CHAPTER IV ROAD AND TEMPLE ENTRY...
Transcript of CHAPTER IV ROAD AND TEMPLE ENTRY...
CHAPTER IV
ROAD AND TEMPLE ENTRY MOVEMENT
South Travancore, having Hinduism as the major religion,
there are people belong to Christianity, Islam and so on. It is a paradox
that some Hindus segregate the rest of the majority Hindus. For
perpetuating this distinction as touchables and untouchables the caste
Hindus had the sanction from sacerdotal texts.' Despite their devoted
service to their caste Hindu masters, the low castes were ruthlessly kept out
of public services, roads, wells and places of worship.
They had to work between midnight and daybreak and they
were not allowed to come out during the day time because the very sight of
them was polluting.^ Hinduism segmented the people and assigned several
disabilities to the low casters. It is calculated that 33 per cent of the Hindu
1 P. Chidambaram Pillai, Right of Temple Entry, Nagercoil, 1933, p.47.
2 Confidential G.O. dated 30 November 1918 from the Dewan of Cochin to the Resident.
3 J. H. Hutton, Caste in India, Bombay, 1963, p.82.
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population alone were caste Hindus (Savamas) who were entitled to enjoy
all these amenities whereas 41 per cent of the total population comprised
the untouchable classes who were denied the civil rights such as street and
temple entry/
The abolition of slavery and subsequent efforts of
ameliorative measures did not improve the life condition of the
untouchable. Continuous efforts were taken by the hectic social reformers
and missionaries to change their misfortune of social immobility. It is on
record that some streets in towns and villages were not open to them. They
were excluded from public schools and employments.^
So, people belong to the suppressed classes complained that a
bulk of the total Hindu population who constituted the untouchable group
was not permitted to enter or even approach the public temples,^ courts and
cutcherries and were frequently obstructed in the use of public highways,
markets and so on. The oppressive administration and the caste Hindus
defended untouchables with all the organized force.
4 Proceedings of the Travancore Legislative Council, Vol. VI., p.319.
5 E.Rs., Trivandrum, C.F.N. 286, Slavery - Its abolition and the amelioration, 1813-1880, p.173.
6 E.Rs., Chief Secretary File (Hereafter referred to as C.S.F.) No. 767, Report on the Ezhava Memorial, Dewan Travancore to the Agent to Governor General, Madras State, Trivandrum, 30 August 1931.
7 Proceedings of the Travancore Legislative Council, Vol. VI, p.320.
8 E.Rs., Trivandrum, C.S.F No. 714, Memorandum on T.A.R. of M.E. Watts, Dewan of Travancore, p. 14.
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However the most distressing of the many disabilities was the
prohibition of low castes from passing along the roads beside temples and
palaces.^ These disabilities very much debarred the depressed from access
to schools, tanks, wells, satroms, temples, roads and other public
institutions and conveniences/"
But originally these were constructed by the government to
give facilities to the fravelling public, devotees of temples and pilgrims of
religious centers as a whole irrespective of caste and creed. ̂ ' As these
public conveniences were built either inside the temple premises or in
proximity of temples, unnecessary frictions between the high castes and the
low castes leading to unpleasant situations were the results which
ultimately led to further disability of inaccessibility and inapproachability
to the low castes.
In spite of the liberal adoption of the policy of throwing open
schools to all classes of people, at the end of 1929-30, out of 3,641
recognised institutions some twelve schools were not accessible to the
pupils of all classes. In the year 1936, there were ten schools, twenty one
satroms and forty temple roads which were not accessible to all depressed
9 Proceedings of the Travancore Legislative Council, Vol. VI, 1928, p.321.
10 Desabimani, 1 October, 1931.
11 Ibid., Vol. X, April 1927, p.246.
12 Ibid, Vol. XIX, 1931, p.l96.
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classes of people.'^ Among the twenty one satroms maintained by the
Maramat Department the following eight in South Travancore were
unapproachable to all the low castes.
Thovala Satrom (At Thovala near Krishnaswamy temple),
Bhuthapondy Satrom (In west car street, Bhuthapondy), Eraneel Satrom
(At Eraneel near Martandeswaram Temple), Padmanabhapuram Satrom
(near West Car Street, Parmanabhapuram), Thirupathiesaram Satrom
(South Car Street in Thirupathisaram), Suchindrum Satrom, Cape Satrom
(at cape road) and Thiruvattar Satrom (at Thiruvattar).''* However
regarding tanks, wells and satroms there were none used by the low castes.
Even though the tanks, wells and satrom were maintained by the State
funds, the unapproachability was imposed due to the closeness of them
with temples and palaces.^^
Further the satroms that were inaccessible to the depressed
communities were used as office chambers and classrooms. In 1924, thirty
two satroms in Travancore State were thrown open to all classes of people
13 E.Rs., Trivandrum, C.S.F. No. 1365 of 1936, Throwing open of Roads to all classes of Hindus, Chief Secretary to private secretary to his highness cecil hotel, Simla, 20 May 1936.
14 E.Rs., Maramat Engineer, Trivandrum, to Chief Secretary to Government, 14 April 1936.
15 E.Rs., Copy of the resolution passed at a meeting of the Brahmins of Kottarathru Matom. In the annual budget of 1926, the amount allotted from the maintenance of these satroms was Rs. 27385, Proceedings of the Travancore Legislative Coimcil, Vol. X, April 1927, p.246.
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with separate kitchens for low castes. The existence of these reserved
satroms perpetuated a kind of invidious distinction and caused bitterness
and unpleasantness to the low castes.'^ In fact satroms, tanks and wells,
attached with temples were for the exclusive use of pilgrims and
devotees. On the ground of untouchability and unapproachability some
roads in South Travancore were not permitted to be used by all classes of
1 H
people.
Brahminical orthodoxy and contempt of the lower classes
imposed rules of exclusion in the society.'^ Hence the prohibition was
based on social conveniences and gradation of superior or inferior
factions. The control over the roads of the Travancore Government fell
into the divisions such as roads for the exclusive use of all castes and roads
exclusively for the use of selective castes only.
The court classified the roads of the State into rajaveethees
and gramaveethees. Public highways or king's highways that the Madras
Government Order of 1865 denoted as 'public high streets' were accessible
16 E.Rs., p.256.
17 E.Rs., Trivandrum, C.S.F No.714, Report of M.E. Watts, Memorandum on Travancore Administration, Trivandrum, 25 January 1929, p. 17.
18 Proceedings of the Travancore Legislative Council, Vol. VI, p.309.
19 P. Chidambaram Pillai, op.cit., p. 182.
20 B. Shobanan, Temple Entry Movement and the Sivakasi Riots, Madurai, 1985, p.5.
21 Ibid, p.233.
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to all classes of people alike. However in enjoying this right one could not
obstruct or molest the other.̂ ^
Gramaveethees were the roads located in and around the
temples or streets inhabited by the Brahmins and they were not easy access
to the low castes. In fact gramaveethees were common ways or ways
regulated through fare and local customs and usage alone determined its
use. Hence no one who had no business, as a matter of fact, passed along
them. Through these streets periodical procession of the presiding deities
were usually carried on.
For instance, there was a practice in Suchindram that the
deities of temples of caste Hindus were taken out on procession through
public roads, the low castes were kept at a distance so as not to pollute the
deity. It was also regulated by local usage and established customs.̂ "*
Time honoured customs observed by the caste Hindus
prohibited the low-castes including Nadars and Parayars for walking along
the road for fear of causing pollution to the deity and the Brahmin
households in the vicinity of the temple and the low castes offered their
22 E.Rs., Trivandrum, Cover File No. 3679, Letter to Dewan of Travancore from Native Christians of South Travancore, 9 November, 1887.
23 E.Rs., C.S.F. No. 714, Memorandum on Travancore Administration, p. 15.
24 E.Rs., C.S.F. No. 507 of 1918, 21 December 1918, Bunddle No. 6, Confidential Department.
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offerings from a distant place. P. Chidambaram Pillai claims that "these
sfreets came into existence for the entry of the out castes for the worship of
the image".
Therefore the very beginning of the road was religiously for
giving entry and it is the prohibition which is irreligious. There was no
foundation on any religious ground for this exclusion or prohibition from
road entry. The roads which skirted the temples at Vaikkam, Parassala,
Neyyattinkara, Haripad, Thiruvarpu and car street at Samburvadakara were
forbidden to the people of low castes.^'
In South Travancore, the Brahmin sfreet at Cape, approach
roads to Pazhavady Gramom, car street at Suchindram, from the Balamore
road to the Azhakianami Devaswom at Azhakiapandipuram, from the east
of the sfreet round the Thiruvenkitathapper Devaswom and Ramaswamy
coil road at Padmanabhapuram were forbidden to the depressed classes but
were used by the non-Hindus.
These roads did not exist by themselves unconnected with
other roads or parts of roads through which all sections of the public had
25 J.W. Gladstone, Protestant Christianity and Peoples Movements in Kerala, Trivandrum, 1984, p.22.
26 P. Chidambaram Pillai, op.cit., p.238.
27 T.K. Ravindran, Eight Furlongs of Freedom, Trivandrum, 1980, p.39.
28 E.Rs., Trivandrum, C.S.F. No. 1365 1936, Letter from the Maramat Engineer, Trivandrum to the Chief Secretary to the Government, 30 November 1935.
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the right of passage. It made the road entry prohibition a complex question
of unnatural bewilderment. Such "narrow and short sighted laws, exclusive
legislation and oppressive monopolies effectively hindered the extension of
trade, the growth of commerce and the speed of agriculture, while
barbarous caste restrictions produced disunion and national weakness."^^
In South Travancore, the outcaste Christians never took a
serious view of this inaccessibility and developed disrespect for the local
customs that regulated the entry into common ways. This bold assertion
was possible thanks to the Christian missionaries of L.M.S. and the
Salvation Army who had completed their camps in the heartland of South
Travancore before the second quarter of the twentieth century. Hence the
missionaries can be said to be the pioneers in South Travancore of road
entry struggle. This in turn gave them a rich harvest in their Evangelical
Mission.
The disability of inaccessibility and the denial of road entry
not only separated the low castes from the mainstream of social life but
also made them much more vulnerable to grim social discrimination. While
discrimination was practiced in subtle ways, inaccessibility did not enjoy
immunity against it.
29 Samuel Mateer, op. cit., p.292.
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Emerging as the tireless campaigner, the missionaries
launched in South Travancore a disastrous campaign over the right of road-
entry in the later decades of nineteenth century. Successive communal riots
which broke out in the outskirts of South Travancore heightened the sense
of discrimination and insecurity of an already confused and demoralized
untouchable community.
Their disability of road-entry made the agrarian communities
as unapproachables for marketing centres that eventually demoralized their
socio-economic life. On the other hand in the twentieth century the new
economic opportunities generated by the socio-economic reforms and
extension of protected irrigation, improved the material prosperity of the
depressed castes. Growing economic power entertained their aspirations for
elevated social status.
However their aspirations for spectacular socio-religious
reforms enabling road entry received momentous support from the elites of
both high castes and low castes.
The high caste elites associated themselves with the agitating
low castes whereas the low caste elites sought reform legislation through
the process of agitations and satyagrahas. '̂ The disabilities of the Avanas
30 B. Sobhanan, "Genesis of the social emancipation among the Ezhavas", Historia, Vol. 11, Madurai, 1985, p.3.
31 Krishnalal Shridharani, War Without Violence ~ A Study of Gandhiji Method and its Accomplishment, New York, 1939, pp.95-97.
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were first felt by the Ezhavars and the demand to have temples opened to
all Hindus particularly low castes for worship naturally were started by
them.̂ ^
The untouchable communities suffered discomfiture owing to
"tindal" or distance pollution. As per the edict issued in February 1851 by
the Government of Travancore^^ not only the lower castes but also the
Christians and Mohamedan were prevented form entering the streets near
the Hindu temples.̂ "* The government issued an order that low castes
should be kept at a distance of sixty four feet from the outer walls of the
temple.^^
Hence it appears that to interdict lower castes from entering
roads leading to temples the government of Travancore were more anxious
than the Brahmins. According to Travancore Land Conservancy
Regulation "all public roads, streets, lanes and paths by whomsoever, made
wheresoever's situated fall, under the category of purampoke lands and are
the property of government".^'
32 Report of the Temple Entry Committee, Trivandrum, 1934, p.47.
33 R.N. Yesudas, A People's Revolt in Travancore, Trivandrum, 1975, p.lOO.
34 Report of the Temple Entry Enquiry Committee Published on 21 April 1934, Trivandrum, p.49.
35 T.K. Ravindran, Vaikam Satyagraha and Gandhi, Trivandrum, 1975, p.3.
36 Idem.
37 ERs., Trivandrum, C.S.F. No. 608 of 1924, Vaikkam Satyagraha Files.
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In spite of this regulation, in the public roads near temples,
palaces, or the residences of members of the high castes, sign-boards were
put up by the government prohibiting lower castes from entering the roads
near the temples. In South Travancore, a stone pillar measuring height
found east of Vally Kolly Ammancoil, originally erected in the east car
street of Parakkai leading to the Mathusoothanaperumal temple bearing a
note on such prohibition can be seen even today.
Many such prohibition boards compelled the socially
disabled classes of people to seek the passage through broken and narrow
paths along the meadow side or channel side. The peculiar rural structure
in South Travancore was that the agrarian untouchables had their habitats
close to paddy fields'*" and their villages were adjacent to the caste Hindu
streets.
The caste Hindu gramaveethees lying around the village
temple had access with the adjacent public highways. Hence entry in the
gramaveethees became inevitable for the untouchables in the transit of
produce, catties and impediments.'*'
38 Proceedings of the Sri Mulam Popular Assembly, 3 March 1916, pp. 120-127, also see R. Singarayan, Kumari Mavattathil Nadar Samugam Antrum Intrum (Tamil), Neyyoor 1984, p. 18.
39 The Oomaikural, (Tamil Monthly), Nagercoil, April 1984, p.3.
40 Mateer writes "The Pulayas, the lowest of the slave caste, resided in miserable huts on mounds in the centre of the rice swamps or on the raised embankments in their vicinity", Samuel Mateer, The Land of Charity, op.cit,pA2.
41 The Oomaikural, April 1984, p.4.
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The restrictions placed on the low castes for the use of roads
and the practice of untouchability as part of social and religious life
impeded their progress. In consequence of the introduction of exchange
economy, the market became the nerve centre of the day-to-day life of the
people. The cultivators had to sell their produce and purchase the
necessaries from the market. People had to travel to attend courts and
public offices.
Patients had to reach hospitals, students to attend schools and
colleges and workers to go to their distant places of work. Only roads
constituted the main approaches to these public institutions. But it was on
record that 1.7 million low caste Hindus were denied the right to walk
along the temple roads in the Travancore State."*̂ Moreover, the
missionaries of various Christian congregations in South Travancore who
visited the villages of the untouchables were in need of access with the
common ways for their evangelical works.
Hence the socio-religious life of the depressed class people of
South Travancore rendered the struggle for road entry an inevitable
phenomenon. Such a frame work perceived in the society of South
Travancore led to social disharmony and communal conflicts. The denial of
the right to road-entry to the lower castes led to riots in different parts of
42 E.Rs., Trivandrum, C.S.F. No. 615 of 1924, Vol. VI, Vaikkam Satyagraha Files, Joint memorial of the Ezhavas and Nairs to the Dewan of Travancore.
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South Travancore during the latter half of the nineteenth century and the
early decades of the present century.
The earliest act of social injustice owing to road entry
movement was recorded at Panchahngapuram, a Brahmin village near
Kanyakumari.'*^ In 1869 when Rev. W.Lee, a L.M.S. missionary along
with his Pulaya horseman passed through the Brahmin village of
Panchahngapuram, they were severely beaten by the inhabitants of the
village.'*'*
A case was registered later and the verdict was in favour of
the Brahmins. Similarly at Vadiveeswaram, a Brahmin street in Nagercoil
there broke out a serious riot in the year 1872 following the arrangement
made by James Duthie, a missionary of the L.M.S. for the remarriage of a
Brahmin widow."*̂ Considering the Christians as low castes the entry of the
missionary, and zenana workers in the street was prohibited by the
Brahmins.
Two zenana workers who entered the street at
Vadiveeswaram were beaten severely. Their clothes were torn and mud
43 KRs., Judicial Section File No. 40/133 of 1907
44 Tamil Nadu Archives, Madras, Proceedings of the Madras Government, Political Department, 11 September 1896.
45 Annual Report of the L.M.S. for the year 1872, Travancore District Committee, p.5.
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was thrown at their faces and strong hard looking men threatened to push
them into tanks or shoot them/^
The Endeavour of the Salvationists to ascertain the right of
the road-entry resulted in riots at Cheramadam, Kurichi and Kakkad. The
commanders of the Salvation Army who were going on horseback through
Cheramadam village with a number of Parayars on foot at 10 o'clock on
the night of 27* August 1892 were mercilessly assaulted by the Vellala
caste Hindus of the village.
It led to rioting and litigation in the village/^ Kurichi is a
small village of South Travancore thickly populated by the Vellalars. They
were highly jealous of the activities of the Salvationists in and around
Suchidram. The Salvationists were not permitted to walk along the Vellala
streets with chapels on carrying umbrellas and wearing turbans. When col.
Jesuretnam rode on the horse back along this street, he was chased and
severely assaulted.'**
The Salvationists sought legal suit and three ring leaders of
the caste Hindus were sentenced to a month long rigorous imprisonment
and a fine for rupees fifty. The Parayar Village of Kakkad, situated at a
46 Report of the L.M.S. on Zenana and school work for 1893, Nagercoil, pp.8-17.
47 Travancore Law Report, Vol. X, p.34
48 E.Rs., Trivandrum, C.F.N. 1627 of 1892, Letter dated 13 January 1893.
144
distance of a mile east of Suchindram had a link road covering a distance
of about a furlong and a half from Suchindram to Kakkad.
It was maintained out of public funds for public benefit. Yet
the Parayars were not permitted to enter this road on account of its
proximity to the temple.'*^ It caused apprehension and resulted in Kakkad
riot. In the melee an English man and his wife who were going along the
Kakkad road were beaten to death by the caste Hindus of Suchindram.
The Vellalars of South Travancore committed ruthless act of
repression when the untouchables moved through the common streets of
Usaravilai and Mylaudy on festive occasions.
Similar difficulties had to be confronted by the Nadars in a
sfreet at Mylaudy. Though the Nadars and Vellalars walked along this
street and also drove their carts through it, the Vellalars did not permit the
Nadars to take out either marriage or religious procession through this
street.̂ *' It ignited sporadic scenes of violence and continuous riots at
Mylaudy.
The obstruction of the outcaste procession of 1918 at
Boothapandy Brahmin lane restricted the freedom of movement of the low
castes. The Christians of Nagercoil and Boothapandy took out processions
49 Proceedings of the Travancore Legislative Council, Vol. VIII, p.679. 50 i:.i?5., Vol.VI, 1924,p.585.
145
to celebrate the victory of the English in the First World War.^' But the
police officials obstructed the passage of the procession through a lane
mainly inhabited by Brahmins and other caste Hindus. Christians
considered the action of the police officials a great insult to them.
They requested the Government of Travancore to classify
whether such streets maintained by the public money were open to all or
not. The government held that the low castes had no right to go through
Brahmin streets either alone or in procession. But the Government of
Madras condemned the action of the police officials and described it "as a
very serious instance of the passive acceptance or Brahmin arrogance and
intolerance".^^
In 1919, at the fifteenth session of the Sri Mulam Popular
Assembly (hereafter referred to as S.M.P.A.), the late T.K. Madhavan, then
the editor of "Desabhiman" a Malayalam weekly, and a prominent
members of the Ezhava community brought before the government a
representation for the removal of "theendal" and for admission in to
Savama temples. '̂* In 1921 also T.K. Madhavan brought the issue of
temple entry to the notice of Travancore Legislative Assembly.
51 E.Rs., Trivandrum, C.S.F. No. 1017 of 1919, Christians of Nagercoil to Dewan, 28 January 1919.
52 A. Sreedhara Menon, A Survey of Kerala History, Madras, 1994, pp.326-327.
53 E.Rs., No.2879, Resident to Dewan, 7 December 1918.
54 Report of the Temple Entry Enquiry Committee Trivandrum, 1934, p.47.
146
On 2"'' June 1921, T.K. Madhavan again pressed in the
Assembly to remove all the prohibitory boards from public roads leading to
the temples.^^ In 1923, the congress session at Kakinada passed a
resolution for taking effective steps in this regard.^^ Kunju Panickar and
T.K. Madhavan raised the question again in the Assembly.^^ Hectic
campaign assumed headway in South Travancore in the course of the road
entry movement at Vaikkam.
Vaikkam is a small town in the kottayam District of Kerala.
Early in the morning on 1̂^ November 1924 a procession of nearly one
hundred caste Hindus was organized at Asramam under Padmanabha Pillai
and another at Suchindram under M. Emperumal Naidu for reaching
Vaikkam. A band of emerging caste Hindu leaders of Satyagraha like
M. Sivathanu Pillai, A.P Nayar and M. Emperumal Naidu had been touring
throughout southern Taluks enlisting members even from high caste
CO
Hindus for the procession and securmg signatories for a memorandum.
About eighty caste Hindus including Brahmins, Vellalars and Nairs
enlisted themselves as volunteers in the procession and under the inspiring
55 Alasiar, (ed.), Aspects of South Travancore History, A felicitation volume of professor K. Rajayyan, Madurai, 2000, p.208.
56 D. Daniel, Travancore Tamils Struggle for Identity 1938-1956, Part-I, Madurai, 1992, p.23.
57 S.M.P.A. Proceedings, 1921, Vol.11, p.l48.
58 S. Nanchil, Anbezhil, "Kumari Mavattathil Dravida lyakkam", G. Christober Golder Jubilee Malar, (Tamil), p.35.
147
ledership of M. Emperumal Naidu it marched in military order from Kottar
to Trvivandrum and submitted a memorandum for the right of road entry to
the avamas on 12* November 1924 to the Regent Queen.^^
The other prominent members who participated in the Jatha
were M. Sivathanu Pillai of Theraykalputhoor, Manakavalaperumal pillai,
Gandhi Raman and Muthrukaruppa Pillai.^" The Kerala Provincial
Committee of the Congress met at Emakulam on 20* January 1924, and
formed an Anti-Untouchabiltiy Committee with T.K. Madhavan, T.R,
Krishnaswami Aiyar and K. Kelappan Nair as conveners.^' The committee
held a meeting on 6* February 1924 at Quilon. In that meeting Vaikkam
was selected as the appropriate centre for inaugurating the programme.^^
A large number of Ezhavas and Pulayars besides caste
Hindus were participated in the meeting held on 29* February 1924 at
Vaikkam.^^ It led to the announcement of the Regent Queen to open the
approach roads adjacent to Vaikkam temple to all Hindus.
59 Report of the temple entry enquiry committee published in 21 April 1934, p.48.
60 E.Rs., Trivandrum, C.S.F. No. 1017 of 1919, Christians of Nagercoil to Dewan, 28 January 1919.
61 P.K.K. Menon, The History of Freedom Movement in Kerala (1885-1938), Trivandrum, Vol. II, 1972, p.ll6.
62 K.M. Panikkar, Hindu Society at Cross Roads, Bombay, 1961, pp.95-99.
63 Judith M. Brown, Gandhi Prisoner of Hope, Delhi, 1990, pp.205-207.
148
However with two processions the caste Hindus
demonstrated their sincere support to the reform movement. Realizing the
spirit of socio-religious movements generated in South Travancore,
Gandhiji visited Nagercoil on 14* March 1924 and spoke on the evils of
untouchability and the demerits of Hinduism^"* and thereby made the
savamas remain in good trim of spirit throughout the movement. ̂ ^
The agitators took meticulous care to avoid violence; still the
Government was driven to the desperate exigency of employing brute
force.̂ ^ To the disappointment of the avama, the resolution moved in the
Legislative council in February 1925 recommending the throwing opening
of all roads in Travancore to all classes of people was rejected by a
majority of twenty two to twenty one votes. A band of volunteers led by
K.P. Kesava Menon walked to the temple precints, but were served with
ban orders by the District Magistrate.^* In defiance, batches of volunteers
staged satyagraha and courted arrest.^^
64 M.K. Sanoo, Narayana Guru - A Bibliography, Bombay, 1978, p. 175.
65 A. Ramaswamy, Tamil Nattil Gandhi, (Tamil), Madras, 1969, pp.409-411.
66 The Hindu, 31 March 1924.
67 Proceedings of the Travancore Legislative Council, 5 February 1925, p.576.
68 The Hindu, 11th April 1924.
69 Damodaran, K., and Narayana Pillai, C, Keralathil Swatantriya Samaram (Malayalam), Trivandrum, 1957, p.20.
149
Caste Hindu organizations like Kerala Hindu Sabha, Nair
Service Society, Yogakshemg Sabha, Kshatriya Maha Sabha, and other
leading social organizations extended their support to the movement.^''
A band of volunteers of Madurai led by E.V. Ramaswamy
Naicker reached Vaikkam, but were arrested. Advised by Gandhi, the
Satyagrahis decided to meet the Regent in person and to submit a
memorial. In order to boost the spirit of the satyagrahis Gandhiji visited
Vaikkam and addressed a public meeting at 6.15 p.m. on 10*̂ March 1925^'
and his subsequent conciliatory talks with both the parties led to an
agreement that came into force on 7* April 1925.
As per the agreement the government issued a notification on
14'*' April 1925 withdrawing the prohibitory orders passed in 1924. But
satyagraha continued to be offered nominally. ̂ ^ Finally the government
relented and as a compromise settlement declared open the roads on three
sides of the temple.^^ Hence on 23'̂ '* November 1925 the satyagraha was
called off on the basis of the settlement arrived at by the government.'''*
70 Pol.C.F. No. 53, 1919 also see K.V. Eapen, A study of Kerala History, Kotayam, 1993, pp.234-235.
71 T.K. Ravindran, op.cit., Vaikkam Satyagraha and Gandhi, p.238.
72 Journal of Gandhi Smriti and Darhah Samiti, January 1996, pp.94-103.
73 P. Ramachandran, "Suchindram Satyagraha", Journal of Kerala Studies, Vol.III, Part.l 1, Nagercoil, June 1976, p.232.
74 S.N. Busi, Mahatma Gandhi and Babasahe Ambedkar Crusaders against caste and untouchability Hyderabad, 1998, pp. 141 -142.
150
Accordingly all the roads around Vaikkam temple with the
exception of two lanes leading to the eastern approach road, one form the
south and the other from the north were opened for all castes without
distinction. But the avamas were not permitted to have a glance of the deity
in the Garbhagraha.
Sree Narayana Guru's Ashram at Vaikkam was placed at the
disposal of the Satyagrahis. The Vaikkam satyagrahis rendered an
eminent service to the cause of the depressed classes and of humanity at
large by exposing to the public view the evils of untouchability and other
social inequalities in all their nakedness and crudity.'^ As a movement it
reveals the story of how the fierceness on the side of the orthodox forces
that tried to resist the attempt to break the wall of prejudice and to open the
road to reform finally emasculated. The satyagraha movement in Vaikkam
sought the right of road entry as the near objective and the right of temple
entry as the remote object.
The movement met with partial success in view of the
fulfillment of the near objective though the ban remained in other famous
temples of Ampalapuzha, Thiruvarpu, Guruvayoor and Suchindram. Yet
as a matter of fact the protracted struggle at Vaikkam was a triumph of the
75 A. Padmanabhan, Story of Eight Saint Reformers, New Delhi, 1993, pp.11-14.
76 A. Sreedhara Menon, Kerala District Gaze tiers, Trivandrum, 1962, p. 3 22.
77 K. Saradamoni, op.cit., p. 167.
151
low castes since it produced a chain reaction and a new awakening and
78
fresh application of mind on the vital social problem of the temple entry.
Satyagraha agitation started in many places to ascertain the right of temple
entry.^'
In South Travancore under the inspiring leadership of M.
Emperumal Naidu the emerging avama self respect volunteers launched
Satyagraha movement at Suchindram. Following the family regulation that
commanded rich social interaction, the caste Hindus of South Travancore
cherished a historical responsibility for protecting their religion from
untouchability and Christianity. The struggle for the right of road entry was
the first victorious popular struggle against untouchability waged united by
all sections of the people.
Subsequently, the temple entry movement emerged to be the
central issue in the fight against untouchability. Ahready the missionaries
had shown a marvelous record of 130 per cent increase of the Christian
population in the State between 1901 and 1931 as against 54 per cent in the
Hindu population.
78 R. Ramakrishnan Nair, "Socio-Political Landscape of Kerala", Journal of Kerala Studies, Vol.IV., Parts.II & III, June-September, Trivandrum, 1977, p.447.
79 V.I. Subramaniam (ed.), Dravidian Encyclopaedia, Trivandrum, Vol.1, 1990,p.315.
80 K. Saradamoni, op.cit., pp. 167-168
152
This rapid conversion process as well as the reluctance of the
missionaries to shoulder the Hindu reform movement changed the attitude
of the caste Hindus towards low castes. In a bid to protect the religion and
to remove the blot on Hinduism, the caste Hindu associations like Kerala
Hindu Sabha, Nair Service Society, the Yogakshama Sabha of the
Nambudiris, the Kshatriya Mahasabha and South Travancore Vellala
Sangam passed resolutions for the right of temple entry.
The dissemination of revolutionary ideas diluted the
traditional thoughts and brought social cleavage. The members of the
popular assembly reflected the stream of thoughts that took over the
associations like Civil Right League, Anti-Untouchability Committee,
Pulaya Mahajana Sabha and Nachilnad Sambhavar Sangam demanded the
socio-religious rights to the unprivileged.
The non-Brahmin movement started in the Madras
Presidency especially the self respect movement found its echo in the
struggle of the low castes of South Travancore. The Self Respect League,
established at Nagercoil with fifty members by the close of 1928 played a
memorable role in the rise and evolution of the temple entry right.
81 Mahadev Desai, The Epic of Travancore, Ahmedabad, 1937, p.26, also see C.J. Fuller, The Nayars Today, London, 1971, pp.20-30.
82 V. Sathianesan, "Social Changes in Kanyakumari District, 1900-1975 A.D. - A Critical Study in the Perspective of Economic History ", Tiruchirapalli, 1988, p.lO.
153
Though Ezhavars of Kottar constituted bulk of the
membership in the League, there were prominent members from Chettiars
of Kottar and Saliyars of Vadassery. The Ezhavars who supported the self-
respect league took away their caste names and concentrated on the socio
political activities in the South Travancore region.̂ ^
Cherishing the objective of winning the right of temple entry
for worship in temples, the league took keen interest in motivating the
untouchables and attended all conferences held inside and outside South
Travancore.̂ '*
The President of the league, P. Chidambaram Pillai offered
an intellectual ideology to the temple entry movement through his famous
work 'Right of Temple Entry' published in 1933. The League exerted its
influence over the self-respect leaders like E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker, R.K.
Shunmukam Chetty and W.P.A. Soundara Pandia Nadar and won a
resolution to the effect of advising the Travancore Government to approve
the Suchindram Satyagraha.*^ Unlike in other parts, in South Travancore
they pressed for the right of temple entry.
83 E.Rs., Trivandrum C.S.F. No. 895. 84 E.Rs., File No. 746. List of political and quasi-political societies, Sahbhas
and Anjumans in the state for the year ending 30 June 1930.
85 T.C. Muthaiah Pillai, Thiru P. Chidambaram Pillai, (Tamil), Nagercoil, 1993,pp.9-ll.
154
The self-respecters of South Travancore held positions in
other organizations like South Travancore Congress Youth League and
inaugurated a seditious movement in Nagercoil. Thus Congress workers
like M. Emperumal Naidu and Sheik Thampi Pavalar of Kottar became
strong associates of the self-respecters and they deplored the lack of
enthusiasm among the people of South Travancore in the matters of temple
entry.
Thus in the satyagraha era of the socio-religious movement
that centered around the right of temple entry. South Travancore played a
conspicuous role through the Self-Respect League. The temple entry
movement emerged as the immediate sequence of the right of the road
entry. The combined leadership of high castes and low castes belonging to
various socio political factions like Self-Respect League or Nanchilnad
Congress Youth League enabled South Travancore to play the role of a
pioneer in the rise of the temple entry right and the evolution of temple
entry movement.
Suchindram, a pilgrim centre, is situated in the southern bank
of Palayar in the north-west of Kanyakumari at a distance of hardly eight
86 E.Rs., Trivandrum, C.S.F. No. 895, Reply from District Magistrate to Chief Secretary to Government about seditious movement, 27 May 1931.
87 Report of the temple Entry enquiry committee, Trivandrum, 1934, p.48.
155
miles. Lexically speaking "Suchindram" means the place where 'Indira',
Lord of the Devas attained 'suchi' or purification following the curse he
suffered from sage Gowthma.̂ ^ The charm of Suchindram is the
symmetrical formation of the principal streets and the location of houses
around the Suchindram Sthanumalaya Perumal Temple devoted to Lord
Siva with a majestic gopuram of one hundred and thirty four feet and six
inches.
By long standing customs car streets and sarmadhi street
inhabited by Brahmins and Vellalars were included in the Devaswoms
where the polluting castes could not enter.̂ ^ According to agamic
prescriptions, the Vellalars, Nairs and Chettiars were permitted to go into
the arthamandabha and tiru curramandabha and not into garbhagraha (the
sanctum sanctorum), which is opened only for Brahmins.
The low castes like the Ezhavars, Nadars (both Hindus and
Christians), Parayars and Pulayars could offer worship from a distance of a
fiirlong away from the outer wall limits.^' Bamboo screens were placed at
the enfrance of all the main streets, denoting the prohibition of entry to the
forbidden classes.
88 K.K. Filial, The Suchindram Temple, Madras, 1953, p.l. 89 A. Padmanabhan, ""Suchindram Temple, Astapandana Mahakumbhabisheha
Vizha Malar", Nagercoil, 1984, p.56.
90 E.Rs., Trivandrum, C.S.F. No.726, Report of Dewaswon Group, Nagercoil, p.5.
91 Report of the Temple Entry Enquiry Committee, 1934, p.8.
156
Also a gramaveethi, from the eastern side of Suchindram
village covering a distance of about a ftirlong and a half was not accessible
to Prayars.̂ "^ Earlier several attempts of the outcastes to cross the street or
to witness the festival led to severe persecution. When the satyagrahis
fought a crusade against the oppressive social tyranny, the radical Hindus
of South Travancore, in a bid to determine the right of temple entry rallied
under the banner of M. Emperumal Naidu, a congress worker from
Kottar.^^
The Vaikkam satyagraha had immediate and direct
influence on the Suchindram satyagraha. Some enlightened Hindus of
South Travancore held a special meeting to organize a satyagraha
committee at Kottar on 19* January 1926.̂ *̂ A Working Committee with
M. Subramaniya Pillai of Therur as president and M. Emperumal Naidu,
K. Perumal Panickar, P.C. Thanumalaya Perumal and C. Muthuswamy
alias Gandhidhas as the secretary, treasurer, publicity officer and captain
respectively was formed.̂ ^
92 E.Rs., Trivandrum, C.S.F. No.726, Report of Dewaswon Commissioner to Acting Dewan of Travancore, 5 November 1930.
93 E.Rs., Trivandnmi, C.S.F. No.895, Letter from Dewan Peishkar to Chief Secretary to Government, 16 May 1931.
94 E.Rs., J.F.N. 1475, Letter from M.E. Naidu to the Dewan of Travancore, Nagercoil, 21 January 1926.
95 E.Rs., C.S.F. No.662 of 1926, Satyagraha at Suchindram, Report from Pitt, Commissioner of police to Dewan of Travacnore M.E. Watts, Trivandrum 20 January 1926.
157
They recruited young volunteers, trained satyagrahis and
enrolled influential supporters.'^ Yet their preparation for the removal of
these basic anomalies and inequalities did not move the government and
they fixed 29* January 1926^^ for the formal inauguration of the satyagraha
agitation at Suchindram.'^
The satyagrahis stirred up the public aspiration with huge
posters, by distribution of leaflets and pamphlets and by holding public
meetings.^' They had made up their minds to push forward as far as they
could, through the prohibited streets. But the High castes put up a shed
across the road at the prohibited limits for their shelter for resisting the
satyagrahis.'°°
The procession of five volunteers, two Parayars, one
Brahmin, one Ezhavar and one Vellalar started at 8 a.m. on 29* January
1926 with flags and songs from their Asramam at Kottar under the
captainship of Muthuswamy.'^^ M.E. Watts, The Dewan of Travancore had
informed the Dewasnom commissioner R. BCrishna Pillai to fall in with the
96 The Hindu, 26th June 1924.
97 E.Rs., C.S.F. No.821 of 1926, Letter from M.E. Naidu to the Dewan, 26 January 1926.
98 E.Rs., F. No.D.Dis.l475/1926/Judicial, P.D.E.R. Kerala Secretariate, Trivandram.
99 E.Rs. C.S.F. No.726 of 1930, Criminal Revision Petition Nos. 433 to 437 of llo5, p.l5.
100 E.Rs., C.S.F. No.662 of 1926, Satyagraha at Suchindram.
101 E.Rs., C.S.F. No.726 of 1930, Report of Devaswom group, Nagercoil.
158
policy in Consultation with the local Dewasnom officers.*"^ The procession
of the satyagrahis was determined to enter the prohibited sanketham limits.
But at this point the processionists were stopped by a large crowd of
conservative youth of caste Hindus under the leadership of S.K.
Velayudhan Pillai of Suchindram who argued that the low castes should
not enter the street surrounding the temple.
The satyagrhis sat on the road where they were prevented
from going ahead. Prohibitory orders had been issued by the District
Magistrate to the leaders. The anti-satyagrahis obstructed the satyagraha'""*
by resorting to precautions to foil further attempts of the agitators. They
put up barricades on the roads leading to the temple with the help of the
villagers and temple authorities.
At the invitation of the satyagraha committee, E.V.
Ramaswamy Naicker started the procession under his leadership on 30
January 1926, which was stopped by the anti-satyagrahis near the
barricade. ̂ ^̂ Following that, in a well arranged public meeting on the bank
of the river Palayar, E.V. Ramaswamy Naicker delivered a spirited speech
102 E.Rs., File No.821/1926, Letter from Watts Dewan of Travancore to Mr. Krishna Pillai Dewaswom Commissioner, p.5.
103 E.Rs., J.F.No. D.Dis, 1475 of 1926, Letter from Inspector of Police to the Commissioner of Police, Edalakudi, 26 January 1926.
104 E.Rs., Letter dated 19 February 1926.
105 E.Rs., Letter from T. Kumaran Thambi, Inspector of Police to the Commissioner of Police, Edalakudi, 30 January 1926.
159
about the temple entry work and the Vaikkam satyagraha campaign that
gave the needed fillip to the movement.'''^ The agitators won gradually the
1 ft7
sympathy of some enlightened caste Hindus. The movement received
momentum when Gandhiraja, the brother of M. Emperumal Naidu arrived
at Suchindram on 11* February with a band of fifteen volunteers. *̂ ^
The procession challenged the caste Hindus and forced to
enter the car street. Alarmed at this, the anti-satyagrahis roused to protect
the sancity of the streets from pollution. In the tussle that ensured the anti-
satyagrahis sought to exercise force on the satyagrahis. During open
confrontation Chinna Thampi Samban was pushed aside and the shirt of
Muthuswamy was torn. The satyagrahis again announced their decision to
enter into the streets in the afternoon.'^'
This news spread so much panic over the caste Hindus that
they collected theu- supporters in and around Suchindram by ringing the
temple bell and were prepared for a final resistance. As the agitation of the
satyagrahis was intensified, the twelve pidakaikars numbering nearly
10,000 assembled in the sannadhi street under the leadership of Madhevan
106 E.Rs., Official Report.
107 Eugene F. Irschick, Tamil Revivalism in the 1930's, Madras, 1986, pp. 168-169.
108 E.Rs., Inspector of Police, Edalakudi to the Commissioner of Police, 11 February 1926.
109 Ibid.,
160
Pillai, K.S. Velayudhan Pillai and Mootha Pillai/'^ Large volunteers from
the surrounding village also joined the satyagraha group.
As expected, encounter broke out as captain Muthuswamy
and Chinna Thampi Samban forced their way into the streets. Reactionaries
grouped under Chellam Pillai and Parakkai Arumugam Pillai, pushed them
round and struck on their back.
The police took side with high castes and warned the
satyagrahis against the unlawfiil trespass.*" Police threat and anti-
satyagrahis force struck a lull in the programmes of the agitating
satyagrahis. With a view to avoid any fresh confrontation the government
prohibited M, Emperumal Naidu and other satyagraha leaders from making
public speeches or taking part in public meetings or entering specified
o^^^o 112
areas.
Still they exchanged assaults and counter assaults. There
were intermittent clashes and wanton assaults in and around Suchindram.
In a sporadic wave of attack unleashed by caste Hindus the untouchables
were severely persecuted at many places. The satyagrahies were mostly
110 M. Lajapathi, Kumari Mavatta Swatantra Poratta Thiagi Siva Muthu Karuppa Pillai, (Tamil), Nagercoil, 1988, p.40.
111 E.Rs. Trivandrum, C.S.F. No.662, Satyagraha at Suchindram, Letter from R. Vishnu Pillai, Devaswom Commissioner to the Dewan of Travancore, M.E. Watts, Nagercoil Camp, 12 February 1926.
112 Proceedings of the Travancore Legislative Council, Vol. VII, pp.314-315.
161
Ezhavars and Sambavars from Karkad. For the Sambavars of Karkad the
only all weather road out of the village was through Suchindram.
That was a legitimate grievance on their part. The Karkad
villagers consisted of three sections namely 40% Hindus, 26% were L.M.
Christians and the rest were Salvation Army people.'^'* Sivathanu Pillai
M.L.C proposed in a meeting of Vellalars on Sunday 21** February 1926 to
stop the satyagraha at Suchindram.
But it was not stopped separate pandals were put up by both
the avamas and the savamas. The Pandals put up for the satyagraha by the
orthodox were barricades on the Vaikom model."^ The satyagraha was
continued till the end of February 1926. On 28* February 1926 the
satyagraha at Suchindram was suspended.''^ Thus the satyagraha continued
for about a month and was withdrawn on receiving assurances from the
117
government. But the government evaded the issue on account of the
pressure exerted by a few orthodox Hindus. The Parayars of Karkad were l i s
threatened with death for supporting the satyagrahis.
113 File No. 662, Letter form the Commissioner of Police to the Dewan of Travancore, dated 20 February 1926, p. 10.
114 Proceedings of the Travancore Legislative Council, Vol. IX 1925, First Session 1926, p.678.
115 E.Rs. File No.662, Letter from Mr. Pits to Mr. Watts, dated 24 February 1926.
116 E.Rs., Letter from Hutton to Mr. Watts, dated 28 February 1926.
117 E.Rs., Letter from Hutton to Mr. Watts, dated 29 February 1926.
118 E.Rs., Trivandrum, J.F.N. D.Dis. 1475, Telegram from G. Devasahayam to the Dewan of Travancore, 3 February 1926.
162
Their children were severely wounded on their way back
from the mission school at Nagercoil.'*^ Gandhiji who visited Nagercoil on
8* October 1927 met the commissioner of police and discussed with him
the satyagraha movement at Suchindram and explained that the demand of
the satyagrahis was very legitimate.
Gandhiji advised the satyagrahis was very legitimate. *̂^ He
advised the satyagrahis to desist from the satyagraha movement at
Suchindram for a while and held discussion with the Regent her highness
Sethu Lekshmi Bai.
Having found their prospect bleak, the satyagrahis turned to
press their demand from a different direction. At this juncture the Nair
Service Society and Harijan Seva Sangh recommended the government for
the grant of temple entry right to the non caste Hindus. Gandhiji also
carried on 'anixous negotiations' with the government authorities regarding
the matter.'^' He advised the satyagrahis to carry on non-violent agitation
by squatting on the streets until they were allowed by the anti-satyagrahis
to enter the streets.
119 Proceedings of the Travancore Legislative Council, Vol. DC, p.681. 120 Mahadev Desai, The Epic of Travancore, Ahmedabad, 1937, p.92.
121 Menon., The History of Freedom Movement in Kerala 1885-1938, Vol.11, Trivandrum, 1972,pp.298-301.
163
His tour had made tremendous impact in the temple entry of
the Harijans. In the light of the Vaikkam satyagraha settlement in 1926,
the Government promised to open the roads at Suchindram to lowcastes
within a month. Hence they suspended their agitation and expected
voluntary invitation from the high castes to open the temple streets for all.
But the roads remained closed as before and they lost their hope for the
right of temple entry for sometime. ̂ ^̂ As a result the satyagraha movement
had to be revived once again after four years.
In order to pursue the struggle the Suchindram Satyagraha
Committee was established under the leadership of Gandhi A. Raman Pillai
of Eraviputhoor at Nagercoil by the end of Medom 1105 (1930 A.D.) with
twenty active members. Youngsters from all communal groups became the
supporters of the committee. ̂ '̂*
On 12"̂ May 1930, the satyagrahis resumed the satyagraha
movement under the captainship of Gandhi A. Raman Pillai. Opposing the
satyagraha directly, the Government arrested the leader along with six
others under section 134 criminal procedure code and cases were filed
122 S. Mahadev, Mahatma Gandhi Warning and Flashes in Harijan Times, Madras, 1936,pp.l04-142.
123 Mahadev Desai, op.cit., p.23.
124 E.Rs., Trivandrum, C.S.F. No.746 of 1930 No. 7, Suchindram Satyagraha Committee.
164
under section 90 of the Criminal Procedure Code. On appeal, the high
court justice Chatfield acquitted the accused and observed that the sannathi
and car streets were not village roads and that there was no evidence to
exclude certain classes of people from those streets.'^^
The judgment evoked acumen interest and gave the people's
movement a shot in the arm. It also induced the lower caste people to reject
the concept of pollution that gave rise to serious law and order problems as
well. The frequent trespassing on the car streets and other temple roads by
the satyagrahis provoked the caste Hindu sentiments. One Manickam
Udayar and certain other sambhavars of Suchindram intimated the
government of their intention to go in procession through the car street of
Suchindram and to enter the temple.'^^
Similar demand was reported by the Ezhavars of Kottar. On
7* November 1930 they had another proposal to pass through the car
sfreets in motor cars and buses at 10 a.m. However these were avoided by
the intervention of Pitchu Iyengar, the deputy superintendent of police.'^^
The outcaste boys freely passed through the car streets in batches flouting
125 E.Rs., C.S.F. No.726, of 1930, Criminal Revision Petitions No. 438 to 440, p.l5.
126 E.Rs., Copy of the Judgement in Suchindram Satyagraha cases, Trivandrum, 5 November 1930.
127 E.Rs., Report of Chief Secretary K. George to commissioner of Police, L. A. Bishop, Trivandrum, 8 November 1930.
128 E.Rs., L.A., Bishop, Commissioner of Police to Venkataram Iyer, acting Dewan of Travancore, 7 November 1930.
165
the age old customs. The caste Hindus received threats of polluting the
temple tank and the very temple by the entry of low castes. Entry of Paraya
boys in batches and their passing through the car streets annoyed the caste
Hindus.
On 10* November when they remonstrated, a band of
Parayars with a 'KD' rushed to the street and dashed towards one of the
I '̂ Q
caste Hindus with a knife. The police also discovered the plot of the
Parayars near Suchindram to attack the caste Hindus in the subsequent
night. Soon, as a measure of precaution, district superintendent of police
tightened the police parol by deploying a reserved police force during the
Karthikai festival at Suchindrum temple.
The police prevented the satyagrahis from holding public
meetings and forced them to disperse. When the satyagrahis advanced
towards the temples ignoring the police barricades they were lathe-charged
by the police.'^^ It gave rise to a fresh wave of violence causing alarm and
terror.
The depressed classes were seriously assaulted. Against this,
Gandhi A. Raman Pillai again decided to launch a satyagraha on 9*
February 1931.'^* The agitation lasted for a couple of days before it fizzled
129 E.Rs., Devaswom Commissioner, Dikshidar to Dewan of Travancore, Trivandrum, 11 November 1930.
130 Proceedings of the Sri Mulam Popular Assembly, Vol. XX, pp.739-40.
131 P.K.K. Menon, op.cit., p.301.
166
out later. It marked the culmination of the satyagraha agitation at
Suchindram.
The satyagraha movement at Suchindram opened the eyes of
the orthodox Hindus and mobilized public opinion in favour of the non-
caste Hindus. The problem of temple entry was a pure social cleavage.
What wanted was merely that rare tact and talent for conciliating the
conflicting interests. The whole hearted support extended by a few
castes Hindu leaders and the permeating nature of protest substantially
ahered the Hindu opinion. Moreover the increasing protests and mounting
tension softened the attitude of the authorities.
In the State Legislative Council, members vociferously
attacked the government's stand and criticized the new legislation which
stipulated the contribution of labour service if the depressed social groups
needed approach roads. However the Suchindram Satyagraha Committee
under the captaincy of Gandhi A. Raman Pillai mobilized the satyagraha
camping for the right of temple entry through sannathi and car streets.
At the national level, the Congress Party was under pressure
to recongnise the temple entry agitation. Gandhiji expressed his approval
of the movement and apprised the Regent Queen of the necessity of the
right of temple entry to the low castes. The religious conference organized
132 P. Chidambaram Pillai, opxit., p.254.
133 Proceedings of the Travancore Legislative Council, Vol. XV, 1930, p. 195.
167
by the militant Hindu organizations also advocated the right of temple
entry.̂ ^^
The Ezhava movement posed a serious problem when they
exhibited an inclination towards mass conversion to the Lutheran church.
This created a novel situation. On the whole, fearing escalation of the
issue, the State authorities preferred to defuse the matter and dilute the
tense situation through constructive measures.
Under these circumstances the ruling sovereign on 8
November 1932 appointed the Temple Entry Enquiry Committee under the
presidentship of V.S. Subramaniya Aiyar to examine the question of
temple entry. The committee was mostly represented by the orthodox
pundits, and representatives of the communities to whom the temple entry
had not been granted.'^^
The committee was authorized to report whether in the
temples of the State the caste Hindus enjoyed either an exclusive right of
worship or recognizable civil rights in the matter of such worship.
134 Concordia Seminary Archives, Nagercoil, File No. A. 184, Sambavar Sangam.
135 V. Sathianesan, loc. cit, p. 11.
136 E.Rs., Trivandrum, Devaswom, File R.Dis.No. 648, dated 25 November 1932.
137 Report of the Temple Entry Enquiry Committee, p. 1.
168
It was also to find out the general feeling among the caste
Hindus about the efficacy of religious worship and the opinion of all
Hindus regarding the creation of social and religious equality by granting
temple entry.'^^ The committee was also to consider the probable results of
the recognition of the right and the possibility of affecting a compromise
between the orthodox and the progressive sections of the Hindu
community. Moreover it was also to assess the extent to which the
government might interfere in the affairs of the private temples. *'*̂
The Bombay session of the Indian National Congress held on
25* September 1932 resolved that "henceforth amongst Hindus no one
shall be regarded as untouchables by reason of his birth and that it shall
be the duty of all Hindu leaders to secure...an early removal of all social
disabilities now imposed by custom upon the so called untouchable classes
including the ban in respect of admission to temples".''*^
In August 1934 an all Kerala Provincial Board of Harijan
Sevak Sangh was formed and this organization made an earnest appeal to
the Governments of Travancore, Cochin and Malabar to open the temples
138 Kondoor Krishna Pillai, Travancore and its Rulers, Trivandrum, 1941, p.246.
139 Report of the Temple Entry Enquiry Committee, p.2.
140 E.Rs., Trivandrum, C.S. File No.793 of 1108 M.E., Guruvayoor Satyagraha.
141 B. Pattabhi Sitaramaya, History of the Indian National Congress, Vol.1, Bombay, 1969, p.576.
169
to the low castes.*'*^ Following the Suchindram satyagraha and the
subsequent appointment of Temple Entry Enquiry Committee the matters
began to take a favourable turn and the movement assumed a different
dimension.
During enquiry, the committee secured replies from two
thousand eight hundred and sixty seven high castes and two hundred and
fifty five low castes. On the basis of the evidences collected and opinions
elicited, the committee perceived that the savamas were favourably
inclined towards the entry of low castes in Hindu temples. The president of
the committee submitted the report on 11^ January 1934 with the
suggestion for a partial removal of restrictions and recommendation for
throwing open all public roads and buildings to every community
irrespective of caste, creed and colour.*
The shocking revelations of the committee favoured
immediate governmental action to save the situation from slipping out of
control. Though the appointment of the committee struck a hope of
confidence in the circle of the satyagrahis, contemplated to enter all roads,
tanks, wells, satroms and schools which were thrown open to the caste
142 The Hindu, 22 April 1936. Also see Report of the temple entry enquiry committee published on 21 April 1935, Trivandrum, 1935, p.52.
143 Proceedings of S.M.P.A., Vol.VlI, pJ73.
170
Hindus and non Hindus but not to non caste Hindus.̂ '*'* The Kerala
Provincial Board of the Harijan Sevak Sangh organized an all Kerala
temple entry conference at Trivandrum on 9*'' and 10* May 1936 for the
upliftment of the low castes.
In fact this innovation of the satyagrahis appraised the
administration. Subsequently, the government found that the best course to
normalize the situation would be the opening of roads, wells, tanks,
satroms, schools and so on to the depressed classes including other
religionists.^''^ Hence in order to nullify the attempt of the satyagrahis, the
Maharaja issued a proclamation on 24̂ ^ May 1936 by which all roads,
tanks, wells, satroms and schools were opened to all classes of people.'''^
The committee also suggested that 'distance pollution or
theendal' should be removed by appropriate legislative measures subject to
reservation in the matter of entry into temples and into their adjuncts like
temple tanks, roads and wells. The proclamation accelerated the process of
hot reform movement and activated the interests of low castes for temple
• 1 147
entry nghts.
144 E.Rs., Trivandrum, C.S.F. No.1365 of 1936, Telegram Private Secretary to Maharaja of Travancore, Trivandrum, 20 March 1936.
145 E.Rs., Throwing open of Roads to all classes of Hindus, copy of the Telegram from private secretary to Maharaja, 18 May 1936.
146 E.Rs., Copy of the Telegram to the Private Secretary form the Chief Secretary, 24 May 1936. Also see Desai Mahadev, op.cit., p.23. For further details refer Appendix-V.
147 The Hindu, Madras, 21 April 1934, p.7.
171
Enticed by the treating situational compulsions that arose out
of the agitation of Ezhavars and Harijan Sevak Sangh the temple entry
movement reached a decisive phase. On 8* October 1936, C.P.
Ramaswamy Iyer was appointed as Dewan.
On 3'̂ '' November 1936, the deputation which consisted of M.
Govindan, K.G. Kunjukrishna Pillai, K.P. Nilakanta Filial, V. Atchuthan
and G. Ramachandran waited upon the Dewan and submitted a memorial,
signed by fifty thousand five hundred and twenty two people of the high
castes praying for temple entry for the Harijans.''**
Cherishing no faith in half-measures, the enlightened
sovereign Sri Chitra Thirunal Balaram Varma, the Maharaja of Travancore
reexamined the whole question in the light of the external truths embodied
the Vedas and the Upanishads. The enlightened public opinion and the
pulse of the caste Hindus were also towards the grant of temple entry right
to the low castes.
Alarmed at the fear of becoming minority in their own soil,
the conservative caste Hindus lobbied together and forced the Dewan
C.P. Ramaswamy Iyer to make suitable progressive decisions. On the
advice of the Dewan, his highness Maharaja Sri Chitra Thirunal Balaram
Varm effected a final approachment with the historic proclamation on 12*
148 Desai Mahadev, op.cit., pp.34-40.
172
November 1936'̂ *̂ which threw open all the temples controlled by the
government to the worship of all the Hindus.
The proclamation was warmly received with delight,
enthusiasm and admiration all over the nation. The temple entry
proclamation, by the sublimity of its conception, the loftiness of its ideals
and the magnitude of its effects, occupies a unique place in the history of
social and religious reform in India.
The proclamation introduced a revolutionary change in the
Hindu society by destroying the last vestige of discrimination against two
million human beings.̂ ^*^ It is an epoch making manifestation of unparallel
beneficence.
Gandhiji hailed it as "a miracle of modem times" a Smriti
which is the people's charter of spiritual emancipation and the
proclamation is the beginning of the process of purification of Hinduism
and in the process both savama and avamas have to play their due part.'^'
It is an act of justice to the submerged Hindus in the State and the
Magnacarta of a resurgent Hinduism purified, ennobled and equipped to
149 The Travancore Government Gazette, 24 November 1936, p.355. For more details refer the Appendix-II.
150 The Temple Entry Proclamation Memorial Souvenir, Press Comments, The Times Of India, Bombay, p. 126. For further details refer Appendix-VIII.
151 A. Sreedhara Menon, op.cit., p.385.
173
prosper and conquer.'^^ It is undoubtedly a bold step and this stroke has
remove the blot of inequality and denial of man's birth right from
Hinduism.
Thus the twenty four year old Maharaja leveled what is
considered the severest blow ever struck at the Hindu caste system. *̂^ The
proclamation marked the beginning of a new epoch in the socio-religious
history of the Hindus. It brought about a silent and bloodless revolution in
the Hindu society.* "̂*
It rather liberated the Hindu gods and goddesses from the
grip of the caste Hindus and was made available to the non caste Hindus.'^^
The temple entry proclamation had for reaching effects on the Hindu
society.̂ ^^ With the proclamation the suffering section found a remedy for
many of their ills.
The outcaste Parayars and Pulayars gained the right to stand
along with Brahmins before the sanctum sanctorum of the Hindu
152 The Trivandrum daily news, Trivandrum, p. 134 also see The Travancore Directory 1939, Part II, 1938, pp.361-364.
153 The Temple Entry Proclamation Memorial Souvenir, Press Comments, The New World, Chicago, p. 141.
154 T.K. Velu Pillai, op.cit., p.386.
155 B. Sobhanan, ''''Temple entry movement in Kerala " he.cit., p.211.
156 Travancore Information and Listener, December 1948, Vol. IX., p.50. For further details refer the Appendix-VII.
174
temples.'^^ It sanctioned temple entry right, road entry and the common
rights to use all public wells, tanks, satroms, and rooms.'^* Hence the
proclamation ushered in the birth of a new era 'an era of quality and
freedom' in the State. But it was bleak period for the missionaries of South
Travancore.'^^
Further the proclamation led to the fusion of sub castes which
in turn fostered inter-caste marriages and inter dining. The proclamation
facilitated a healthy and vigorous spiritual life and helped the advancement
of the various castes and classes among the Hindus. It offered a
reconversion impulse and helped continuance of the process of socio-
religious movements in South Travancore.
The Nanchilnad Sambhavar Sangam extended its co
operation to the caste Hindu organization in seeking the reconversion of
their fellowmen and participated in the Hindu conferences.'^" Further in
South Travancore as early as in 1937 a centre was opened at Arumanai and
propagandists were sent to Colachel, Mondaikkadu, Manavalakurichi and
157 The Travancore Directory, 1939, p.50.
158 E.Rs., Trivandrum, C.S.F. No. 1383, Letter from Chief Secretary to the Police Commissioner, Trivandrum 26 May 1937.
159 E.Rs., Hindu Reconversion Propaganda, Report of Commissioner of Police to Chief Secretary to Government, Trivandrum, 8 March 1937.
160 Concordia Seminary Archives, Nagercoil, File No. A184, Sambavar Sangam.
175
Eraneel.'^' As part of the after-care services to the reconverts, the All
Travancore Hindu Maha Sabha arranged weekly feeding and provided the
members with employment.
The Sabha also built burial ground, prayer-halls, reading
rooms, schools and libraries and also special care was taken to protect them
from molestation.'^^ These incentives and stimulant factors yielded
permanent result and the mass exodus to alien faith was arrested forthwith.
The structural reform through the temple entry proclamation paved the way
for a splendid social approachment among the Hindu communities.'^^
On its process of attaining social harmony, the macro conflict
prevailed on wider perspective among the Hindus as savamas and avamas
began to disappear and the micro conflict rose up on caste and communal
line. Conspicuously the temple entry movement gave birth to agitational
politics and radical programmes during the subsequent years.'^'*
Yet the overall impulse created by the temple entry
proclamation was short-lived, obviously due to the politicization of the
161 E.Rs., Trivandrum, C.S.F. No.D.Dis.460 of 1944, Report on the activities of the Kerala Hindu Mission and All Travancore Hindu Mahasbha, IG.P.S secret letter to the Chief Secretary, 12 March 1941.
162 E.Rs., Confidential Letter from District Magistrate, Kottayam to the Chief Secretary, 19 January 1941.
163 The Travncore Information and Listener, December 1946, p.32.
164 Robin Jeffrey, "Religious Symbolisation of the Transition from Caste to Class: The Temple Entry Movement in Travancore, 1860-1940", Social Compass, XXVIII, No. 2-3,1981, p.291.
176
social religious movement in the succeeding years. The temple entry
proclamation and subsequent development in temple administration put the
management of temples in a new track and it paved the way for the
popularization of temple worship in South Travancore.