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Chapter Six
Learning
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What Is Learning?• Adaptive process through which
experience modifies pre-existing behavior and understanding.
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Adaptation to a constant stimulus is simple learning
Reponses to unchanging stimuli decreases over time.– Habituation is simplest form of learning.
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Non-Associative Learning• Learning results from the impact of one
particular stimulus.– Not the result of learning to associate one
stimulus with another (i.e. habituation.)– We learn to ignore repeated stimuli
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Another example of non-associative learning
• Why do people engage in risky behavior?
• Solomon’s (1980) Opponent Process Theory explains this – Based on disruption and restoration of equilibrium.
• Explains drug addiction, bungee jumping, and maybe even self destructive gangbanging behavior.
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Solomon’s Opponent-Process Theory
– New stimuli that cause extreme positive or negative feeling cause opposite (opponent) feeling to occur to restore equilibrium.
– If new stimulus is repeated the opponent feeling happens faster and stronger, eventually suppressing original stimulus.
– i.e. Drug addiction – over time addicts need more drug to get the same effect (habituation), and withdrawal gets worse over time too.
– i.e. Why do people skydive, ride rollercoasters?
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Most learning theories are based on associations of one stimulus with another, or associations between behavior and its consequences.
Classical Conditioning - Ivan Pavlov, John B. Watson
Instrumental & Operant Conditioning- Edward Thorndike, B.F. Skinner
Associative Learning
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Ivan Pavlov - Classical Conditioning
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Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning• Start with Unconditioned Stimulus UCS
– Causes an instinctive Unconditioned Response UCR– For example, food causes salivation (drooling)
• Then PAIR the UCS with a Neutral Stimulus– Presenting the UCS with Neutral Stimulus causes an
association to form. The more you do it, the stronger the association.
– Ex., ring a bell when you present food…– Eventually the bell ALONE will cause salivation
• The bell was neutral, but is now a Conditioned Stimulus CS which causes salivation, the Conditioned Response CR
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Classical Conditioning – UCS, UCR, CS, CR
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Apparatus for Measuring Conditioned Responses
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Little Albert – John Watson
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Changes Over Time in the Strength of a Conditioned Response: Extinction and Spontaneous
Recovery
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Stimulus Generalization - Pavlov
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Stimulus Discrimination
• What if there were no limits to stimulus generalization?
• Stimulus Discrimination: Learning to differentiate among similar stimuli.– Complementary (opposite) process to
stimulus generalization.
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Factors Affecting the Learning of a Conditioned Response
• Timing– Forward conditioning = CS then UCS
• Most effective (bell then food0
– Backward conditioning = UCS then CS• Less effective (food then bell)
– Simultaneous conditioning = Same time• Least effective (food and bell at the same time)
• Predictability• Signal Strength• Attention to Stimulus
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More Factors Affecting the Learning of a Conditioned Response
• Second-Order Conditioning– i.e. Dr.’s waiting room (cs) and shot (ucs)–
waiting room could begin to act as ucs… eventually magazines become cs.
– While adaptive, can cause problems.
• Biopreparedness– Animals are predisposed to certain
conditioning situations… perhaps genetic. – i.e. taste aversions, snakes vs. cars.
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Some Applications of Classical Conditioning
• Can play role in the development of phobias. (extreme fears that are not based on real danger or fear reactions that aren’t appropriate to real danger)– Systematic desensitization as a treatment – to cause
extinction.
• Predator Control – taste aversion• Predicting Alzheimer’s Disease – ability of
patients to be conditioned to blink (air puff = ucs, light =cs) deteriorates.
• Other applications?
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Instrumental and Operant Conditioning: Learning the Consequences of Behavior
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20Continue
Edward L. Thorndike 1898
• Was studying animals’ intelligence and ability to solve problems.– Used a puzzle box.
• What were Thorndike’s cats learning?– “Law of effect” – Consequences change
behavior.– Described this kind of learning as instrumental
conditioning. – Organisms learn to do things that have satisfying or pleasurable consequences.
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21Return
Figure 6.5: Thorndike’s Puzzle Box
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B. F. Skinner - Operant Cond.
• Extended and formalized many of Thorndike’s ideas.
• Organisms learn responses by operating on the environment.– “Operant conditioning”
• Primary aim was to analyze how behavior is changed by its consequences.
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Basic Components of Operant Conditioning
• Operant – a response that has an effect on the world.
• Reinforcer – a stimulus that increases the probability that the behavior which preceded it will occur again. – Positive reinforcer – a pleasurable thing follows
behavior – ie: Mom gives kid candy for good behavior in store (kid is being conditined)
– Negative reinforcer – an unpleasurable thing STOPS following behavior. ie: Kid stops whining when mom gives them candy in checkout line (mom is being conditioned)
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Figure 6.6: Positive and Negative Reinforcement
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Adapted from: The Psychology of Memory and Learning by Hintzman. © 1978 by W.H. Freeman and Company. Used with permission.
Escape Conditioning Avoidance Conditioning
Escape and Avoidance: Two types of negative reinforcement
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IMPORTANT!!• Negative reinforcement is NOT punishment.
• Negative reinforcement is the REMOVAL of unpleasant stimulus when target behavior is observed (a positive consequence of behavior – increases behavior)
• Punishment is the introduction of an aversive (unpleasant) stimulus or removal of a pleasant stimulus as a consequence of behavior – ( a negative consequence of behavior - decreases behavior.
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Operant Conditioning Activity
• Two volunteers
• A bit like “hot and cold” game.
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BF Skinner 1904-1990Operant Conditioning
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Forming and Strengthening Operant Behavior
• Shaping – Process of reinforcing responses that get closer and closer to the desired response.
• Primary Reinforcer – meets basic needs i.e food, water.- Give dog a treat.
• Secondary Reinforcement– Say “good dog” when you give the dog a treat… eventually
you won’t need so many treats. (money vs. food/shelter…)– Secondary reinforcers (or “conditioned reinforcers”) – Greatly expands the power of operant conditioning.– Depends on what people like… rock concert, opera?
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Delay and Size of Reinforcement
• Timing of Reinforcer – Usually the shorter the delay between behavior and reinforcement, the more effective.
• Size of Reinforcer – Usually the larger the reinforcer, the more effective.
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Schedules of Reinforcement
• Continuous reinforcement schedule: flip switch, light goes on every time. – works well, but not practical in many situations.
• Partial or intermittent reinforcement
schedule. – also work well and more practical. Flip switch multiple times before light goes on.
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Partial / Intermittent Schedules– Fixed Ratio (FR) – every 10th response = FR10
– Variable Ratio (VR) – not as predictable, the ratio varies, but can be described as the average VR 30
– Fixed Interval (FI) – Reinforces the first response and then every fixed amount of time later as long as there is a response. (many jobs pay this way)
– Variable Interval (VI) – Random checks after some average interval has passed… avid binder check about every 2 weeks.
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Variable Interval(VI)
Variable Ratio(VR)
Fixed Interval(FI)
Fixed Ratio(FR)
Based on Number of necessary responses
Based on Time that must
first pass
Predictable
Unpredictable (“On the
Average”)
Intermittent Reinforcement Schedules
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34Adapted from "Teaching Machines" by B.F. Skinner, Copyright © 1961 by Scientific American, Inc.
All rights reserved.
Effectiveness of Different Schedules of Reinforcement
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Schedules and Extinction
• Failure to reinforce a response extinguishes that response.
• Partial Reinforcement Extinction Effect– Explains why superstitious behaviors are
resistant to extinction.
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Self Stimulation – James Olds
• Pleasure Center in brain – Median Forebrain Bundle
• ..\Psych_Video_Clips\SelfStimRat_PleasureCenter.MOV
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Punishment
• Reduces the frequency of an operant behavior by presenting an unpleasant stimulus or removing a pleasant one.– Two kinds of punishment.
• Negative Reinforcement vs. Punishment– Negative reinforcement: Strengthens
behavior.– Punishment: Weakens behavior
Continue
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38Return
Figure 6.10: Two Kinds of Punishment
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Potential Drawbacks of Punishment
• Does not “erase” an undesirable habit; merely suppresses it.
• Sometimes produces unwanted side effects.
• Often ineffective unless given immediately after the response and each time the response is made.
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Potential Drawbacks of Punishment (cont’d.)
• Can become aggression, even abuse, if administered in anger.
• Children are more likely to behave aggressively if frequently punished.
• Signals what is inappropriate behavior but does not specify correct alternative behavior.
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Guidelines for Effective Punishment
• Specify why punishment is being given.
• Without being abusive, punishment should be immediate and noticeable enough to eliminate the undesirable behavior.
• Identify and reinforce more appropriate behaviors.
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Cognitive Processes in Learning
• Behaviorists: Not interested in role of conscious mental activity in learning.
• Cognitive Psychologists: Learning may also result from mental processes.– Classical and operant conditioning helps to
detect causality.
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Learned Helplessness
• Tendency to give up any effort to control the environment after experience suggests that no control is possible.
• First demonstrated in animals.
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Observational Learning
• Learning by Watching Others– Also called social learning.
• Bandura’s “Bobo” Doll Experiment
• Powerful source of the socialization process.
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Bandura, A., Ross, D., & Ross, S. A. (1963). Imitation of film-mediated aggressive models. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 66, 3-11.
Observational Learning
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Main Learning Theories
• Classical Conditioning– Pairing stimuli leads to conditioned responses– Pavlov, Watson
• Operant Conditioning– Behavior is shaped by its consequences– Schedules of reinforcement – Thorndike, Skinner
• Observational Learning– People learn by watching others and observing the
consequences others receive– Bandura