript RSVP:RSVP: répondez s’il vous plait répondez s’il vous plait

(‘please reply’ in French)(‘please reply’ in French)

Analogical creationAnalogical creation

From irregular to regular:From irregular to regular: workwork: wrought > worked: wrought > worked beseechbeseech: besought > beseeched: besought > beseeched slayslay: slew > slayed?: slew > slayed? gogo: went > goed???: went > goed???

BorrowingBorrowing

French:French: administration, administration, parliament, public, court, crime, parliament, public, court, crime, judge, army, enemy, officer, judge, army, enemy, officer, peace, soldier, war, faith, peace, soldier, war, faith, religion, coat, costume, dress, religion, coat, costume, dress, fashion, jewel, dinner, feast, fry, fashion, jewel, dinner, feast, fry, roast, supper, toast, customer, roast, supper, toast, customer, money, price, money, price, art, college, music, art, college, music, poet, prose, story, studypoet, prose, story, study

Latin:Latin: admit, client, conviction, admit, client, conviction, discuss, equal, index, library, discuss, equal, index, library, medicine, minormedicine, minor

Greek:Greek: catastrophe, cosmos, catastrophe, cosmos, criterion, idiosyncrasycriterion, idiosyncrasy

Spanish and Portuguese:Spanish and Portuguese: banana, banana, barbecue, cafeteria, cargo, barbecue, cafeteria, cargo, chocolate, cigar, cocaine, chocolate, cigar, cocaine, cockroach, cocoa, guitar, mosquito, cockroach, cocoa, guitar, mosquito, negro, potato, negro, potato, tank, tobacco, tank, tobacco, tomato, vanillatomato, vanilla

Italian:Italian: aria, bandit, broccoli, aria, bandit, broccoli, casino, concerto, duet, finale, casino, concerto, duet, finale, influenza, mafia, malaria, paparazzi influenza, mafia, malaria, paparazzi ((singularsingular paparazzo), piano, pizza, paparazzo), piano, pizza, solo, soprano, solo, soprano, spaghetti, studio, spaghetti, studio, umbrella, volcanoumbrella, volcano

Dutch:Dutch: boss, brandy, cookie, cruise, boss, brandy, cookie, cruise, deck, dock, dollar, freight, gin, kit, deck, dock, dollar, freight, gin, kit, knapsack, landscape, luck, sketch, knapsack, landscape, luck, sketch, slim, smuggle, snap, trek, slim, smuggle, snap, trek, yachtyacht

Arabic:Arabic: admiral, alchemy, alcohol, admiral, alchemy, alcohol, algebra, alkali, almanac, assassin, algebra, alkali, almanac, assassin, candy, hazard, lemon, candy, hazard, lemon, magazine, magazine, safari, sofa, zerosafari, sofa, zero

Indian:Indian: bungalow, cashmere, bungalow, cashmere, curry, ginger, jungle, mango, polo, curry, ginger, jungle, mango, polo, pyjamas (or pajamas), shampoo, pyjamas (or pajamas), shampoo, swastika, thug, swastika, thug, yogayoga

Chinese:Chinese: chop suey, chow, chow chop suey, chow, chow mein, ginseng, gung-ho, ketchup mein, ginseng, gung-ho, ketchup (or catchup or (or catchup or catsup), kung fu, catsup), kung fu, tea, tofu (via Japanese), typhoontea, tofu (via Japanese), typhoon

Types of loan wordsTypes of loan words

Loanwords:Loanwords: au pair, encore, coup d’etat, kungfu, au pair, encore, coup d’etat, kungfu,

sputniksputnik LoanblendLoanblend

coconut:coconut: coco (Spanish) + nut coco (Spanish) + nut (English)(English)

Chinatown:Chinatown: China (Chinese) + town China (Chinese) + town (English)(English)

LoanshiftLoanshift bridge:bridge: meaning as a card game meaning as a card game

borrowed from Italian borrowed from Italian ponteponte

Loan translation, or calqueLoan translation, or calque free versefree verse < L verse libre < L verse libre black humorblack humor < Fr humour noir < Fr humour noir found objectfound object < Fr objet trouvé < Fr objet trouvé

3.2 3.2 Phonological changePhonological change

Loss of sound: Loss of sound: loss of the velar fricative loss of the velar fricative /x//x/ which which

existed in O.E. existed in O.E. loss of sound in fast speech, loss of sound in fast speech,

eg eg librlibrararyy, , lablabooratoryratory andand > > ’n’n in connected speech, in connected speech,

eg eg rock-’n-rollrock-’n-roll

Addition of sound:Addition of sound: L. L. studiumstudium > O.F. > O.F. estudieestudie, Sp. , Sp.

estudioestudio, Port. , Port. estudoestudo English: rascal > rapscallionEnglish: rascal > rapscallion

Metathesis:Metathesis: changing the changing the sequence of soundsequence of sound O.E. O.E. bridbrid > bird, O.E. > bird, O.E. ox/axox/ax > ask > ask

Assimilation:Assimilation: impossible, immovableimpossible, immovable irregular, irresponsibleirregular, irresponsible illogical, illegalillogical, illegal

3.3 3.3 Morphosyntactic changeMorphosyntactic change Morphological change:Morphological change:

third person singular present third person singular present tense: tense:

-(e)th: do(e)th, goeth, hath, -(e)th: do(e)th, goeth, hath, findeth >findeth >

-(e)s: does, goes, has, finds-(e)s: does, goes, has, finds

the campus of the university > the campus of the university >

the university’s campusthe university’s campus

Syntactic change:Syntactic change: He saw you not. > He didn’t see you.He saw you not. > He didn’t see you. I know not where to hide my head. > I know not where to hide my head. >

I don’t know where to hide my head.I don’t know where to hide my head. Fusion/blending:Fusion/blending:

equally good + just as good > equally good + just as good > equally as goodequally as good

It’s no use getting there before nine It’s no use getting there before nine + There’s no use in getting there + There’s no use in getting there before nine > There’s no use getting before nine > There’s no use getting there before nine.there before nine.

3.4 3.4 Semantic changeSemantic change

Broadening:Broadening: holiday:holiday: holy day (religion) > day for holy day (religion) > day for

restrest bird:bird: young bird > any kind young bird > any kind task:task: tax > work tax > work

Narrowing:Narrowing: meat:meat: food > food > girl:girl: young person > young woman young person > young woman deer:deer: beast > a special kind of beast > a special kind of

animalanimal

Meaning shift:Meaning shift: bead:bead: prayer > the prayer prayer > the prayer

bead > small, ball-bead > small, ball-shaped piece of glass, shaped piece of glass, metal or woodmetal or wood

Class shift:Class shift: conversion conversion to other word classesto other word classes engineer:engineer: person trained person trained

in engineering > to act in engineering > to act as an engineer (N>V)as an engineer (N>V)

Folk etymology:Folk etymology: a popular but a popular but mistaken account of the origin of mistaken account of the origin of a word or phrasea word or phrase .. history:history: Old French < Latin < Greek Old French < Latin < Greek

historiahistoria, meaning 'knowledge , meaning 'knowledge through inquiry, record, or through inquiry, record, or narrative'.narrative'.

his storyhis story > > herstoryherstory

Fake etymology:Fake etymology: a kind of folk a kind of folk etymologyetymology Manhattan:Manhattan: man with hat on man with hat on MBA:MBA: married but available married but available PhD:PhD: perhaps have divorced perhaps have divorced golf:golf: Gentlemen Only; Ladies Gentlemen Only; Ladies

ForbiddenForbidden

3.5 3.5 Orthographic changeOrthographic change Change of spelling:Change of spelling:

Iesus > JesusIesus > Jesus sate > satsate > sat Sunne > SunSunne > Sun