CHAPTER-III PAINTINGSshodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/41842/11... · The paintings at...

12
58 CHAPTER-III PAINTINGS Less than thirty years ago, the west had settled down to the comfortable feeling that there was no such art like painting in IndiaV But, the evidences of number of cave paintings bearing traces of haemetite drawing of a highly interesting nature, roughly relates to prehistoric paintings in central provinces at the 'Kaimur Ranges', and on a Ranges of hills, immediately at the east of the Mand river, near the village of Singhanpur, in Raigarh State^. Stone age paintings, on ' Vindhya hills^' and ancient and archaic paintings on the caves in the MirzSpur Distt. of United Provinces'*, might reveal the clues not only on the birth of paintings in India but also confirms the fact that these earliest specimens of Indian (Art) paintings are mainly a phenomenon, remote and isolated. There is a hiatus of probably thousands of years between these apparently dateless specimens of the early culture of India and the first actual historic record of this art. The most ancient and concrete example of dateable paintings are found on the walls of the Jogtmara caves of the Ramgarh hill in sirguja (First cent. B.C.) and in Ajanta caves, which cover the period of about six centuries of Indian paintings from c.A.D. 100 - 628. The paintings at Jogimara caves and Ajanta caves No. IX & X are the example of Indian paintings related to the period under study (c.200 B.C. - 300 A.D.). Cave No. X belongs to 2nd cent. B.C. while cave No. IX belongs to 1 st cent. B.C. It contains about a dozen paintings records which also support the date. The style, subject matter, aesthetic merits, colour schemes and techniques employed in these concrete examples of painting are worth to be noted. They had definite impact on the Asian and Eastern countries culture and throws considerable light on contemporary Socio-economic conditions of the time. Some subde reference to the pictorial art (Chittajcaiinna) occurs in Jain, Buddhist and epic literature. Percy Brown and Mulkraj Anand refers to a legend that the supreme god Brahama himself created the paintings^. References to painter (Chitrakara)^, various motives and subject matter^, painted by him, in the palaces of picture halls (Chittagara)^ and picture galleries (Chitta Sabha)^ are mentioned in ancient and contemporary literature'". A more elaborate description

Transcript of CHAPTER-III PAINTINGSshodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/41842/11... · The paintings at...

Page 1: CHAPTER-III PAINTINGSshodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/41842/11... · The paintings at Jogimara caves and Ajanta caves No. IX & X are the example of Indian paintings related

58

CHAPTER-III

PAINTINGS

Less than thirty years ago, the west had settled down to the comfortable feeling that

there was no such art like painting in IndiaV But, the evidences of number of cave paintings bearing

traces of haemetite drawing of a highly interesting nature, roughly relates to prehistoric paintings

in central provinces at the 'Kaimur Ranges', and on a Ranges of hills, immediately at the east of

the Mand river, near the village of Singhanpur, in Raigarh State^. Stone age paintings, on ' Vindhya

hills^' and ancient and archaic paintings on the caves in the MirzSpur Distt. of United Provinces'*,

might reveal the clues not only on the birth of paintings in India but also confirms the fact that

these earliest specimens of Indian (Art) paintings are mainly a phenomenon, remote and isolated.

There is a hiatus of probably thousands of years between these apparently dateless

specimens of the early culture of India and the first actual historic record of this art. The most

ancient and concrete example of dateable paintings are found on the walls of the Jogtmara caves

of the Ramgarh hill in sirguja (First cent. B.C.) and in Ajanta caves, which cover the period of

about six centuries of Indian paintings from c.A.D. 100 - 628.

The paintings at Jogimara caves and Ajanta caves No. IX & X are the example of Indian

paintings related to the period under study (c.200 B.C. - 300 A.D.). Cave No. X belongs to 2nd

cent. B.C. while cave No. IX belongs to 1 st cent. B.C. It contains about a dozen paintings records

which also support the date. The style, subject matter, aesthetic merits, colour schemes and

techniques employed in these concrete examples of painting are worth to be noted. They had

definite impact on the Asian and Eastern countries culture and throws considerable light on

contemporary Socio-economic conditions of the time.

Some subde reference to the pictorial art (Chittajcaiinna) occurs in Jain, Buddhist and

epic literature. Percy Brown and Mulkraj Anand refers to a legend that the supreme god Brahama

himself created the paintings^. References to painter (Chitrakara)^, various motives and subject

matter^, painted by him, in the palaces of picture halls (Chittagara)^ and picture galleries (Chitta

Sabha)^ are mentioned in ancient and contemporary literature'". A more elaborate description

Page 2: CHAPTER-III PAINTINGSshodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/41842/11... · The paintings at Jogimara caves and Ajanta caves No. IX & X are the example of Indian paintings related

59

pertaining to the techniques and requisites of Indian paintings are discussed in 'Sadanga' (The

six limbs of paintings) in Kamasiitra of Vatsyayana reference. The author, who perhaps lived in

4th cent. A.D. claims that he extracted these principles from the ancient works". The six limbs

of Sadanga'have been rendered as foUows^ :̂-

1. RHpa Bheda - The knowledge of appearances.

2. PramSnam - Correct perception, measure and structure.

3. Bhava - Action of feelings on forms.

4. Lavanya Yojanarii - Infusion of grace, artistic representation.

5. Sadri^yam - Similitude.

6. Varmikabhariga - Knowledge of colours and brush work proper to its subject.

Thus, literary evidences corroborate in the references to the presence of great painted

halls of the ancient paintings with the fact that there had been wall paintings like those in Jogimara

caves and in the picture galleries of the Ajanta caves which came to be painted in contemporary

period and afterwards.

JOGIMARA CAVE PAINTINGS^^ (c. lOO B.C.)

The paintings at Jogimara unfortunately have been restored by uncultured hands. So the

original pictures are in bad shape. But after careful look it seems that, they were basically designed

as wall paintings. Though crude brush work in red and black paint but with well-intentioned

efforts, which had almost succeeded in obliterating the old design.

A variety of subjects have been depicted in the scheme of a series of concentric panels

such as - houses (architecture), animals and figures. Though, the forms are much defaces but they

are like those of plastic arts of the same period. They are in round panels. But on the borders,

fishes, makara, man, lions and water monsters were repeated.

The unsuitable Indian climate, ateing of colours by white ants and dripping of water

destroyed the plaster of walls on which the painting was done. In the same way the structural

edifices of this period, build undoubtedly of wood and unbaked brick were even less lasting. The

Page 3: CHAPTER-III PAINTINGSshodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/41842/11... · The paintings at Jogimara caves and Ajanta caves No. IX & X are the example of Indian paintings related

60

surface of these structures were believed to have been finished by means of a roughly prepared

plaster ground and as shown in some cases were decorated with paintings. No intact example of

the structures bearing the painting of the period has been found at Jogimara by now.

Aesthetic Merit: The forgoing description of these early brush forms conveys the

impression that their general character, except for the one special quality already referred to, is

distinctly primitive and that the art was crude and undeveloped in this period. But, it appears

unconvincing, as documentary evidences seem to indicate that the painting in India was in a

comparatively advanced stage in their aesthetic impression even before the period under

reference. Early authentic and literary references dealing with various aspects of painting before

the spread of the Buddhist religion supports this. Taking this fact into consideration, it can be

presumed that the primitive character of the frescoes at Ramgarh Hill is not consistent with the

general testimony and an art of a much more refined nature^''.

AJANTA CAVES PAINTING No. IX & X

The paintings appear to have been executed under the Satvahana rulers of deccan. The

first impression, from what has survived of the crowded picture, is that of the sheer splendour of

colours energies in seemingly any how juxtapositions of free forms. The dominant emphasis is

on the curve, the graceful bend and linear rhythm. The gliding movement up and down the surface,

which was incipient in the singing line of clay and stone figures seems to have been in Ajanta.

At Ajanta the treatment of rhythmic line makes for a plasticity, a lyrical movement and a

dynamism, which releases new energies from the silent areas.

Although the compositions are large in extent, the majority of the figures in the painting

are less than life size, but the principal characters in most of the designs are in heroic proportions.

Centrality is one of the main features of the compositions, so that attention is at once drawn to

the most important person in each scene. Each figure naturally falls into its correct place. Posed

in impressive and stately attitude, the contours of these figures are superb and reveal a keen

perception of the beauty of form.

Page 4: CHAPTER-III PAINTINGSshodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/41842/11... · The paintings at Jogimara caves and Ajanta caves No. IX & X are the example of Indian paintings related

61

Except one or perhaps two of the scenes, which depicts contemporary historical

episodes, the subjects throughout are exclusively Buddhist, associated with the Jatakas'^ At the

same time, there is evidence that some of them are largely secular in subject and apparently

represent the doings of Kings and the court-life of the time. The general atmosphere of the Ajanta

paintings suggests an earthly paradise, containing sacred palaces and peopled with semidivine

beings. The stories illustrated are continuous. A few examples enumerated as below:-

The dexterously painted 'Saddanta' Jtltaka in cave No. X (2nd cent. B.C. to 1st cent.

A.D.) relates the story of the Boddhisattava in his elephant incarnation.

The first part of the narrative shows the curvacious form of energised elephants playing

and gambolling in the foliage of the jungle. The rounded contours of the bodies of the hunters

and the royal beasts are outlines in action from all sides, clearly distinct from each other. The

many branched trees and the foliage are vibrant because of the relative contrast of their sharp lines

against the coherent animals. The elephant playing, with the six tusks, introduces a drama within

the lines and is exalted by the dots on his body as the most sacred animal. The python like trees

on the left and the flow of lines in the other part of the scene, heighten the energies of the picture.

The six-tusked king elephant is supposed to be pacifying his jealous wife. But oitis not conscious

of the theme here as much as of the pulsating life of the forest, with the free interplay of wild

elephants and their hunters (See Pl.IX, Fig.42).

The second part of the same story deals with a palace scene. The jealous she-elephant

has been incarnated as a queen. In her rage she gets her husband, the king, to order the hunter to

kill the six-tusked elephant and bring his ivory tusks. The hunter returns with the tusks soon,

because the six-tusked elephant willingly offered himself to be killed. At the sight of the prize,

the queen is horror-struck and faints, because she remembers that she had once been the wife of

the holy elephant with the six tusks. The drama of the shock is important to the theme. The

multitude helps to intensify her sorrow (See Pl.IX, Fig.43).

Thus, the treatment of the pictorial situation in the other parts of this long panel, in the

continuous, almost unending, narrative is highly complex. The Spatial colour relation of the areas

Page 5: CHAPTER-III PAINTINGSshodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/41842/11... · The paintings at Jogimara caves and Ajanta caves No. IX & X are the example of Indian paintings related

62

have been through out with uncanny foresight and nothing has been left to chance. The charity

with which the overlapping forms are drawn is obviously the result of a technique perfected over

long years. The gifted painter seems to have a bold, fervid and intensely inventive imagination.

There is revealed great sophistication in the delineation of moods.

Another remmant of a wall painting in cave No.X deals with the '^ySma' jataka. The

panel is ascribed to the 1st cent. A.D. and is more mature than the 'Saddanta' Jataka.

The drawing is firm. The moods of the characters are suggested with greater charity.

The grouping of men and women, the foliage, and the orderly array is almost like a drama in the

ivory carver's technique of the reliefs on the Sanchl stupa and in the panels of Amravati (See

Pl.IX, Fig.44).

The chief characteristic of the art of Ajanta lies in its adoption of line. Ajant3 painters

knew how to qualify and graduate his outline, so as to give it every degree of expression. The

treatment of his lines is so subtle and experienced that by its varying quality and sympathetic

utterance, it embodies modelling, values, relief, foreshortening and all essential elements of the

art The excellent example illustrating this characteristic may be seen in Ajanta cave paintings

No. IX & X (See Pl.IX, Figs.42-44).

Time and other causes have destroyed much of the delicacy of tone and tint of these

paintings. But, enough remains to enable reconstruction of the colour motif. The depth and volume

of the colour would have been a joy indeed, as the brilliant blues and greens against the dark rich

purples appeared in their full strength and the flesh tints and brightly-hued costumes glowed in

the picture. Low-toned and blackened surfaces alone are all that remains of this once gorgeous

effect, and from these monochromes it is necessary to recreate the original colour scheme.

As a whole, except for some of the earlier painting in cave No. IX, the group of figures

are painted as a light mass against a darker background in general. Occasionally, an effective

passage was attained by introducing one or more figures of a group in a rich dark tone against

some lighter portion of the distance. For attracting attention to the features of the subjects, the use

Page 6: CHAPTER-III PAINTINGSshodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/41842/11... · The paintings at Jogimara caves and Ajanta caves No. IX & X are the example of Indian paintings related

63

of emphatic black in the hair, thus framing the face, by the Buddhist painter can be visualised

(See Pl.IX, Figs.42-44). In its details the frescoes on No.IX & X are executed in the firm but

delicate method of the style, the draperies, jewellery, flowers and other accessories being most

daintily rendered.

One of the great achievements of the Buddhist painter is to be observed in his treatment

of gesture, especially in the expressive action of the'hands. The hands of the figures in Ajanta

paintings cave No.X (Pl.IX, Fig.43) have a special character, refined high-caste fingers quivering

with nervous vitality, and so designed as to take an important part in the telling of the story. The

member of the story are made to express a 'figure language' of their own.

MATERIAL AND TECHNIQUES'^

Although records are naturally scanty regarding the technical details of Indian paintings

in the early period, there is a certain amount of material from which some idea may be gained of

the process by which the artists of Jogimara caves and Ajanta No. IX & X have obtained their

results.

(I) Material

(i) Brush - As regards brushes, there is the following reference in the Upanisads, 'Let a man with

firmness separate the spirit, the inner soul, from his own body, as from a painter's brush a fibre.'

- 6th Valli, 17. This expresses that the early painters did not employ hair for the manufacture of

their brushes, but might have made them of fine vegetable fibre. Although we have no knowledge

of the kind of brush, as none of them have survived, but the fairly delicate details in some of the

paintings denote a comparatively fine implement like vegetable fibre as also mentioned in

Upni§ada.

(ii) Pigments - In the Jogimara cave, the artists used three distinct pigments.

(i) Red Colour - Which is haematite, obtained from red oxide of iron.

(ii) White - Obtained from the earth, common in that locality.

Page 7: CHAPTER-III PAINTINGSshodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/41842/11... · The paintings at Jogimara caves and Ajanta caves No. IX & X are the example of Indian paintings related

64

(iii) Black - Which is evidently an extract of myrobanlans (terminalia-chebula)^^. This dried

fruit has been used as a dye in India from the earliest times, and, in combination with a

salt of iron, produces an excellent black.

As regards the pigments at Ajanta, Percy Brown writes that "the true fresco painter is

limited in his palette, as the pigments have to be capable of resisting the decomposition action of

lime and must consequently extracted from natural earths. But it is possible that the Indian artist

at Ajanta like the Egyptian, was allowed a wider range of colours on account of his particular

process appertaining more to the tempera method than that of fresco. He was, therefore, able to

use purples, pinks and greens, which would have been destroyed by fresh lime^l" He further adds

that "the various shades of red at Ajanta are ferruginous in origin, while the green pigments seems

to be entirely composed of a finely powdered silicate containing iron. The white is largely sulphate

of lime, no zinc, baryta, or lead being detectable. The blue has all the appearance of ultramarine,

and the yellow is believed to be orpiment, a natural arsenic sulphide^'."

(II) Preparation of Surface

In the Jogimara cave, the surface of the walls shows few signs of being specially

prepared for the purpose, much of the painting being executed directly on to the roughly chiselled

rock. Some portions, however, had been 'primed' with a layer of plaster about the thickness of

an eggshell, but this made little improvement to the general surface, owing to the uneven dressing

ofthewalls^°.

The process of the Buddhist frescoes at Ajanta appear to have been the same in all the

examples that have survived. Over the surface of the rough excavated wall of rock a mixture of

clay, cow-dung and pulverised trap rock was applied to the thickness of one-eighth to three-quarter

of an inch. Sometimes this first dressing also contained finely-chopped straws or rice husks. This

ground was then coated with an exceedingly thin layer of white plaster, about the thickness of an

eggshell. On this polished shell like surface the frescoes were painted in water colours.

Page 8: CHAPTER-III PAINTINGSshodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/41842/11... · The paintings at Jogimara caves and Ajanta caves No. IX & X are the example of Indian paintings related

65

(III) Application of the Pigments

There exist a considerable difference of opinion regarding the actual process employed

in the application of pigments. It was either:-

i) True fresco (The fresco-buono of the Italian artists).

ii) Or a combination of true fresco and tempera (fresco-a-Secco).

Fresco-Buono - It consists of preparing a plaster ground and, while still damp, colour was applied.

This process is very rapid, as the painting had to be completed before plaster becomes dry. So

only a portion of work can be done in the time at painter's disposal. The unpainted prepared

surface is cut at the end of the day and relaid the next following day. Hence the joining a process

sometimes can be distinguished on the paintings. The old painters were sufficiently expert in

making the joints invisible even after hundreds of years. Further to hold the moisture properly,

the layer of plaster should be at least a quarter of an inch thick. While the surface of Jogimara and

Ajanta is having the thickness of an eggshell, which indicate that this process (fresco-buono) was

not used here.

Tempera Method - (Fresco-a-Secco) - this process was practised by the Buddhist painters of

India. It is a method in which painting is to be done on a plaster surface, which is first allowed to

dry. Then, it is thoroughly drenched with water the night before, to which a littie lime or baryta

water has been added, and the wetting is renewed the next morning. On the dampened surface the

painting is made with the same pigments as used in fresco buono but mixed with lime or baryta

water, or with a littie slaked lime. So, tempera is heavy, opaque in its result, and of great durability,

but has not the chemical permanence, as the pigments are lying on the top of the prepared surface

of the wall.

It can be suggested that the early Buddhist mural paintings were not true frescoes. But

they were mural paintings executed in tempera.

Page 9: CHAPTER-III PAINTINGSshodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/41842/11... · The paintings at Jogimara caves and Ajanta caves No. IX & X are the example of Indian paintings related

66

(i) Sketching: It was done in a bold red line-drawing on the water plaster. The first sketch

was evidently drawn in by an experienced hand, it was subsequently corrected in many

places with a strong black or brown line when the final drawing was added.

(ii) Glazing: After sketching, the painter proceeds to apply a thinnish semi-transparent

terravertae monochrome through which original outline can be seen. ,

(iii) Working in Colours: Over this preliminary glazing Indian artists then worked in their

local colours - reds, yellows, browns and blacks suggestively laid in with solid brush

strokes.

(iv) Strengthening of the Outline and Shading: It is done with blacks and browns, giving

great decisions, but also a certain flatness; last, a little shading if necessary.

According to Herringham, 'There is not a very much definite light and shade modelling,

but there is a great definition, giving by the use of contrasting local colours and of emphatic blacks

and whites^V

With the dawn of the Christian era, we find ourselves on the threshold of the classical

period in the history of Indian painting. Buddhism was largely the religion of the country. During

this time India appears to have been the leading power throughout the whole of the east, and all

Asia looked to Buddhist India for the sources of its inspiration. Culture was stimulated and centres

of learning flourished in all parts and the impact of new doctrine pronounced them in the sphere

of the art of painting. Ceylon, Java, Siam, Burma, Nepal, Khofan, Tibet, Japan and China all

testified by the remains of their magnificent examples of paintings to the artistic impulse of

Buddhistic creed. As India was the birthplace of Buddhism, it is justifiably be assumed that it was

also the birthplace of Buddhist school of painting. But in terms of technical process of applying

the colours, these early paintings seem to have been nearer to the contemporary so called

Tempera' method of Egypt, Mesopotamia and Greece than Rome^ .̂

Thus the antiquity of art of painting in India is traceable since the time of prehistoric

period in haemetite drawings. But probably after a hiatus of thousands, of years a considerable

Page 10: CHAPTER-III PAINTINGSshodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/41842/11... · The paintings at Jogimara caves and Ajanta caves No. IX & X are the example of Indian paintings related

67

advancement in colour and technique is found at Joginiara cave paintings (1st cent. B.C.), which

are still primitive in their style. But the enumeration of 'Sadang' in literature is sufficient in

themselves to prove that the art of painting had been extensively investigated and deeply studied

in India at a very early age. The Ajanta cave paintings Nos. IX and X, belonging to the period

under study, demonstrate that all these laws enumerated in 'Sadang' were faithfully followed by

the Buddhist painters. The presentation of paintings at Jogim3ra caves is quite secular in respect

of their subject matter, which includes the forms of animals, fishes and markras; while at Ajanta,

though they are extensively Buddhist and mainly presents Jataka stories, but the secular features

of early paintings are also maintained in the presentation of kings, their courts and other

semi-divinely people as well.

A very simple and bold style of paintings, emphasized by a spirited and vigorous outline,

is visible at Ajanta. The scenes are composed very well and present a continuity in narration. The

characters of various Jataka stories appear in the fullness of their being, living, breathing and

moving almost as though they were sentient.

Both examples of contemporary period are undoubtedly brush forms. A considerable

advancement in application of basic colour from haematite to white, red, black (at Jogimlra) and

various shades of red, blue, violet, pink, green and yellow at Ajanta also proves that Buddhist

painter knew how to mix them for undertones.

The assessment of procedure evolved in these early cave paintings fails to distinguish

them as true frescoes painted in fresco-buono technique of Italy and leads to conclude that they

were painted in 'Tempera' method the then prevalent in Egypt and Mesopotamia.

Thus these paintings, though known to us the most mature and 'Archaic' works of Indian

paintings, were certainly not the earliest painted in India, because such a great skill in applying

colours and in draftsmanship on walls could not have been achieved without generations of past

efforts. The paintings of cave No. IX & X at Ajanta may indicate the continuity of the living

Page 11: CHAPTER-III PAINTINGSshodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/41842/11... · The paintings at Jogimara caves and Ajanta caves No. IX & X are the example of Indian paintings related

68

tradition of the lost paintings of India of the centuries before the Christ. The 'Archaic' style of

these paintings resembles to the style of sculptures of Bharhut, SancKi and Amravati of 1st cent.

A.D.

The foregoing study also reveals a socio-economic picture of contemporary period.

Actually, during the time, the Deccan enjoyed considerable political peace which, coupled with

the economic prosperity gave an impetus to the artistic activity. The foreign trade, which was

brisk during the Satvahana period, gave way to the intermixing of cultures. An art for arts sake

is obviously useless art but Indian paintings unlike art for art's sake reveal an intelligible meaning

and purpose of its own. Various painters seem to depict the pictures of daily life in these paintings

which present the material culture of the time and the colourful panorama of life in all its

kaleidoscopic variety, showing drapery of the time furniture, ornaments, utensils, gestures, wild

life, court life and so on.

As regards the status of the painter in contemporary period, it seems that the artisans

were grouped together and lived on the out skirts of the relegated to low caste status in the Hindu

order, though the Buddhist painters, who were anticaste, were given equal status in the Samgha

or order. In fact, the teaching was passed on among these artisans, from father to son and son to

son^^ The skilled craftsmen moved from temple to temple, shrine to shrine and even country to

country wherever they were required.

The Indian painting is largely an anonymous art, which specially applies to the works

of contemporary period̂ "*. No painter is mentioned by name, but the painters of this time were of

versatile workmen equally good in both sculptures and painting.

Page 12: CHAPTER-III PAINTINGSshodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/41842/11... · The paintings at Jogimara caves and Ajanta caves No. IX & X are the example of Indian paintings related

69

REFERENCES 1. Brown Percy, Indian Paintings, Intiroduction, p.ii 1951 Calcutta.

2. ibid, Ch. I, p. 15.

3. ibid.

4. ibid, p. 16.

5. Brown, P., op.cit, p.l9; Mulkraj Anand, Album of Indian Paintings, p.9.

6. Cu.,V.II.7.

7. Jat., VI. p.432.

8. Vin., quoted by Brown, Percy, op.cit, p.20 also see Mulkraj Anand, op.cit, p.9.

9. ibid.

10. See Dahiya, N., op.cit, p.258-260.

11. Mehta, Ratilal, Pre-Buddhist India, p.316.

12. Quoted by Brown, P., op.cit, p.22. also see Mulkraj Anand, op.cit* p.l 1.

13. Mainly based on the personal observations and on the study of Brown, P., op.cit,

p. 17-20; also see Mulkraj Anand, op.cit, p.7-8.

14. Brown, P., op.cit, p.17-19.

15. Jatakas - a collection of stories recording the previous incarnations of the Buddha.

16. Mainly based on the personal observations and also on the observtions of writers of 19th

and 20th cent. A.D. i.e.. Brown, P., op.cit, Ch. XI, p.l 11-117; Mulkraj Anand, op.cit,

p.l 1-12; Dhavlikar, M.K., Ajanta Paintings a cultural study; Mehta, N.C., Studies in

Indian Painting, Bombay, 1926.

17. Cockburn, JASB, 1883, Quoted by Brown, P., op.cit, p.l 11.

18. Brown, P., op.cit, p.l 16.

19. ibid.

20. Brown, P., op.cit, Ch.XI, p.l 12.

21. Herringham (lady), 'Ajanta frescoes' Oxford university press, 1915 as quated by Brown,

P., op.cit, p.l 15.

22. Brown, P., op.cit, Ch.II, p.25-28; Ch.XI p.l 13,114.

23. Mulkraj Anand, op.cit, p. 12.

24. Brown, P., op.cit, intioduction.