CHAPTER-III KUSHANA COINS AND...
Transcript of CHAPTER-III KUSHANA COINS AND...
CHAPTER-III
KUSHANA COINS AND INSCRIPTIONS
The greatest testimony of Kushana power in India is in the form of
abundant Kushana coins and a large number of inscriptions which are
retrieved from all quarters of their empire. While coins float, travel and
circulate even outside the political boundaries of an empire, reflecting its
economic strength, the inscriptions represent the physical limits of an empire.
Together, they provide an almost unparalleled series of historical document.
As written records either by the Kushanas themselves or about them, are
exceedingly scarce, reconstruction of their history is primarily based on a
meticulous study of their coinage, inscriptions and the material remains which
have come to light during archaeological excavations and explorations. Thus,
Kushana numismatics, epigraphy and archaeology are indispensable tools for
the study of Kushana history.
Coins are indeed living commentaries of the past. Technically
speaking, a coin is a piece of metal, usually of prescribed weight, embellished
with designs and/or legends under the direction of a private or public authority
for its use as a medium of exchange. Apart from serving the purpose of
exchange during their own time, coins were to a great extent instrumental in
the accumulation and distribution of economic power, assimilation and
dissemination of cultural traits and enhancement of political ideas and
economic influence through trade to distant lands. Kushana coins throw
valuable light on their state, the process of waxing and wanning of their
empire, their chronology, genealogy, religious inclinations of individual rulers
as well as some aspects of religion and society of their time. The
reconstruction of political history and the process of their empire building is
largely based on the study of Kushana coinage and inscriptions. The
geographical distribution of coins often indicates either political domination or
commercial sway of the issuing authority over the region. Since metals enjoy
a varying degree of resistence to corrosion, a reasonably high proportion of
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coins have successfully been retrieved either by way of stray finds or hoards
or through systematic explorations and excavations. A very large number of
Kushana coins have thus come to light from the entire north India which are
our sole guide to coinage in circulation and help us to infer the geographical
extent of the sphere of influence of each individual Kushana ruler. As money
is an indicator of economic activity, an economic system can be usefully
defined by the pattern of production, exchange and dispersion of coinage of
that period. At a general level, the number of coin samples lost and recovered
does throw light on the frequency of money usage and is a reflection of the
degree of monetization. Although the number of coins lost may not be directly
proportional to the volume of currency in circulation, the number of surviving
coins does reflect the frequency of exchange-transactions and penetration of
money economy, if not the amount of money used during the period.1 Thus an
intensive study of Kushana coinage, metrology, metereology, denominations,
etc. enables a fairly coherent reconstruction of the monetary system of
Kushana period.
Apart from physical distribution, the context in which coins are found
i.e. as stray find or in hoards or during excavation or exploration etc., is also
important in deriving meaningful information from them. These different
contexts of their finds, have their own inherent implications and limitations and
thus offer varied forms of information to us. Among the Kushana coins, some
were collected from the surface of mounds in the course of explorations while
a great number of coins have been stumbled upon by the natives accidentally
either during rains or during tilling fields or during other digging operations.
Such casual or stray finds, usually consist of low-denomination coins in poor
condition but they furnish a good evidence regarding coin circulation and are
important for studying local currency trends.2 Coins found during excavations
are perhaps one of the most revealing category of coins as in most cases
these are found in a stratified context and represent the local currency of the
1 As argued by J.S. Deyell, Living Without Silver – The Monitory History of Early Medieval North India, Oxford University Press, Delhi, 1990, pp.34-36. 2 P. Grierson, Numismatics, Oxford University Press, London, 1975, pp.128-129.
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day. The coins found in excavations are also generally low-denomination
copper coins subjected to corrosion over the centuries. They are often too
worn out to provide any evidence on metrology and coin types. But since the
number of excavation finds is generally large, one can draw reasonably firm
conclusions regarding the nature of coin circulation.1 Apart from the coins,
excavations also throw light on other aspects like structural activity, pottery
tradition, size of habitation, duration of occupation, nature of cultural
deposition etc., thus placing coins in their actual context. Since small coins
are lost more easily than larger ones, more number of small denomination
coins are recovered from excavations in comparison to large denominations.
We must therefore, avoid direct comparisons when the values or types of
coins involved are very different.
A large number of Kushana coins have come to light as coin hoards. A
hoard is by definition a group of coins or other valuables which are concealed
as a unit. In accordance with their circumstantial conditions of loss, hoards
can be classified as accidental losses, emergency hoards or saving hoards.2
As accidental losses and emergency hoards involve the sudden removal of
samples of current coins from the circulating medium, they normally represent
the currency of the day and also reflect very closely the proportion of coins of
various denominations as in circulation. They are also likely to reproduce the
proportion of old coins and even foreign coins in it with considerable fidelity.3
Accidental hoards usually consist of uneven sums of money and the coins
may be of high or low value depending on the circumstance of their formation.
But saving hoards on the other hand, tend to be selective, containing high-
value coins in preference to low-value ones and unworn specimens of coins
rather than inferior ones. It is the high quality coins from saving hoards that
accounts for the remarkable state of preservation of so many gold coins in
modern collection. Such coins in good condition are excellent for the study of
physical attributes of Kushana coins such as portrait of kings and divinities,
1 P. Grierson, Numismatics, Oxford University Press, London, 1975, pp.128-129. 2 Ibid., pp. 130-35 3 Ibid., p.133.
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their obverse type, reverse type, inscriptions, holograms, metal content, etc.
But a hoard may have been lost by a merchant or pilgrim or some other
traveller, so its contents may not always be typical of the local currency.
Coins retrieved either in exploration or excavation or as stray finds or
hoards, are all important as they are samples of coin population but they are
samples with several limitations. The coins which are found and recorded are
only samples of those actually found, since many others would have been
melted down or disposed of to collectors, without any record, along with many
others still being unretrived. Since gold has a high intrinsic value, it is
profitable to melt down gold coins. Even succeeding ruling kings resort to
remoulding of gold coins of their predecessors. Perhaps for the same reasons
only a small number of gold coins come down to us, in comparison to low
value coins. The coins thus found are in turn only samples of those that were
lost, for many others would have been lost and found again in the past and
others still remain to be found in the future.
Coins found in explorations and excavations are likely to be strongly
biased in favour of low-denomination and in hoards, be equally biased in
favour of high denominations.1 We must therefore carefully draw logical
conclusions from them keeping these limitations in mind.
Apart from being repositories of political and economic history, coins
also have aesthetic and artistic value. The dies from which coins were struck
were the work of the artists of the day, reflecting the aesthetic tastes of the
society of Kushana times. They present before us the portraits of the Kushana
kings and representations of deities favoured by them. The gods and
goddesses represented on the Kushana coins not only reflect the religious
beliefs of the Kushana monarchs, but also those of the people who were
subdued by them such as the Bactrian Greeks or Yavanas, the Shakas and
the Parthians whose religious faiths were prevailing in the territories occupied
by the Kushanas. The well executed Kushan coins are also objects of art
1 P. Grierson, Numismatics, Oxford University Press, London, 1975, p.126.
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which reflect the intermingling of art and cultures of different regions included
in the empire.
The Kushanas evolved an impressive and uniform monetary order.
Like the Kushana state, the Kushana monetary system was strong, pervasive
and long-lived that left indelible marks on the ancient Indian currency system.
We can ascertain this by the sheer volume and wide distribution of Kushana
coins retained in private and public coffers. We know from the testimony of
numerous hoards that Kushana currency circulated freely from Bactria to
Bihar. As Kushana conquest of any area would have been followed by the
imposition of the Kushana coinage, and as the empire expanded, so did the
area of circulation. The coins of the Kushanas were produced by die-striking
process. A regular alignment of the obverse and reverse impressions on a
large number of coins suggests that a careful attention, was paid to minting.
Although the reverse of some Kushana coins are found partly out of their flan.
The earliest known Kushana coins are the tetra drachms issued by
Miaos or Heraeus with the word Kushana, following his name in Greek
legend. These copper coins are mostly recovered from the Bactrian region
and conform to the Attic weight standard. They portray a diademed bust of a
ruler with a moustache, an aquiline nose and a heavy jaw.1 A similar face was
noticed or a clay bust of a king from Khalchayan in upper Surkhan Darya in
Uzbekistan.2
The earliest Kushana coins found in India are the copper coins, issued
by Kujula Kadphises, which are recovered in large numbers from the entire
north western region of India including Gandhara and Taxila. More than 2,522
coins of Kujula Kadphises were recovered from Sirkap (Taxila) alone.3 He
issued a fairly large variety of coins with variations in the inscription. His
earliest issues include coins with the diademed bust of the last Bactrian ruler-
1 P.L. Gupta, Coins, National Book Trust, New Delhi, (1st edition 1969), fourth edition 1996, pp. 32-33. 2 G. Frumkin, 'On Soviet Archaeological finds relating to the Kushan period', CAKP, Vol. II, 1975, p. 115 3 J. Marshall, Taxila, Vol. I, Varanasi, (reprint) 1975, p. 67
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Hermaeus on the obverse and the Greek god Herakles on the reverse (Pl. 1).
According to Greek mythology Herakles is the personification of the super
human physical strength, who played the role of the protector of mankind by
killing monsters. He is shown as a mascular bearded male figure, standing,
facing left, with a club in his right hand which rests on the ground and lion-skin
hanging down over the left arm (Pl. 1b). These coins are in continuation of the
imitations which were minted by the Parthian successors of Hermaeus after
his death.1 Another type of Kujula Kadphises’ coins has a diademed Roman-
style male head, generally identified as that of Roman emperor Augustus, on
the obverse and a king seated on a curule chair, dressed in Indo-Scythian
costume, who is probably Kujula himself, on the reverse (Pl.3). A third type of
coins bear a humped bull on one side and a double humped Bactrian camel
on the other (Pl.2). Another type of his coins depict Kujula Kadphises seated
cross-legged on the obverse and standing Zeus on the reverse. We also find
some coins with the bust of Kujula with helmet on the obverse and a
Macedonian soldier with spear and shield on the reverse, while another
variety of coins bear the bearded bust of the king on the obverse and winged
Nike, the Greek god of wind on the reverse.2 All these coins are bilingual
having Greek inscription on the obverse and Kharoshthi on the reverse. The
weight of these coins suggests that they were issued in different
denominations. Kujula did not mint silver coins. He primarily issued copper
and some bullion coins which were based on the weight standard of the Indo-
Greeks that was followed by the Scytho-Parthians as well.3 Kujula’s diplomatic
association with the Greeks and the Roman is apparent from the impingement
of the bust of Hermaeus and Augustus on the obverse of his coins,4 which is
generally reserved for the issuing monarch. But his rise to power putting the
Parthians and the Indo-Greeks out of the fence can be gleaned from his
assumption of titles of sovereignty with epithets like Maharajasa, Rajatirajasa,
1 P.L. Gupta, 1996, op. cit., p. 33. 2 S. Sharma, Gold Coins of Imperial Kushanas and Their Successors, BHU, 1999, p.24. 3 B.N. Mukherjee, Kushana Coins of the Land of Five Rivers, Calcutta, 1978, p.9. 4 B.R Mani, The Kushan Civilization-Studies in Urban Development and Material Culture, Delhi, 1987, pp. 9-10.
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Mahatasa, Rajarajasa and Devaputrasa added to his name in the form of
Kujula-Kara-Kaphasa (Kapasasa) in Kharoshthi script and prakrit languages
on the reverse of his coins. His other titles were Dhramathida (Dharmasthita),
Sachadhrama-thita (Satyadharmasthita) and Kushana Yavuga i.e. Kushana
chief. Probably the coins carrying the title Kushana Yavuga were his earlier
issues and the high sounding epithets of Maharaja, Rajatiraja, Devaputra, etc.
were adopted after his conquest of the area ruled by the four other tribal
chiefs in Tahsia (Bactria) and formation of his empire.
The copper coins of a nameless king, bearing the title Soter Megas, i.e.
the great Saviour in Greek legend on their reverse, have been found
extensively in the Punjab, Kandahar and Kabul region, and as far as Mathura
in the east.1 These coins depict a bust facing right on one side and a
horseman holding a whip on the other. Soter Megas has remained an enigma
for long as the name of the king has not been noticed on any coins so far. Joe
Cribb and Nicholas Sims-Williams have identified the hitherto unknown
Ooemo or Wema Takto of Rabtak inscription with Soter Megas, who used a
distinctive three-pronged symbol ( ) on his coinage and yet did not carry a
royal name.2 Wema Takto must have ruled as a co-ruler of his father Kujula
Kadphises and predeceased him. But his coins may be taken as the first
Kushana attempt to reform the Kushana monetary system as a class of the
Soter Megas series roughly conform to the weight standard later adopted by
Wema Kadphises for his drachms during his currency reform.3
It was Wema Kadphises who reformed the Kushana currency system.
Wema Kadphises has the credit of introducing gold for his coins which was
largely motivated by the huge influx of Roman gold coins in India as a result of
Indo-Roman trade. It constitutes a monetary innovation which reflects political
power and economic prosperity of the Kushana empire during his reign. There
1 A. Cunningham, Numismatic Chronicle, X, 1890, pp.115 ff. 2 Nicholas Sims-Williams and J. Cribb ‘A New Bactrian Inscription of Kanishka the great’, Silk Road Art and Archaeology, The Institute of Silk Road Studies, Kamakura, Japan, 1995-96, pp.118-123. 3 S. Sharma, 1999, op. cit., pp.24-25.
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are distinctive differences in the material and style between the coinage of
Wema Kadphises and those of Kujula Kadphises. The coins of Wema
Kadphises carry accomplished and powerful images of the king which are the
most striking examples of the Kushana art in any medium.1 The obverse of
Wema Kadphises' coins, both gold and copper, represent him as an old man
with heavy body, large prominent nose, moustache and a heavy beard, sitting
in various postures, i.e. seated on a couch; seated cross-legged, emerging
from the clouds, seated at a Jharokha (window), riding an elephant or driving
a biga. Flames are shown as emanating from his shoulders which, alongwith
the bust emerging from clouds, indicates his claim to divinity. On his copper
coins he is shown as standing and offering at a small altar with his right hand,
while his left hand rests on his waist (Pl. 4a). He is wearing a long cloak,
trousers, tall gilgit boots and a conical hat with steamers. Usually a club in the
right field and a trident-cum-battle axe in the left, are also noticed on these
coins along with the Kadphises symbol ( ). The circular Greek legend along
the circumference generally reads: Basileos Basileon Ooemo Kadpheses.
This coin type of ‘standing king sacrificing at an altar’ appears only on his
copper series with the exception of one specimen of silver coin presently
housed in the British Museum.2 It later became the most common obverse
device of the coins of the Kushanas and it was subsequently also adopted by
the Imperial Guptas on their early coins. However it appears to be an imitation
of the coin device of the Parthian king Gotarzes-II (c. AD. 38-51).3
It seems that Wema Kadphises became a zealous convert to the
worship of the Hindu god Shiva, for the reverse of his coins invariably depicts
Shiva, standing with or without his bull, holding a long trident or a trident-cum-
battle axe in his right hand. On a few coins Shiva’s emblem – the trident-cum-
battle axe is depicted. His faith is also evident from the use of the epithet
Mahashivarasa and the nandipada ( ), a shaivite symbol, that appears close
1 J. M. Rosenfield, The Dynastic Art of the Kushana, Berkely, 1967, p.19. 2 S. Sharma, 1999, op. cit., p.40. 3 B.N. Mukherjee, ‘The Proto type of an obverse device of Kushana coinage’ JNSI, Vol. XXII, Varanasi, 1960, pp.109-112.
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to the right hand field. The reverse Kharoshthi legend along the circumference
generally reads - Maharajasa Rajadirajasa Sarvlogeshwara Mahishvara Vima
Kathaphisasa Tradata. The epithet Mahishvara is generally interpreted as one
betraying his faith in Shaivism, however as pointed out by B.N. Mukherjee,
may literally mean “the lord of the earth”.1 Wema was the last Kushana ruler
who issued bilingual coins bearing legends in Greek and Prakrit languages
with Greek and Kharoshthi scripts respectively. One may imagine that Wema
Kadphises’ declaration of his faith in Shiva was an astute political move during
a time when he was trying to solidify power over the diverse Indian and
Iranian elements in his new empire including part of north western Indian
subcontinent where Shiva cult was already popular.
After the reform of coinage, the copper coins of Wema Kadphises
began to follow the weight standard which had been earlier used to mint Attic
tetra drachms (c. 17 gm), diadrachms (c. 8-8.5 gm) and drachms (c. 4-4.5
gm).2 The idea of gold dinara introduced by Wema Kadphises was probably
inspired by the Roman aureus, its weight and size, but even at its institution,
the Kushana dinara did not precisely copy the weight standard of the current
Roman aureus. The gold dinaras of Wema Kadphises were clearly struck to a
standard of about 7.9-8.0 gm.3 A number of his coins have double and many
others a quarter weight of such dinaras. Thus we have three denominations of
gold-dinaras, double dinaras and quarter dinaras and three denominations of
copper coins – tetradrachms, diadrachms and drachms, which were truly
meant for circulation throughout the empire and did not have any local
character. Wema Kadphises issued a very small number of silver coins,
minted in the Sind area, struck on the weight standard (32 grain to 56.5 grain)
familiar in the earlier period. These limited silver issues recovered from the
area to the southwest of the Hindukush were meant for limited circulation in
1 B.N. Mukherjee, The Rise and Fall of the Kushan Empire, Calcutta, 1988, p.55. 2 S. Sharma, op. cit., 1999, p. 25 3 D.W. Mac Dowall, ‘The Weight Standards of the gold and copper coinage of the Kushana Dynasty from Wema Kadphises to Vasudeva’, JNSI, Vol. XXII, Varanasi, 1960 pp.69-74.
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the lower Indus area.1 In the eastern section of his empire, in the Mathura
region, it appears that the silver punch-marked coins called the puranas were
allowed to continue for the purpose of silver currency.
Weight Standard of Kushana Dinaras (gold) and Drachms (copper)
1. Double Dinaras c. 16 gms (c. 246.4 grains) 2. Dinaras c. 8 gms (c. 123.2 grains) 3. Quarter Dinaras c. 2 gms (c. 30.4 grains) 4. Tetradrachms c. 17 gms (c. 260 grains) 5. Diadrachms c. 8-8.5 gms (c. 130 grains) 6. Drachms c. 4-4.5 gms (c. 65 grains) 7. Hemidrachms* c. 2 gms (c. 30.4 grains)
*Introduced later by Kanishka
The coins of Kanishka-I, the successor and son of Wema Kadphises
are far more ostentatious than Wema’s coinage. He improved upon the
currency and issued coins in both gold and copper which have only his royal
portrait on them. Kanishka is mostly depicted wearing a low rounded cap,
standing to front, facing his right, offering at an altar by right hand and
grasping a spear in the left hand (P1. 13a and 14a). He is shown in a scythian
dress, i.e. long tunic, trouser, mantle held by double clasp at the chest and a
sword is usually shown tied at left of the waist. Flames can be seen
emanating from the right shoulder. Only on some quarter-dinaras we find
bearded bust of king facing left, emerging from clouds with a standard or a
spear in his left and possibly a club in the right hand.2 But according to P.L.
Gupta, it is inconceivable that Kanishka-I would have issued quarter-dinaras
without dinaras of the same type. He believes that these coins belonged to
Kanishka II.3 Kanishka discontinued the biscriptal and bilingual tradition of
Greek and Kharoshthi scripts, for Greek and prakrit languages respectively
and retained only Greek on his earliest gold coins with the legend – Basileos
Basilion Kanishkou on the obverse. He soon discarded Greek in favour of a
Bactrian language, in cursive Greek character with Iranian titles and dynastic
1 B.N. Mukherjee, 1988, op. cit., p.55. 2 S. Sharma, 1999, op. cit., p. 41; Gobl, pp.41-45. 3 P.L. Gupta, 1996, op cit., p.36.
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name Kushana along with the name of the king. Sten Konow has designated
the language on the reverse as Khotanese-Shaka. Henceforth, the obverse
legend on the coins of Kanishka-I read - Shaonano Shao Kaneshki Koshano,
i.e. ‘the king of kings, Kanishka, the Kushana’. This title was continued till the
later issues of coins belonging to this dynasty. The circular Kharoshthi legend
on the reverse of Wema Kadphises' coins was replaced by a short vertical
Bactrian legend, which no longer referred to the king but to the deity
represented on the reverse. A beaded border was also introduced. The
monogram or tamaga of Wema Kadphises ( ) which appeared on the
obverse of his coins was retained but was henceforth employed only on the
reverse of the coins.1 It seems that the Bactrian language was more important
to Kushanas who were ruling from Bactria (Balkh). The use of a single
language involved the principle of uniformity maintained in the circulation of
coins.2 Kanishka’s coinage lacked the splendidness of double dinara issues of
Wema Kadphises and only two denominations of gold coins, dinara and
quarter-dinara are known of Kanishka. He continued to strike the range of the
copper denominations of tetradrachm, didrachm and drachm that had been
issued by his predecessor adding a yet smaller denomination of his own, the
hemidrachm. He retained the weight standard that Wema Kadphises had
adopted, virtually unchanged and continued to strike his copper tetradrachm
at about 17 gms.3 Unlike his predecessor, Kanishka introduced a number of
deities, both male and female, belonging to Greek, Iranian, Zoroastrian, and
Indian pantheon, on the reverse of his coins. On his earliest issues with the
Greek legend - Basilious Basileon Kanishkou on the obverse, while we find
deities with Greek names on the reverse. But interestingly none of these are
portrayed in their Greek iconographic forms. The Greek Moon goddess
Salene is depicted as a male god. Apart from Salene, we find Helios - the
Greek Sun God, Hephaistos – the Greek god of fire and Nanaia on these
early coins of Kanishka. He introduced an array of gods with Iranian names
1 S. Sharma, 1999, op. cit., p. 41. 2 B.R. Mani, 1987, op. cit., p. 19. 3 D.W. Mac Dowall, 1960, op. cit., p. 72.
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such as Mao – the Moon God, Mirro – the Sun God, Athsho – the Fire God,
Pharro – the Iranian concept of Imperial greatness, Oado – the wind god,
Orlagno – the god of war and victory, Luhraspa – the guardian of the health of
animals, Manao Bago – Iranian personification of a good mind, Mazdah – the
supreme Zoroastrian deity, Nana – the mother goddess and Ardoksho – the
goddess of luck and wealth, the counterpart of the Indian goddess Lakshmi.
Kanishka retained Shiva under the name Oesho, who is shown either two
armed or four armed with varying attributes. He also introduced the figure of
Buddha with the legend Boddo on gold and Sakamano Boddo on his copper
coins.1 It seems the representations of multi-dimensional divine figures in the
art of the period, found an expression on Kushana coins as well.
On the coins of Kanishka, Mirro, the Indo-Iranian solar deity is shown
standing to the left, diademed with a radiating nimbus, wearing a long tunic
with overlapping transparent garment, mantle and short boots (Pl. 6b). His
outstretched right hand is shown in a peculiar two – fingured gesture and his
left hand is either holding a standard adorned with a fillet or is in akimbo. He is
armed with a sword tied at the left waist. The iconography of the Greek Sun
god Helios is identical to that of Mirro, on the coins of Kanishka.2 (P1. 17b)
The iconographic characteristic of Mao, suggests that the Kushana
rulers had adopted the Hellenistic style to represent the Iranian moon god. On
the coins of Kanishka, Mao is shown as a male deity standing facing left,
dressed in a tunic with an overlapping transparent garment, mantle and boots
and a lunar crescent is visible behind his shoulders (Pl.7b and 8b). His
outstretched right hand makes a distinctive two-fingured gesture while the left
hand holds a staff. Usually the deity is shown armed with a sword hanging
from the left of his waist.3 According to Greek mythology, Salene is the moon
goddess but she is depicted as a diademed male god with a lunar disc at his
shoulders, similar to Mao, on the coins of Kanishka.
1 P.L. Gupta, 1996, op. cit., pp.35-36. 2 S. Sharma, 1999, op. cit., p 72. 3 Ibid., p.68.
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LIST OF SYMBOLS
1. Soter Megas Symbol
2. Kadphises symbols (Wema
Kadphises and Kanishka)
3. Nandipada Symbol (Wema Kadphises)
4. A variant of Kadphises symbol
occurs on the reverse of coins of Kanishka – 'King at altar Shiva type'.
5. Huvishka Symbols
6. A modified form of Kadphises
symbol occurs on Huvishka's coins – as Huvishka's symbol
7. Vasudeva Symbol
8. Symbol on Coins of 'Chhu'
9. A symbol on Kidara Kushana
coins 10. A symbol on Kirdara Kushana
coins
11. Development of forms of symbols of Kushana Coins.
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Oado, the Iranian wind god, who is the counterpart of the Indian Vayu
is depicted as a bearded male deity on the coins of Kanishka. He is generally
shown running to left with loose hair and holding up a ring like object or an
expanded dress with raised hands (Pl.10b and 11b).
Athsho, the fire god is depicted as a bearded deity standing left,
adorned with a fillet and holding noose in his right hand while the left hand is
in akimbo. He wears a long robe with sleeves, boots and mantle. Flames are
shown emanating from his shoulders (Pl. 16b)
Pharro, who may be identified with Iranian fire god and also personifies
the Iranian concept of glory, is shown as a diademed and nimbate male deity
standing to right clad in chiton. He holds a spear in his left hand and a fire
bowl in the right, which is drawn against the chest. Flames emanate from his
shoulders. The deity is shown with boots and helmet with a small winged
garment over forehead1 (Pl.18b).
On some early coins of Kanishka, Hephaistos – the Greek god of fire,
is depicted as a male deity with radiating nimbus standing to left. He is clad in
a long robe with overlapping transparent garment. He holds a noose in his
outstretched right hand while the left hand rests on his waist.2
Orlagno, the Iranian war god, the god of victory and royal glory appears
only on the reverse of the gold coins of Kanishka. He is depicted as a
diademed male deity standing to right, dressed in Indo-Scythian fashion with a
long winged bird on his head-dress. He carries a spear in the left hand and a
sword with a bird like hilt in the right.3
Ahuramazda, the supreme deity of Zoroastrian-Iranian pantheon, is
depicted as a bearded deity riding on a two-headed horse, moving towards
right. The Greek legend reads ‘MOZDOOANO' (Mazdah). He wears a pointed
1 S. Sharma, op. cit., p.71. 2 Ibid., p.73. 3 S. Sharma, 1999, op. cit., p.73.
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hat, with his hair tied behind in a small bun and carries a long staff with a
single ring near the top.1
Manaobago, the god of good measure, appears on the coins of
Kanishka as a four-armed deity seated on the throne facing right, with a
crescent behind the shoulders. He wears a ‘Macedonion helmet’ and holds a
standard in his upper left hand, a wheel in lower left, calliper in upper right and
probably a sword in the lower right hand that rests on his thigh. His feet rest
on a foot stool.2
Luhraspa, the guardian of the health of animals, is shown on the coins
of Kanishka as a bearded male deity, standing to right against a horse,
wearing tunic and boots. He holds a noose in the outstretched right hand and
his left hand, probably resting on the horse, is not visible. His hair is tied with
a fillet. A saddled horse is shown standing to his right, trotting.3
Ardoksho, the goddess of abundance and prosperity, is one of the
most popular deity on Kushana coins. She is considered to be the counterpart
of Indian goddess Lakhsmi, as evidenced by her continuation on Gupta coins.
This goddess of fortune is shown standing to right, nimbate, wearing a three
pronged device over the head, a fillet and dressed in a double robe. She
carries a cornucopia with both hands. But the figure lacks artistic mobility on
the coins of Kanishka. She appears with a metallic stiffness in the body,4
which is in contrast with the feminine and sensual treatment of her figure on
the coins of later Kushana rulers.
On the coins of Kanishka, Nana, the great mother goddess of the
orient, appears as a female deity, nimbate and diademed, dressed in a long
robe, standing to the right. She holds a small standard or a sceptre topped by
the forepart of a horse in her left hand and a bowl in the right. Her head is
1 S. Sharma, 1999, op. cit., p.74. 2 Ibid., p.74. 3 Ibid., p.76. 4 Ibid., p.65.
65
adorned with a prominent crescent.1 The legend reads ‘Nana’ or ‘Nanaia’ or
even ‘Nanashao’.
Shiva, undoubtedly enjoyed the most honourable position on the coins
of Kushanas. While he is represented both in aniconic as well as in human
forms on the coins of Wema Kadphises, Shiva’s anthropomorphic
representation with all his traditional attributes except the serpent, found
favour on the coins of Kanishka.2 He is depicted single-headed with two or
four arms, standing frontally with one of his legs slightly forward to suggest
mobility. His face is turned to his right. The two-armed Shiva holds a trident or
spear in his right hand and an ankusha (goad) or club in the left. The four-
armed Shiva mostly bears a damaru (small hand drum) in upper right hand, a
water-vessel in lower right hand, a trident in upper left hand and an antelope
in lower left hand, sometimes he holds a pasha (noose) in one of the right
hands (Pl.9b) or the damaru is replaced by vajra (thunderbolt). Sometimes
Shiva also carries an ankusha (elephant-goad) along with a water-vessel,
which is a rare feature. Shiva is shown wearing lower garment, a dhoti with
heavy ridges indicating the folds, a rudrakhsa necklace and his hair is
arranged in jata-juta (matted) fashion with a top-knot which shows uniformity
in style. The representation of bull mount, a recurring feature noticed on the
coins of Wema Kadphises, becomes a rare phenomenon on the coins of
Kanishka.3 It may be remarked that all these attributes i.e. damaru, antelope,
pasha, etc. shown on the coins of Kanishka are not noticed even in the
contemporary sculptures and only became distinguishing attributes of Shiva in
the early medieval sculptures (AD. 7th to 12th century), especially those
coming from South India.4
Buddha is represented either standing or seated cross-legged on the
coins of Kanishka which is taken as one of the earliest images of the Master
1 S. Sharma, 1999, op. cit., p. 67. 2 S. Sharma and Tiwari, Maruti Nadan, ‘Shiva on Kushana coins’, JNSI, XLV, 1983, p.134, pt. (1-11). 3 S. Sharma, 1999, op. cit., p. 60. 4 N.P. Joshi, Mathura Sulptures, Mathura, 1966, pp.32-33.
66
conceived in human form.1 On Kanishka’s gold and copper coins the figure of
the Buddha is shown standing to front, with nimbus around the head and a
prabhavali (aureole/halo) around the body. His right hand is raised in
abhayamudra (blessing pose) while the left hand is at waist level holding the
end piece of his sanghati (cloak). He is seen wearing uttarasangha (the robe
of a monk), covering both the shoulders and his hair is tied in a prominent
ushnisha (top-knot) with his elongated ears clearly visible2 (Pl.15b). On some
coins the right hand of Buddha instead of being in abhayamudra is drawn in
front near the chest with a small dot over it. On some of Kanishka’s copper
coins the future Buddha, Maitreya, is depicted sitting cross-legged on a low
stool like throne with his right hand raised in abhayamudra and his left hand
holding a water flask while resting on his lap.3 The head-dress looks like a
koantopa (a cap covering the ears) which is used even by the present day
Buddhist monks and his prominent ear-rings are visible as small dots over his
shoulder (Pl.16b). Mostly the legend reads Boddo (Buddha) on gold coins and
Sakamano Boddo (Sakyamuni Buddha) or Metreya Boddo (Maitreya Buddha)
on the copper coins. These Buddha type coins of Kanishka are rare
specimens of art and corroborate the evidence of Kanishka’s patronage to
Buddhism. The Buddhist images of Kanishka’s coins not only confirm the
availability of sculptural images of both Sakyamuni and Maitreya as
prototypes during Kanishka’s reign but also give an idea of what sculptural
Buddhist images during his reign looked like.4
No coins of Vasishka, the co-ruler of Kanishka, have yet been found.
The coinage of Huvishka, the successor of Kanishka-I, constitute the most
numerous of all coinage of the Kushana rulers. It comprises of about thirty
different varieties of representation of the king on the obverse and the largest
1 S. Sharma, op. cit., 1999, p. 64. 2 Joe Cribb, ‘Kanishka’s Buddha coins-The Official Iconography of Sakyamuni and Maitreya’, Journal of International Association of Buddhist Studies, 1980. 3 Joe Cribb, ‘The Origin of the Buddha Image – The Numismatic Evidence’, SAA, London 1981, pp.231-243. 4 Ibid., p.236.
67
number of deities on the reverse.1 It is noteworthy that Huvishka abandoned
the royal portrait type of Wema Kadphises and Kanishka, i.e. king standing
and sacrificing at the altar and instead portrayed his profile bust, generally
facing left and rarely to the right on his gold coins with bewildering variations.
He revived the devices used by Wema Kadphises such as the royal bust
emerging from the clouds, king riding an elephant etc. He also introduced the
nimbus - around the head of his portrait which alludes to his claim to divinity.
On his gold coins, Huvishka is depicted wearing garments decked with jewels
and a high, pointed or a flat-topped ornamental head gear. He normally holds
an imperial sceptre or a club in his right hand and in the left, an ankusha
(goad) on some coins or a spear on some others that rests on his shoulders.
It has been argued by P.L. Gupta that the coins which show the king holding
an ankusha are of an earlier period, closer in time to Kanishka and those that
show him holding a spear are of a later period, closer in time to Vasudeva.2
He further asserts that “it is very likely that the coins of the two types belonged
to two different kings of the same name (Huvishka II and III), who ruled
successively”.3 On a group of coins, the bust of the king has a full repertory of
symbols of Imperial power, with sceptre in his hand, nimbus around the head,
he is shown fully armoured wearing metal vest as a warrior or a royal
embroided coat (ACC. No.8688, Bharat Kala Bhavan). On a rare gold piece,
Huvishka is depicted wearing turban in an Iranian fashion, with a twisted band
tied around the head with its ends flying behind (Acc, No. 23599, Bharat Kala
Bhawan).4 Padma Altekar has tried to speculate on the terminal date of the
reign of Huvishka by studying his gold coins in the collection of H.P. Poddar,
the well known coin collector of Calcutta. On the basis of the study of the
representation of Huvishka’s bust on these coins, which show him at different
stages of his life, she has suggested that Huvishka remained on the throne
1 G.V. Mitterwallner, Kushana Coins and Sculpture from Mathura, Mathura, 1986, pp.5-6. 2 P.L. Gupta, 1996, op. cit., p.37. 3 Ibid. 4 S. Sharma, 1999, op. cit., p.12.
68
from the age of thirty to seventy five years. It would suggest that Huvishka
ruled from or before the year 24 to about the year 70 of Kanishka era.1
Huvishka’s copper coinage is even more varied. On the obverse of his
copper coins he is portrayed as (i) riding on an elephant; (ii) reclining on a
couch; (iii) seated cross-legged over the clouds or seated on a cushion
holding a club in the right hand.
Some copper coins represent a king riding a striding elephant moving
to right, holding an ankusha (goad) in his left hand and a spear in the right (Pl.
19a, 20a and 21a). On these coins the figure of the king is quite enlarged in
comparison to the elephant. On the ‘reclining on couch’ type the king is
depicted reclining on a low cushioned couch with his left leg cross-folded and
right leg lifted up with the feet resting over the couch (Pl.22a). On the 'seated
cross-legged’ type the king is represented seated cross-legged in Indian
fashion over the clouds or on a cushioned seat, facing right. He holds a staff
adorned with fillet in his left hand and a mace in the right hand held in front of
his chest (Pl.23a and 24a). Huvishka’s silver coins are rare and were meant
for circulation in the lower Indus area only.
The inscription on both gold and copper coins is uniformly Shao Nano
Shao Ooeshki Koshano. Huvishka retained the monogram or tamaga of his
predecessor on his earlier coins.2 However, a gradual development can be
noticed in the form of tamaga which changed from Kadphises’s tamaga ( )
to barred Kadphises tamaga ( ) to the new tamaga introduced by Huvishka
( ). The gold coins of Huvishka closely follow the denominations and weight
standard of Kanishka. D.W. Mac Dowall3 has noticed some changes in the
copper currency issued by him. When the copper coins bearing Huvishka’s
name were plotted in a frequency table, unlike the coins of his predecessors,
they do not fall into any clear pattern of denomination and covered a wide
1 P. Altekar, ‘When did the reign of Huvishka Terminate’, JNSI, Vol. XIV, Varanasi, 1952, pp.62-65. 2 S. Sharma, 1999, op. cit., p.42. 3 D.W. Mac Dowall, 1960, op. cit.
69
range. Mac Dowall has arranged them into three distinct groups which
according to him must represent successive phases of the same
denomination through a series of progressive reduction in weight. The first
group of copper coins of Huvishka with the unbarred Kadphises symbol ( )
show a clear point of concentration at 15 and 16 gms. These coins, it seems,
were struck to a standard of about 16 gms in continuation with the
tetradrachm denomination of Kanishka (17 gms), though ofcourse with a slight
reduction in weight. All the three distinct obverse forms of Huvishka are
represented in this heavy first group of tetradrachms. The second group,
characterized by the use of a distinctive barred Kadphises symbol ( ), range
in weight between 8 to 13 gms and were apparently struck to a standard of 10
to 12 gms. They are far too heavy to be regarded as diadrachms and must
represent a later stage in the coinage which saw a drastic reduction in the
weight of the tetradrachms. Although all the three obverse types of Huvishka
are represented, the elephant rider type generally fall between 10 to 12 gms,
those with cross-legged type between 8 to 9 gms and those with the reclining
on couch type at about 11 gms. In the third group of coins, the engraving of
elephant rider series is coarser and rude and they were struck on a standard
of 9-10 gms. The cross-legged series bears a very linear and angular form of
the barred Kadphises symbol and seem to be struck at 7-9 gms. In the
reclining on couch the unbarred form to Kadphises symbol is reversed but is
drawn in a distinctively rougher way that matches the vastly inferior quality of
the die engraving and its weight ranges from about 6 to 10 gms.1
While Huvishka revived the devices used by Wema Kadphises on the
obverse of his coins, we see a continuity with the coins of Kanishka in the
reverse devices. All the Iranian deities seen on the reverse of Kanishka’s
coins, barring Orlagno were retained. He added a few new deities to the list
like Oanindo – the goddess of victory associated with Orlagno, Riom or
Rishno – presiding deity of Rome, personification of righteousness, Shaoreoro
– the genius of imperial might and the god of metals, Ashaeixsho –
1 D.W. Mac Dowall, 1960, op. cit.
70
embodiment of truth and Oaxsho – probably god of river Oxus. A few non-
Iranian deities like Herakles – the Greek god personifying super human
physical strength, Serapis – a Graeco-Egyptian god of the invisible world and
Oros – Egyptian Horus or Oron – probably Uranus or Varuna, also find
representation on the reverse of Huvishka’s coins. Among the Indian gods,
Huvishka retained Shiva as Oesho but the figure of Buddha is conspicuous by
its absence. A few coins show Shiva as three headed, sometimes
accompanied by his consort Uma inscribed as Ommo. An interesting
combination of Shiva with Iranian mother goddess Nana or Nanaia is also
found on Huvishka’s coins. The son of Shiva and Uma, Kattikeya, is also
represented on some coins under various names such as Skanda Kumara,
Vishakha and Mahasena. The deity appears on his coins either as Mahasena
alone or in a pair as Skandakumara and Vishakha or in a triad as
Skandakumara, Vishakha and Mahasena. Although Skandakumara,
Mahasena and Vishakha are three names of the same god Kattikeya, but
separate representation on these coins suggests that each had their separate
entity during the Kushana times. On some coins Mao – the Moon god and
Mirro – the Sun god are placed together, which is another innovation of the
die-cutter of Huvishka.
On the coins of Huvishka, Mirro – the Iranian Sun god, Mao – Iranian
Moon god, Athso – Iranian fire god, Pharro – the Iranian concept of Imperial
greatness, Oado – Iranian wind god, Luhraspa – the guardian of the health of
animals, Manao Bago – the god of good measure, Nana – the mother
goddess and Ardoksho – the goddess of fortune, are represented as on the
coins of Kanishka with minor variations. Both Mao and Mirro are shown
standing to right or left, with one out-stretched hand holding a standard or a
noose or a wreath or engaged in a peculiar two-fingered gesture. The other
hand either rests at waist probably holding the hilt of a sword or is shown
holding a long standard (Pl.19b). The shoulders of Mao are surmounted by a
crescent where as Mirro is depicted with a radiating nimbus. Some gold coins
of Huvishka also represent ‘Mao and Miiro’ together as two male figures
71
standing and facing each other. Bearded Mao is shown on the left with
crescent around the shoulders holding a sword and a standard. Mirro is
represented to the right with a radiating nimbus, the right hand displaying the
two-fingered gesture while the left hand is drawn to the waist near a sword.1
On the reverse of the coins of Huvishka, Athsho is depicted as a
bearded male deity carrying a tong in the left hand and a hammer in the right.
He is classically draped in a long robe and flames are shown emanating from
the upper part of his body.
Apart from holding a spear and a fire bowl, as on the coins of
Kanishka, the figure of Pharro on Huvishka's coins is variously shown holding
a noose or a purse or a bag or a knobbed staff adorned with a fillet or a long
standard in right or left hand.2 Oado, the wind god is represented as on the
coins of Kanishka, i.e. as a bearded deity running towards left holding a
stretched cloth with upraised hands. Manaobago is shown as a four-armed
deity seated, as on the coins of Kanishka, but the wheel in his lower left hand
is replaced by a caliper. While his upper right hand holds an indistinct object,
the lower right hand that rests at waist probably holds a small sword.3
Ahuramazda, the supreme Zoroastrian deity appears on the coins of Huvishka
with Greek legend ‘WORMOZDO’. He is represented as bearded male deity,
nimbate, standing to left, holding a sceptre in the left hand and a wreath in his
outstretched right hand. His hair is tied with a fillet round the head with its end
flying behind.4 Luhraspa appears identical as on the coins of Kanishka but the
deity is nimbate and does not hold anything in hands on the coins of
Huvishka.5
Ardoksho is depicted standing gracefully to left or right, holding
cornucopia with both hands or holding a leaf branch or a noose in the right
1 S. Sharma, 1999, op. cit., p.69. 2 Ibid., p.71. 3 Ibid., p.74. 4 Ibid. 5 Ibid., p.76.
72
hand and cornucopia in the left. On the coins of Huvishka, the figure of
Ardoksho appears graceful and has a feminine beauty.
Nana is mostly depicted as a nimbate deity standing to the left or right
holding a small standard or a sceptre topped by the forepart of a horse in the
right hand and a bowl in the left hand. On some coins the deity is shown with
flaming shoulders, wearing long armoured over – garment with rolled hem at
the bottom, drawing an arrow from a quiver with her right hand and holding a
bowl in the left. On some rare coins which form the subject matter of B.N.
Mukherjee’s first monograph on Kushana numismatics,1 Nana is depicted,
nimbate, seated frontly, wearing a helmet with a lunar crescent at the top, on
a left facing lion. She holds a sceptre topped by the forepart of a horse in the
right hand resting at shoulder and a bowl in the left hand. Mukherjee believes
that the various concepts, functions and iconographic forms of Mother
goddess as the Babylonian Nana, the Assyrian Ishtar, the Persian Anahita,
Artemis, Tyche, Demeter and the Indian Amba, which were popular in the
territories from which the Roman trade passed were all intermingled in the
iconography of Nana.2 These syncretistic tendencies played an important role
in the development of the iconographic and religious concepts of Durga as
well as Mahishasura-mardini in India, which probably reflects the concept of
Ishtar as a war goddess.3
Oanindo, seems to be a close imitation of Nike, the Greek goddess of
victory, on the coins of Huvishka. She is depicted as a winged female figure,
mostly nimbate, standing to left in classical robes, holding a wreath in her right
hand and a cornucopia or a staff in the left. On some specimens, she is
shown facing right holding a wreath in the left hand and a staff in the right.4
Riom or Rishno, symbolizing Roma, the goddess of Rome, appears on
the gold coins of Huvishka, as a goddess standing to right, wearing a crested
1 B.N. Mukherjee, Nana on Lion – A Study in Kushana Numismaitic Art, Calcutta, 1969. 2 Ibid., pp.10-20. 3 Ibid., pp.19-20. 4 S. Sharma, 1999, op.cit., p.73.
73
helmet and long chiton. She holds a long spear in left and a shield in the right
hand.1
Shaoreoro represents both the genius of an imperial might and also the
god of metal. Alexander Cunningham has suggested that he is the genius of
metals and giver of wealth who may be identified with Indian Kubera.2 The
male deity appears only on the coins of Huvishka, standing to right,
occasionally nimbate, wearing Roman military garb of mailed skirt and crested
helmet. He holds a long spear in his right hand and a shield in the left which
rests on the ground.3
Serapis the originally Egyptian deity presiding over the invisible world,
was worshiped in Greece and part of the Roman empire as well. The deity is
identified with the Greek god Pluto corresponding to Indian Yama. On the gold
coins of Huvishka, he is depicted as a nimbate male figure, seated to front on
a curved four-legged throne with a foot-stool, holding a staff in his left hand
and a wreath in outstretched right hand. He is shown with heavy hair around
the face, wearing a mantle held at chest and a long robe upto the ankles.4 On
some coins of Huvishka, he is shown standing to left, dressed in a long robe
with a fillet around his head. He holds a knobbed staff in the left hand while
the right hand displays a peculiar two-fingered gesture.5
On the coins of Huvishka, Herakles, is depicted as muscular bearded
male figure standing to front facing left, with a club in his right hand which
rests on the ground and lion skin hanging down over the left arm.6 The
iconography of Herakles is similar to that of the earlier coins of Kujula
Kadphises depicting Herakles.
1 S. Sharma, 1999, op.cit., p.74. 2 The Numismatic Chronicle, Vol. XII, p.147. 3 Bharat Kala Bhavan, Cat No. XXXVII. 4 J.M. Rosenfield, The Dynastic Arts of the Kushanas, 1967, pl. IX, p.186. 5 Ibid., pl. IX, p.187. 6 S. Sharma, 1999, op. cit., p.75 .
74
Ashaeixsho or Ardeixsho, the embodiment of truth, is depicted like a
Sun god, radiate and standing to left with sword. His extended right hand
shows the first two fingers raised while the left hand rests on his hip.1
Oaxsho, the god of river Oxus, is depicted as a bearded deity,
standing, facing left, on the coins of Huvishka. The draped figure is nimbate
and holds a long sceptre in right hand and a fish in left.2
On Huvishka’s gold coins, Oron or Uron is depicted as a bearded male
deity, wearing modius (water vessel) on head and himation. His left hand
holds a long sceptre while the right hand is outstretched. The deity is
identified with Greek Uranus and has correspondence with Indian god of
water, Varuna.
Huvishka is the only ruler of non-Indian origin to have depicted the
figure of Karttikeya on the reverse of his coins under various names such as
Skando Kumara, Vishakha and Mahasena. On some of his coins, Mahasena
is shown standing to front, clad in a coat, nimbate and diademed, holding a
standard surmounted by a bird or a crudely depicted peacock in his right hand
while his left hand rests on the hilt of a sword tied to his girdle. Some
specimens represent two figures as Skanda Kumar and Vishakha, standing
face to face on a piece of mat, with the tamaga or symbol of Huvishka
engraved in between the figures. Skanda Kumar holds a standard
surmounted by a bird in his right hand while Vishakha holds a spear in his left
hand. The other hands of both the deities are placed at waist respectively. On
some coins Vishakha is shown clasping the right hand of Skanda Kumar who
touches him with his left hand. Some other coins represent a shrine consisting
of an ornamented double platform with the representation of a super structure
with three nimbate standing figures of Skanda Kumar, Vishakha, with
Mahasena in the middle on a pedestal.3 These coins suggest that these
different representations of the god were worshiped as separate entities
1 B. Chattopadhyay, The Age of the Kushanas, Calcutta, 1967, p.75. 2 S. Sharma, 1999, op. cit., p.77. 3 S. Sharma, 1999, op. cit., p.72.
75
during the Kushana period and were amalgamated in one deity, i.e. Karttikeya
only with the passage of time. The Yaudheyas who succeeded the Kushanas
in some parts of Punjab also adopted the figure of Karttikeya on their coinage
of the third and fourth century A.D.1
From the standpoint of Shiva’s iconography, the coins of Huvishka
occupy a special position. They depict Shiva with two or four arms and with
single or three head, with much more flexibility in body, giving gliding linear
rhythm. This graceful appearance of Shiva on the reverse of Huvishka’s coins
is comparable to Gupta sculptures of 5th century A.D. from Mathura and
Sarnath.2 On these coins Shiva is usually depicted standing, facing to his
right, wearing a short dhoti with prominent schematic folds, necklace made of
rudraksha and a yajnopavita besides other usual ornaments. The bull is
conspicuous by its absence. Shiva’s hair is arranged in jata fashion with a top-
knot and his head is provided with a halo and a crescent. Apart from the
attributes previously seen on the coins of Kanishka like trident, water-vessel,
antelope, goad, damaru, etc, we also find the vajra, the mace and the wheel
on some coins. The two-armed Shiva is always shown single-headed holding
a trident in his right and a water vessel (Pl.21b) or a goad or a small spear in
the left hand. The four armed Shiva is far more numerous and is shown either
one or three headed. Single headed Shiva mostly carries a damaru and a
long trident in the right and left upper arms while the lower ones hold a water-
vessel and an antelope.3 On a few coins, damaru and water vessel are
replaced by goat or a thunderbolt or a mace or a wreath. The three-headed
Shiva holds a vajra and a trident in two upper hands while the lower hands
hold a water vessel and a club.4 On some specimens vajra is replaced by
damaru and sometimes a wheel while mace is also shown in one of the
hands. On a unique coin, four-armed Shiva is depicted ithyphallic, standing
frontally, wearing a short garment, holding a seven-spoked wheel and a
1 B. Chattopodhyay, 1967, op. cit., p.91. 2 J.M. Rosenfield, 1967, op. cit., pp.164-166. 3 Ibid., pl. VIII, pp.159-162. 4 Ibid., pl. VIII, p.164.
76
trident in upper right and the left hands and an antelope and a damaru in the
lower ones respectively.1 On some specimens, Shiva is accompanied by his
consort Uma inscribed ‘OMMO’ and sometimes by ‘NANA’ or ‘NANAIA’. The
rendering of Shiva and Uma was popular in contemporary plastic art but the
depiction of Nana alongside Shiva indicates an intermingling of the cult of
Nana with that of Indian mother goddess Uma. Shiva wears a dhoti, holding
water-vessel and a damaru in his lower and upper right hands and an
antelope and trident in the left ones respectively. Uma or Nana to his right is
shown standing facing Shiva and holding a flower or a sceptre topped by the
forepart of a horse.
On a copper coin of Huvishka in the Indian Museum, Kolkata, Vincent
Smith has read the legend in cursive Greek as ‘OOSNA’ by the side of a
figure of a deity.2 On the basis of the legend the deity is identified as Vishnu.
But the attributes described by Smith, i.e. thunderbolt (?), trident (?), water
vessel (?) and wreath (?) do not have any affinity with the emblems of Vishnu
and are rather the attributes of Shiva as depicted on Kushana coins.
Bhaskar Chattopadhyay has described a ‘Ganesa type’ copper coin of
Huvishka representing an archer standing to right, holding a bow as long as
himself, with string inwards. The legend seems to be in Brahmi character read
by Vincent Smith as ‘Ganesho’,3 although the iconography of the deity does
not resemble the elephant-headed Indian god-Ganesh. It seems that the
Kushana age was a period when the Puranic gods were carving out an early
career for themselves and their iconography was yet not setteled.
Two silver coins of Huvishka, weighing 32 grains, are preserved in
Berlin state Museum which depict a three-quarter length figure of king to left,
wearing a crested helmet, holding a scepter like object in right hand and an
indistinct object in left. At least seven Kharoshthi letters and the Greek legend
1 J.M. Rosenfield, 1967, op. cit., pl. VIII, p.163 2 V. Smith, Catalogue of Coins in Indian Museum, Calcutta, I Oxford, 1919, pl. XIII, No.4. 3 B. Chattopadhyay, 1967, op, cit., p. 85; V. Smith, 1919, op. cit., p1. XIII, Kushana Coin, No.164.
77
OESHKI KOSHAN are identified.1 These are the only bi-lingual issues of the
Kanishka group of kings. On the reverse of these coins are two deities facing
one another standing on a pedestal with legend ‘NANA’ and ‘OHPO’.
No coin can be convincingly attributed to Kanishka II who was probably
the co-ruler of Huvishka. Huvishka was succeeded by Vasudeva-I. On the
coins of Vasudeva we notice similarity with the coins of Kanishka and
Huvishka only in terms of weight, fabric, style and the use of only Greek
legends. His coins did not follow the varied obverse devices of Huvishka and
once again revived the ‘Standing king at altar’ type as on the coins of
Kanishka. On his coins Vasudeva is depicted nimbate, at times moustached,
mailed, sacrificing at an altar by his right hand, wearing peaked helmet
studded with dots and holding a trident in his left hand. It may be pointed out
that the king is not shown in the usual tunic and mantle but wears a heavily
armoured warrior costume which may allude to political disturbances. There is
a peculiar curved object which appears like an ankusha placed on the king’s
left shoulder.2 On a second type of coins with the name Vasudeva, an
additional feature of a trident adorned with a fillet can be seen in the left field
behind the altar.3 On this type of coins, the king is always shown with flaming
shoulders. There is yet another type of coins that have the name Vasudeva
but are quite distinct. An isolated Brahmi letter is added on the obverse in the
right field and close to the name of the deity on the reverse. The Bactrian
legend on all these types reads Shaonano Shao Bazodeo Koshano. On the
basis of these differences, P.L. Gupta has attributed these coins to two
different rulers of the same name, Vasudeva I and Vasudeva II who ruled one
after the other.4 He believes that the third type of coins were either issued by
Vasudeva II at some local mint or they might be later imitations during the
Sassanian occupation.5
1 JNSI, XXII, 1960, pp.100-101. 2 S. Sharma, 1999, op. cit., pp.44-45. 3 Ibid., p.45. 4 P.L. Gupta, 1996, op, cit., pp.38-39. 5 Ibid., p.39.
78
Vasudeva I was evidently a convert to Hinduism and an ardent devotee
of Shiva. Though the mother goddess Nana makes a rare appearance on the
reverse of some coins of Vasudeva I, his coins mainly depict the figure of
Shiva attended by his bull. Shiva, either single headed or three-headed, is
invariably two-armed except on a solitary coin where he is depicted with four
arms.1 He mostly holds a long trident in the left hand and a pasha in the right.
The four-armed Shiva, accompanied by a bull with a bell in the neck, holds a
lotus and a pasha (noose) in lower and upper right hands while the
corresponding left and right hands carry a tiger-skin and a trident
respectively.2 On some quarter-dinaras Shiva is depicted without his bull.
Vasudeva-I also introduced a new tamaga ( ) for his coins which replaced
the earlier one.
Interestingly, the reverse of a unique gold coin of Vasudeva housed in
the State Museum, Lucknow, indistinctly shows Shiva by the side of an
elephant (SML. Acc. No. 10436). This coin has been described by A.S.
Altekar which shows a nimbate Shiva, wearing dhoti, with his right hand on
the head of the elephant and the left hand holding a trident. The tamaga of
Vasudeva-I ( ) is seen over the head of Shiva.3 According to Altekar neither
sculptures nor literature tell us of Shiva’s selection of elephant as a mount.
But O.P. Singh has provided an explanation for this unique representation.
Vamana Purana gives us a description in which Shiva had adopted the form
of an elephant. According to O.P. Singh, the mint masters, well-versed with
the iconographic traits have shown Shiva in the form of an elephant along with
his anthropomorphic form.4 The representation on this coin is an iconographic
novelty of Vasudeva. Nana appears on a few coins of Vasudeva in the same
manner as on the coins of Kanishka.5 The depiction of lord Vasudeva (Vishnu)
1 J.M. Rosenfield, 1967, op. cit., pl. XI, p.210. 2 Ibid. 3 A.S. Altekar, ‘A New and Unique Coin type of Vasudeva’, JNSI, Vol.XIII, Varanasi, 1951, pp.126-127. 4 O.P. Singh, ‘Unique gold Coins of Vasudeva’, JNSI, Vol. XLIV, Varanasi, 1982, pp.136-138. 5 S. Sharma, 1999, op. cit., pp.67-68.
79
has also come to light from a rare solitary coin1 although the identification is
not without doubt.
The gold specie of Vasudeva-I followed the weight standard known to
his predecessors showing concentration around 8 gms.2 However we can
notice a sharp decrease in the mean quantity of pure gold and also a
remarkable disproportion between the waning of the average weight and of
the gold content in the Kushana gold coins of the days of Vasudeva I. This
may allude to economic instability of the Kushana empire atleast for a certain
period. The copper series of Vasudeva I were probably struck to a standard of
8-9 gms.3 We also notice a decrease in the denominations of copper coins.
Vasudeva I was succeeded by Kanishka-III. His coins bear the name
Kaneshko Koshano, i.e. Kanishka, the Kushana and not Kaneshki as on the
coins of Kanishka I.4 His coins represent ‘king at altar’ as on the obverse of
Vasudeva-I coins and ‘enthroned Ardoksho’ or ‘Shiva with bull’ or ‘Nana on
Lion’ on the reverse. While the Greek inscription on most of these coins is
debased they also carry isolated Brahmi and/or Kharoshthi letters in addition
to the Bactrian legend. These additional letters appear on the Kushana coins
for the first time during the reign of Vasudeva-I and become a regular feature
of the coins of later Kushana rulers. The significance of these stray Barhmi
and/or Kharoshthi letters is a subject of speculation. While R. D. Banerji
suggested that these were the initial letters of the names of the issuer, the
mint and the province,5 A.S. Altekar is of the opinion that they stand for the
initials of the names of the satraps or governors through whose agency
Kanishka III may have ruled his dominions.6
Shiva invariably appears two-armed and single headed, standing with
bull, holding a noose in the right hand and a trident in the left hand. Some of
1 P.L. Gupta, 1996, op. cit., p.38. 2 Mac Dowall, JNSI, Vol. XXII, 1960, p.64. 3 Ibid., p.72. 4 P.L. Gupta, 1996, op. cit., p.39. 5 JASB (New Supplement), Vol. 4, 1908, pp.81-93. 6 A.S. Altekar, The New History of Indian People, Vol. 6, p.14.
80
Kanishka III’s coins also carry the nandipada symbol ( ) along with Shiva
and bull on their reverse. The Nana on Lion type coins show goddess Nana
seated on a lion walking to left, holding a noose in her right hand and a
sceptre in the left. She has a crescent overhead.1 This coin type of Kanishka
III probably influenced the ‘Goddess on Lion’ device appearing on the reverse
of Chandra Gupta I’s coins. The ‘enthroned Ardoksho’ type coins depict
goddess Ardokhso, nimbate, seated frontly on a high backed throne, dressed
in flowing robe, holding a cornucopia in left hand and a noose in right. This
type is conspicuously absent on the coins of Imperial Kushanas. These two
devices, i.e. ‘Shiva with Bull’ and ‘enthroned Ardoksho’ came to play a very
important role in the numismatic history of northern and north-western India
as they continued to be used in their original or modified forms on the coins of
the local dynasties and monarchs for more than half a millennium.2
Kanishka III was succeeded by Vasudeva-II. The obverse of the coins
of Vasudeva-II represent the figure of a king holding a trident, sacrificing at an
altar in front of another trident. A nandipada symbol ( ) is seen on the left of
the king apart from the isolated Brahmi and Kharoshthi letters. The Greek
legend reads Shaonano Shao Bazodeo Koshano. The reverse of these coins
show Shiva standing with bull, holding a trident. The tamaga ( ) of Vasudeva
is only visible in the field. These coins are quite distinct in fabric and execution
from the coins of Vasudeva-I. Being broad, thin and scyphate in their module
and bearing an additional symbol of nandipada on the obverse, they have
mostly been found in Badakhshan, the region north of Hindukush and
Seistan.3
Vasudeva II was probably succeeded by Vasishka-II whose gold coins
bear the name Bazeshko Koshano although it is difficult to accord imperial
status to him.4 His coins are very close to the coins of his predecessors in
fabric and execution. The obverse represents the king sacrificing at altar by
1 B.N. Mukherjee, Nana on Lion- A Study in Kushana Numismatic Art, Calcutta, 1969, pl. I. 2 B. Chattopadhyay, 1967, op. cit., p.141. 3 P.L. Gupta, 1996, op. cit., p.39. 4 B.N. Mukherjee, 1988, op. cit., pp.189-191.
81
right hand and grasping a trident or a standard in the left. He is shown
wearing a close-fitting tunic with pointed ends, trousers and peaked helmet. A
trident adorned with a fillet is placed behind the altar. The treatment of the
helmet and that of the mailed coat are more akin to the species of a few of the
successors of the Kushanas in the Punjab area.1 These coins bear Brahmi
and Kharoshthi letters as on some coins of Vasudeva-I and all the coins of
Kanishka-III and Vasudeva-II, instead of the proper names in Brahmi which
are noticed on the issues of the successors of Kushanas in Punjab. The
reverse of these coins either represent ‘Shiva with Bull’ or ‘enthroned
Ardoksho’.
Localization of types can be detected in the coinage of these later
Kushana rulers. On a small number of coins of Vasudeva-I and the coins of
his successors, we notice isolated Brahmi letters in addition to the Bactrian
legend. Since Brahmi was not current in the western provinces of the empire
including Bactria, its appearance on the later Kushana coins may allude to the
emergence of regionalism in Kushana coinage or it seems that they gradually
lost their western provinces to the Sassanian power. During the reign of
Kanishka III and Vasudeva II, ‘The king at altar: Ardoksho’ type coins are
attributed to the Punjab region of the Indian subcontinent by B.N. Mukherjee.2
‘The king at altar: Shiva with Bull and the nandipada symbol’ coins are
attributed to the Bactrian region to the north of the Hindukush, while those
without the nandipada symbol are assignable to Gandhara or the western side
of the Indus, where the cult of Shiva was very popular.3 According to B.N.
Mukherjee the coin type of Kanishka III displaying Nana on Lion may be
assigned to the eastern sector of the empire4 but we have not come across
any coin of this type from Mathura and eastern Uttar Pradesh during our
study. According to E.J. Rapson also the coins of the ‘Shiva type' belong to
the Kabul valley and were imitated by the Kushano-Sassanians while the
1 B.N. Mukherjee, 1988, op. cit., p.192. 2 Ibid., p.179. 3 Ibid. 4 Ibid.
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‘Ardoksho type' can be assigned to the more eastern portion of the Kushana
dominions as they were imitated by Kidara-Kushanas and the Imperial
Guptas.1
The names of the successors of the Imperial Kushanas are known to
us from the numismatic data alone. After Vasishka-II, there are a series of
coins representing ‘king at altar’ on the obverse with ‘enthroned Ardoksho’
reverse, which are much crude in fabric and execution. On these coins, a
vertical Brahmi legend is noticed under the left arm of the king which reads
Vasu or Mahi or Chhu or Shaka or Sitha or Shilada or Gadahara or
Gadakhara or Massa or Kush, etc.2 It has been suggested by scholars that
these names stand for the name of the tribes or dynasties or clans or sundry
chiefs who issued these coins. G.V. Mitterwallner suggests that they were the
descendants of those kings who bore the epithet devaputra in inscriptions of
their times and the imperial epithet Shonano Shao on their coins.3 Coins of
these chiefs or families were not minted simultaneously but their succession is
not clear. The study of these coins on the basis of the gradual decrease in the
quantity of gold, in metal content, stylistic features of their devices,
palaeographic traits of their legends tend to suggest that some of them
succeeded the Imperial Kushanas in the area of Punjab.4
From the above discussion it is clear that the Kushana age was
marked by an unprecedented growth of money economy, in which coins
played a vital role of royal propaganda as well. Although the Indo-Greeks had
issued a few gold coins, Kushana rulers were the first to issue on extensive
imperial gold currency in India. Wema Kadphises reformed the prevailing
monetary system in about the 2nd or 3rd quarter of the 1st century A.D. and
started the issue of gold and copper coins on a large scale. The introduction
of gold coinage might have been to facilitate international trade and at least to
some extent, was motivated by the large influx of Roman gold coins into the
1 E.J. Rapson, Indian Coins, Strassburg, 1897, p.19. 2 S. Sharma, 1999, op. cit., p.17. 3 G.V. Mitterwallner, 1986, op. cit., p.390. 4 S. Sharma, 1999, op. cit., p.21.
83
subcontinent as a result of Indo-Roman commercial transaction.1 The
numerous copper coins issued by Kushana rulers were meant for everyday
local uses and small internal transactions. Their abundance alludes to the
penetration of monetization at all levels of the economy, urban as well as
rural. Both gold and copper coins of the Kushanas upto the time of Vasudava-
I, cannot be assigned to any single zone and were meant for circulation
throughout the empire.2
The appellation dinara, which was probably applied to Kushana gold
coins, was derived from the name of the Roman denarius aureus, where as
dramma was adopted by the Indians for silver coins from the Greek drachma.
But in case of Kushanas it may have been applied to copper coins also. The
gold coins of Kushanas were also known variously as Kushana, Suvarna,
Kedara and Nanaka.3 Mahavastu mentions Masa, Purana and Karshapana as
distinct denominations of the contemporary coinage. In the literature, there
are references to three types of coins, namely Dinara, Purana and
Karshapana meaning gold, silver and copper coins respectively.4
But the Kushanas failed to coin a regular silver currency. It seems that
the limited silver issues of Kushanas formed a provincial coinage meant for
restricted circulation in lower Indus territory. Since the silver currency of north-
western part of Indian subcontinent had become heavily debased by the time
of the Indo-Parthian king Azes II5, the operation of Gresham’s Law6 in this
area did not allow the Kushanas to profitably strike a regular silver coinage for
the whole empire.7 In north India too, the metallic analysis of silver coins
1 B.N. Mukherjee, The Indian Gold: An Introduction to the Cabinet of the Gold Coins in the Indian Museum, Calcutta, 1990, p.12. 2 S. Sharma, 1999, op. cit., p.26. 3 B. Chattopadhyay, 1975, op. cit., pp.201-03. 4 M.K. Thakur, Indian in the Age of Kanishka, Delhi, 1999, p.110. 5 B.N. Mukherjee, 1988, op. cit., p.44. 6 H. Spero, Money and Banking, 1957, p.9. This law enjoins that “all types of metallic money in circulation declared equal in value or purchasing power by the government must be kept equal in value of buying powers. If they are not, the undervalued money will be hoarded, exported to places where its true value will be recognized, or melted down for sale in the bullion market, while the overvalued, cheaper money will be kept in circulation.” 7 B.N. Mukherjee, Kushana Silver Coinage, Indian Museum, Calcutta, 1982, pp.53-56.
84
done by A.K. Jha revealed that the amount of silver in coins had gone down to
around 65% between 2nd century B.C. to 1st century A.D.1 Thus silver had lost
the confidence of people and failed to meet the characteristics of a sound
currency system. It is perhaps under these circumstance that the Kushanas
introduced only gold and copper currency; ignoring silver. This however, did
not preclude other silver coins from circulation in all other provinces of the
empire. The Mathura inscription of the year 28, of the time of Huvishka
records an endowment (or really two endowments) consisting of a total
number of 1100 puranas (550+550).2 These purana coins mentioned in the
inscription, could have been either indigenous silver coins minted officially or
unofficially in pre-Kushana period or even pieces struck locally and/or
unofficially in the Kushan period itself.3 It seems that the Kushan
administration approved of or at least did not object to the circulation of such
puranas (non-Kushana silver coins) in an integral part of the Kushana empire
like Mathura. Moreover, if Chashtana, who ruled in central and western India
and western Deccan, owed allegiance to the Kushanas, he was also allowed
to strike silver coins in his dominion following the weight standard of Indo
Greeks.4 Thus silver currency too formed a part of the monetary system in the
Kushana period.
The amount of pure gold in Kushana dinaras was very high up to the
reign of Vasudeva-II, though it gradually decreased from about 99 percent to
about 85 percent or even less in some coins of indifferent quality. From an
average of 98.5 percent pure gold in the coins of Wema Kadphises, 97.67
percent in the coins of Kanishka, 96.05 percent and 93.45 percent in the two
variety of coins of Huvishka, 95.23 percent in the coins of Vasudeva-I, 91.15
percent in the coins of Kanishka-III, and 91.2 percent in the coins of Vasudeva
1 A.K. Jha (eds.), Ex moneta, 'Essays on Numismatics in the Honour of Mac Dowall', History and Archaeology, Nasik, 1995, p.337. 2 EI, Vol. XXI, ASI, New Delhi, pp.60-61. 3 B.N. Mukherjee, 1982, op. cit., pp.54-55. 4 Ibid., p.56.
85
II, we notice a progressive decline in the gold content of Kushana coinage.1
With the gradual reduction in the intrinsic value of gold, there was also a
progressive decline in the weight of the copper tetradrachms. Unlike the
Roman emperors, who solved their economic difficulties by progressively
reducing the weight of the Roman aureus, the Kushanas slightly debased the
quality of their gold while maintaining their dinara at a constant weight.2 But
such a gradual and imperceptible decline in the precious metal in coins over a
long period of time did not affect their value as a medium of exchange. On the
other hand, their acceptance by the subjects betrays their trust in the stability
of the currency and the ability of the Kushana mint masters to sell them above
their intrinsic worth.3 Infact Kushana coins have been discovered far beyond
the limits of the empire in distant countries and even in Ethiopia which speaks
in volume of the value of Kushana gold coins.4 It is also remarkable that
Kushana mints managed an enormous output for over two centuries in a
region lacking any significant output of gold.
DIFFERENT VERSIONS OF THE NAMES OF RULERS ON KUSHANA COINS
1. Kujula Kadphises KOZOY O KA IZOY KOZO A KA A EC
2. Wema (I) Tak [TO] CWTHP ME AC
3. Wema (II) Kadphises OOHMO KA ICHC 4. Kanishka KANHpKOY KANHpKI 5. Huvishka OOHpKI OYOHpKI OOHpKO
6. Vasudeva BAZO HO BAZ HO 1 S.K. Maity, ‘The gold contents of the Kushana, the Kushana chiefs and the Sassanian gold coins from the Indian Museum Calcutta', JNSI, Vol. 20, 1958, pp.162-65. 2 D.W. Mac Dowall, 1960, op. cit., pp.63-74. 3 B.N. Mukherjee, 1990, op. cit., p.13. 4 B. Chattopadhyay, 1967, op. cit., p.238.
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The recovery of hundreds of Kushana inscriptions from a very large
mass of land extending from Airtam (18km east of Termez) in Uzbekistan to
Ganwaria in eastern Uttar Pradesh, attests to the vast dimensions of the
Kushana empire. The findspots of inscriptions by far is the most reliable
evidence for the reconstruction of the political boundaries of Kushana empire
under individual rulers. They along with coinage are also the most useful tool
for the reconstruction of genealogy and chronology of Kushanas. As
discussed in Chapter 1, the Rabtak inscription of year one (1) of Kanishka is
indispensable in this regard. Apart from the inscriptions issued by royalty, the
private records of common men help us to understand various aspects of
society and religion. These inscriptions are either undated or dated. In case of
undated epigraphs we depend on the palaeographic evidence for dating,
which is not always exact. But the dated inscriptions of Kushanas, especially
those dated in the Kanishka era, ranging from Year 1 to 98, are invaluable for
the study of Kushana history and society. According to the “dropped hundred”
theory of Von Lohuizen, the inscriptions dropped 100 and started recounting
after the year 100 of Kanishka, thus adding another 60 years to Kushana
rule.1 The inscriptions found in/at different places in different regions have
used different local languages, i.e. standard Sanskrit, hydrid Sanskrit, Prakrit,
Gandhari Prakrit, etc. but are mainly written in two scripts – Kharoshthi and
Brahmi, although Sogdian, Bactrian and Greek alphabets are also used. The
writer of inscriptions called a lipika, first composed the text, then a stone
engraver or a tankaka followed the form and shape of each letter fashioned by
the lipika and engraved them on stone.2
The Kushana epigraphs are mostly short private records
commemorating the actions of a particular patron. These inscriptions are
generally records of religious donations and/or dedications by private
individuals like merchants, bankers, caravan leaders, officials, housewives,
professionals, lay worshippers, monks, nuns, etc. Statues of Buddhas,
1 J.M. Rosenfield, 1967, op. cit., p.106. 2 S. Shrava, Dated Kushan Inscriptions, Delhi, 1993, p. V.
87
Bodhisattvas, Jinas, sealings, stone slabs, etc. were installed, viharas, stupas,
temples, devakulas, tanks, wells, etc. were constructed and repaired,
endowments were made for pious purposes, by people from all walks of life.
Alongwith the acts of merit, these epigraphs mostly record the names of the
donors, their relations, place of origin, professions and even the name of the
monks or nuns who inspired them for the donation. The name of the reigning
Kushana ruler figures prominently in a large number of records. The donors
knew the name of the reigning monarch and sometimes an administrative
head was also associated with these records of gifts and dedications. Imperial
titles like Maharaja, Rajatiraja, Devaputra, Shahi and rarely, Kaisara are
invariably associated with the names of the reigning Kushana monarchs even
in private records which very often correspond to the titles used on Kushana
coins. The subjects expressed allegiance to the king and made religious gifts
for the spiritual benefit of not only self and family members but mostly wished
for the welfare of all beings and some times also for the health, happiness and
prosperity of the reigning monarch. This reflects the idea that merit need not
be individually earned but can be transferred from one person to another and
this sentiment finds an expression in Buddhist, Jain and other donative
records as well. Indeed, the acquisition of merit may have been a major goal
of the patrons and donors who were responsible for the creation of works of
art. We learn about the titles of various officials and at times their names like
Kshatrapa, Mahakshatrapa, Dandanayaka, Mahadandanayaka, Padrapala,
Lipika, Divira (scribe), Gramika (village head man), Navakarmika,
(superintendent of work), Viharakaravhaena (architect of viharas), etc.
through these engraved details which throw light on the administrative set up
under the Kushana.
The nature and scope of Kushana inscriptions can be gleaned from a
few examples only. The Taxila silver scroll inscription of the year 136 of an
unidentified era refers to the establishment of the relics of Buddha in the
Dhramarajika Stupa of Taxila by a Bactrian named Urasaka, a resident of the
city of Navachala, for the bestowal of health on an unnamed Kushana King,
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Maharaja Rajatiraja Devaputra.1 The Peshawar Casket inscription of year 1
of Kanishka2 records the religious gift of slave Agishala who was the
navakarmika in Kanishka’s Vihara, in Mahasena Sangharama in the
acceptance of the sarvastivadin teacher. The Sarnath Boddhisattva inscription of the years 3 of Maharaja Kanishka records the dedication of the
Bodhisattva statue and an umbrella with a post by Friar Bala along with
Mahakshatrapa Kharapallana and Kshatrapa Vanaspara of Benares.3 The
Mathura Stone inscription of year 28 of Kanishka era records a perpetual
endowment of five hundred and fifty (550) puranas in each of the two guilds of
Samitakara and Raka for feeding a hundred Brahmins in the punyashala by
lord of Bakan and Kharasalera in order that the merit might accrue to
Devaputra Shahi Huvishka.4 The Mat inscription of the time of Huvishka
records the repair of tank and a devakula by a Bakanpati, son of
Mahadandanayaka for the life and prosperity of Maharaja Rajatiraja
Devaputra Huvishka.5 The Mathura Jain Image inscription of the year 40
records the dedication of the image by mother of Simhadatta, wife of the
Gramika Jayanaga and daughter-in-law of the Gramika Jayadeva out of the
Varana Gana, Arya-Hatikiya Kula, Vajrinagri Shakha.6
The economic vibrancy, devotion and religious character of the society
under the Kushanas can be gleaned from these inscriptions. Subtle details of
the society like the names of the donors, their pedigree, their Gana, Kula,
Shakha, etc. are engraved in stone and handed over to posterity. These men
are identified by their profession, their place of origin, official titles, etc. The
Kottiya-gana and ucchenagari Shakha seems to be in the forefront in making
donations at Kankali tila in Mathura. Various professional groups are
mentioned in these epigraphs like Lohakara (ironsmith), Sarthavaha (caravan-
leader), Gandhika (perfume merchant), Suwarnakara (goldsmith), Vadhaki
1 CII, II, pt. 1, 1929, p.77. 2 CII, II, pt. 1, 1929, p.137. 3 EI, VIII, pp.196 ff. 4 EI, XXI, pp.60f. 5 JRAS, 1924, No. 3, p.397 ff. 6 S. Shrava, 1993, op. cit., p.181.
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(carpenter), Vanik (merchant), Vyavahari (trader or a magistrate), Pravarika
(cloak maker), Manikara (jeweller), Rajaka (washerman), Divira (scribe),
Shreshthi (foreman of a merchant guild), Kutumbika (agricultural
householder), Halikaya (agriculturist), dance troupes, actors, sculptors, etc.
These attest to the flourishing condition of trade and industry during Kushana
times. At least some individuals in these social classes were rich enough to
make magnificent donations. The Mathura Stone inscription of year 28 also
mentions two Shrenis (guilds) of Samitakara (flourmaker) and Raka attesting
to the existence of guilds of traders which must have accelerated the growth
of craft and industries. While the statues of royal personages immortalized
them in stone, these donors of various social and professional groups,
perpetuated their names by engraving their acts of merit in these inscriptions.
These epigraphs even refer to various monks and nuns by name and
their teachers, who not only made costly donations themselves but also
inspired lay-worshippers and professionals for various acts of merit. It seems
that some monks and nuns did possess or retain some wealth, which was
utilized by them for religious donations. Bhikshu Bala and his disciple Bikshuni
Buddhamitra were possibly the most famous donors who erected Bodhisattva
images at Kausambi, Sarnath and Sravasti. A few Inscribed Gold Bars from
Dalverzin-tepe, datable to the Kushana age, bear Kharoshthi inscriptions
referring to these as owned by or donated by monks of Kalana (Kalyan).1
Several records refer to the donations having been made by lay-disciples at
the request of venerable persons of religious orders which tempts us to
suggest that some of the donations given by monks or nuns could have been
made out of the amount collected from their rich patrons.2
As many of these inscriptions were commissioned by women, they also
throw valuable light on some aspects of the lives of women in Kushana times.
While no royal women finds mention in these inscriptions, most donations
were made by urban women of fairly wealthy classes. They were mothers,
1 B.N. Mukherjee, 1988, op, cit., p.486. 2 Ibid., pp.487-88.
90
wives and daughters of affluent men of various professions. In stark contrast
with men whose professions are usually mentioned in the inscriptions, these
women are described by their familial relations, mostly husband, father,
father-in-law or son. They are thus, constantly identified in terms of their
relations with men and yet are disposing a large amount of income, in the
form of religious donations, which they do not seem to have earned
themselves. It seems that these rich women otherwise played a restricted role
in the public sphere but religion provided them with an opportunity to exercise
their own authority. Apart from these wealthy women, nuns are frequently
mentioned in inscriptions as making donations and instigating donations.
Women who followed a religious vocation are identified by their sect and their
teachers. The inscriptions show that nuns played a vital role in attracting
donations from secular figures. Buddhist nun, Buddhamitra was well-versed in
tripitika and was trained by monk Bala of the Sarvastivadin sect. She installed
a colossal Bodhisattva image at Kausambi (Accession no. 2948, Municipal
Museum, Allahabad) in the year 2 of Kanishka era and along with monk Bala
also donated other Bodhisattva stone images at Sarnath (year 3 of Kanishka
era) and Sravasti. Another nun Dhanavati, the daughter of Buddhamitra’s
sister, installed a Bodhisattva image with an inscription in honour of
Buddhamitra at Mathura in the year 33 of Kanishka era. Thus, while the
normative text of this period relegate women to purely domestic roles, these
inscriptions show that at least in the religious sphere, women had an
opportunity to negotiate new roles and carve out new boundaries. They could
assert their own authority in the society by gaining control, as patrons of
different sects and also by proving their worth in attracting patronage of other
women.
Numerous viharas, stupas, chaityas, temples, kutis, etc find mention in
these epigraphic records which reflects on the vibrant religious life of the
people of Kushana age. More than eighteen viharas and monasteries are
mentioned in these inscriptions.1 These epigraphs perpetuate the names and
1 S. Shrava, 1993, op. cit., p.193.
91
deeds of monks and nuns as well as common men and women of various
vocations and social classes on the statues of gods of different sects, i.e.
Buddha, Bodhisattvas, Maitreya, Jinas, Karttikeya, Shivalingas, Kubera,
Nagas, etc. In the devakulas of Mat and Surkh Kotal even the Kushana kings
were immortalized in stone. Apart from being exquisite works of art these
images remind us of the spirit of co-existence and catholicism that existed
during the rule of the Kushanas. It seems that the common man had the
liberty to practice, follow and patronized any religious sect of his choice
without royal intervention. Jaina inscriptions far outnumber the Buddhist ones
at Mathura. Several images of Naga deities datable to Kushana age, with or
without inscriptions are found in Mathura attesting to the worship of serpents
in north India. The British Museum inscription of year 10 of Kanishka
records the gift of a temple for Naga worship in the northern Navamika (?).1
Brahmanical faith also flourished during the rule of Kushanas, which is
attested to by numerous sculptures of Hindu gods and goddesses in Mathura
school of art. Sculptures of both Gandhara and Mathura school of art
represented Buddhist, Brahmanical and Jaina deities. The Mathura Yupa inscription of the year 24 refers to the setting up of the sacrificial post and
performance of sacrificial rites by Dronala, a Chandyogya Brahmin of the
Bharadwaja gotra.2 The Panjtar Stone inscription records the construction
of a temple of lord Shiva in the eastern part of the territory of Kasua by Moika,
son of Urumaja.3 An image of Karttikeya was set up in the year 11 of
Kanishka by brothers Visvadeva, Visvasoma, Visvabhava and Visvavasi, the
sons of Vishvila, who were Kshatriyas.4 The Surkh-Kotal inscription of year
31 of Kanishka mentions the repair of a temple called ‘Kanishko Oaninda
Bago Laggo’ which appears to have been both a fire temple and a dynastic
sanctuary.5 The Rabtak inscription of year 1 of Kanishka era records the
command of Kanishka to construct a sanctuary of Nana in the plains of
1 EI, IX, pp. 239f, No 1. 2 J.P Vogel, Catalouge of Mathura Museum, No. Q. 13. 3 CII, II, pt. 1, p.70. 4 Journal of U.P Historical Society, XVI (1), pp.65-66. 5 B. Chattopadhyay, 1967, op. cit., p.172.
92
Kaeypa for deities Shri, Pharro and Ommo.1 The Rawal inscription, is a
clumsy copy of the Shakaradarra inscription recording the excavation of a
well in the year 40 of the Kanishka era. According to S. Konow it brings out
the belief of the people that the inherent magical or spiritual power of an
inscription could be recreated by its duplication.2 Thus these inscription truely
represent the multi-religious society of the Kushana age and its
effervescence.
In the upper regions of Pakistan and ‘Pakistan occupied Kashmir’,
three area-Alam Bridge, Chillas and Hunza, have a huge concentration of
graffiti and thousands of short inscriptions on rocks, which are mostly
scriblings recording the name of the visitors of different sites or those whose
names the visitors wanted to commemorate.3 Though rarely, they some-times
refer to the ruling king or a Shatrap and occasionally to a date. Nearly two
hundred short Kharoshthi inscriptions have been dated to about the first to
third century A.D.4 which coincides with the Kushana rule. Some Brahmi
inscriptions belonging to the later Kushana period have been identified as
well. Most of the Kharoshthi inscriptions of Chillas II, studied by G. Fussman
render proper names without titles. Some of the names like Buddharakshita,
Buddha Gupta, Rahula, etc are Buddhist but a ‘Shivadasa’ i.e. slave of Shiva
and Samudra Rama Krishna are also mentioned. We find etchings of deities
like Balarama, Samkarshana, Vasudeva/Krishna and most probably Hariti
apart from Buddhist iconography.5 Since the 1st century A.D., this route was
used by merchants, Buddhist missionaries, pilgrims and political envoys of the
Kushanas who travelled between Kashmir and the Tarim Basin. Using
another access, traders from the lowlands reached Chillas and founded a
Buddhist sanctuary there.6 The inscriptions of the rocks of Hunza have been
edited by A.H Dani and according to him, they refer to Kushana kings. The 1 B.N. Mukherjee, ‘The Great Kushana Testament’, Indian Museum Bulletin, Calcutta, 1995, pp.10-18, Lines 7-9 of Rabtak inscription. 2 S. Konow, CII, I, 1929, pp.161 and 159-60. 3 S. Shrava, 1993, op. cit., p.135. 4 K. Jettmar (ed.), Antiquities of Northern Pakistan, Vol. I, Mainz, 1993, pp.1-40. 5 Ibid., p. XXXI. 6 Ibid., p. XIX.
93
94
inscription HK-1 refers to ‘Vima Kadhataprisa’ in Kharoshthi characters, who
could possibly be Wema Kadphises.1 A male figure, in the well-known Yueh-
Chih dress, is engraved near this inscription on the Hunza rock number 1. The
dated graffiti from Hunza, starting from the year 34 of the reign of Huvishka
clearly give at least 11 dates of Huvishka and Vasudeva. The epigraph HK-3
of the year 7, may belong to the period of Kanishka whose name is possibly
recorded in an undated document HK-2.2 These inscriptions clearly indicate
that these ancient sites of Alam Bridge, Gilgit and Hunza were well within the
Kushana empire, alluding to Kushana sway over a portion of the upper
regions of modern Kashmir. If all the records are taken into account, the
Kushana rule should have been in this region at least from the period of
Wema Kadphises to that of the year 91 of the reign of Vasudeva.3 Following
are the lists of dated inscriptions of each Kushana rulers:
1 A.H. Dani, ‘The Sacred Rock of Hunza', Journal of Central Asia, Islamabad, 1985, Vol VIII, no. 2, pp.5f, 9. 2 Ibid. 3 S. Shrava, 1993, op. cit., p.136.
LIST OF INSCRIPTIONS OF WEMA KADPHISES S.
No. Name/Findspot Year Script/Language Remarks Reference
1. Khalatse Inscription, near Khalatse bridge on river Indus in Ladakh
187 of old Shaka era
Kharoshthi Refers to Maharaja Uvima Kavthisa CII, Vol. II, pt. I, p.81
2. Ganwaria, Uttar Pradesh - Brahmi On a terracotta sealing on a Shiva image Journal of Epigraphical Society of India (JESI), Vol. VII, 1977.
3. Mathura Colossal seated image inscription, Tokri Tila, Mat (attributed to Wema Takto by Joe Cribb)
- Brahmi Records the construction of a devakula, garden, tank, well, assembly hall and a gateway in the time of 'Maharaja Rajatiraja Devaputra Kushanaputra Vamataksha'.
ASIAR, 1911-12, p.124.
4. Hunza, Pakistan - Kharoshthi, Gandhari Prakrit language
Above the head of standing male figure wearing a peaked helmet on Rock No. HK1. Dani's no. 17, who reads the name 'Vima'
A.H. Dani, 'The Sacred Rock of Hunza', Journal of Central Asia, Vol. VIII, No.2, Islamabad, p.9.
95
LIST OF INSCRIPTIONS OF KANISHKA S.
No. Name/Findspot Year Script/Language Remarks Reference
1. Rabtak Inscription, Near Pul-i-Kumri in Afghanistan
1 of Kanishka era
Greek script, Bactrian language
23 line inscription, adds the name of Wema Takto in Kushana genealogy, proclaims the authority of Kanishka in India, orders the construction of a Nana sanctuary.
N.S. Williams and Joe Cribb, 'A New Bactrian inscription of Kanishka the great', Silk Road Art and Archaeology, Kamakura/Japan, Vol. IV, 1995/96, pp.75-123.
2. Shah ji ki Dheri inscription / Peshawar Casket inscription, Peshawar, Pakistan
1 of Kanishka era
Kharoshthi Records the gift of slave Agishala, the navakarmika in the Kanishka Vihara
CII, Vol. II, pt. 1, p.135 ff.
3. Kosam, Uttar Pradesh 2 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Setting up of Bodhisattva image by nun Buddhamitra
EI, Vol. XXIV, pp.210-212.
4. Mathura, Uttar Pradesh 3 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Setting up of a Buddha statue by Vasumitra Satya Shrava, Dated Kushana Inscriptions (DKI) Delhi, 1993, p.176, No. 11.
5. Government Museum Mathura, ACC No. A-56
3 of Kanishka era
Brahmi On the pedestal of a figure Satya Shrava, Dated Kushana Inscriptions (DKI) Delhi, 1993, p.176, No.12
6. Sarnath, Uttar Pradesh 3 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Donation of a colossal image of Bodhisattva by monk Bala along with Mahakshatrapa Kharapallana and Kshtrapa Vanaspara of Banares
EI, Vol. VIII, pp. 173 ff.
7. Sarnath, Uttar Pradesh 3 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Donation of an Umbrella and post by monk Bala EI, Vol. VIII, pp.179 ff.
8. Kankali Tila, Mathura (State Museum Lucknow, J3)
4 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Records the gift of a Jina image EI, Vol. II, pp.201, No.11
96
9. Maha Vidya, Mathura 4 of Kanishka era
Brahmi On an image DKI, p.177, No.16
10. Government Museum Mathura, Acc. No. 57.4329
4 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Records the installation of Bodhisattva image by Mahadantanayaka Hummiyaka, at the Sakya monastery for the benefit of doner's parents, teachers, etc.
EI, Vol. XXXIV, pp.9 ff, No.I
11. Indian Museum, Calcutta, NS-4143
4 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Records the gift of a Bodhisattva image by Dhanyabhava, a house wife
EI, Vol. XIX, p. 66, No. 3
12. Alam Bridge, Pakistan 4 of Kanishka era
Kharoshthi No. AK-1 Indian Museum Bulletin, 1987, DKI, p.186, No.171.
13. Kosam, Uttar Pradesh 5 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Records the installation of a Bodhisattva image DKI, p.177, No.19.
14. Kankali Tila, Mathura 5 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Setting of a Jina image EI, Vol. II, p.201, No.12
15. Kankali Tila, Mathura 5 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Records the gift of a tank by Vishakhamitra wife of Vasuka, daughter of Buhila for the benefit and happiness of all.
IAR, 1974-75, p.50
16. Indian Museum, Calcutta, NS-4965
5 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Gift of an image DKI, p.177, No.22
17. Government Museum, Mathura, Acc. No. 50.3533
5 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Gift of an image DKI, p.177, No. 23
18. Kankali Tila, Mathura 5 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Gift of a Jina image by Kshudra EI, Vol.I, p.381, No.1
97
19. Kankali Tila, Mathura 5 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Gift of a Jina image for the welfare and happiness of all creatures.
DKI, p.177, No. 25
20. Kankali Tila, Mathura 5 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Gift of a Jain Image DKI, p.177, No.26
21. Alam Bridge, Pakistan 5 of Kanishka era
Kharoshthi No. AK. 2 Indian Museum Bulletin, 1987; DKI, p.186, No. 172
22. Kausambi, UttarPradesh
6 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Setting of a Bodhisattva image DKI, p.177, No. 28
23. Government Museum,Mathura Acc. No. 47.3333
6 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Setting of a Jina figure DKI, p.177, No.27
24. Kankali Tila, Mathura 7 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Setting of a Jina image by Arya Jaya EI, Vol. I, p.391, No.19
25. Hunza, Pakistan 7 of Kanishka era
Kharoshthi Records the name of Dharmasena, son of Nathuvu, Rock No. HK. 3, Dani 5/3
Journal of Central Asia, Vol. VIII, No.2
26. Ral Bhadar, Mathura 8 of Kanishka era
Brahmi A tank, garden and a naga image were caused to be made
EI, Vol. XVII, pp.10 ff.
27. Palikhera, Mathura 8 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Setting of a Bodhisattva image by Simhaka DKI, p.177, No.31
28. Government Museum,Mathura, Acc No. 2347
8 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Gift of a pedestal of a seated Buddha image by Nun Buddhadasi
DKI, p.178, No.32
98
29. Mathura 9 ofKanishka era
Brahmi Creation of a Jina image by Grahapala EI, Vol. X, pp.109-110, No.3
30. Kankali Tila, Mathura 9 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Creation of a Jina image by Vikata DKI, p.178, No.34.
31. Alam Bridge, Pakistan 9 of Kanishka era
Kharoshthi No. AK. 3 Indian Museum Bulletin, 1987; DKI, p.186, No.174
32. Alam Bridge, Pakistan 9 of Kanishka era
Kharoshthi No. AK. 4 Indian Museum Bulletin, 1987; DKI, p.186, No.175
33. Alam Bridge, Pakistan 9 of Kanishka era
Kharoshthi No. AK. 5 Indian Museum Bulletin, 1987; DKI, p.186, No.176
34. British Museum, 1887, 7-15, 33
10 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Gifting of a temple for the worship of a Naga and his wife in northern Navamika
EI, Vol. IX, pp.239 f, No. 1.
35. Khanskhar, Mathura 10 ofKanishka era
Brahmi Setting of a Bodhisattva image by monk Nagadatta in Kashtikiya Vihara
DKI, p.178, No.36.
36. Kankali Tila, Mathura 11 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Setting of an image of Kattikeya by brothers Vishvasoma, Vishvabhava and Visvavasi, the sons of Vishivila, who were kshatriyas.
DKI, p.178, No.37.
37. Sui Vihara Copper plate inscription, Bahawalpur, Pakistan
11 of Kanishka era
Kharoshthi Records the raising of the staff by the triar Nagadatta, the disciple of the teacher Dharmatrata, the disciple of the teacher Bhava, in Damana. The mistress of the Vihara (Viharaswamini) upasika Balanandi and her mother the matron, the wife of Balajaya, in addition gave the enclosure.
CII, Vol. II,k pt. I, p.141.
99
38. Zeda inscription, near Und
11 of Kanishka era
Kharoshthi Records the digging of a well and a water tank as the gift of Hipea Dhia for the increase of Sarvastivada, in honour of Kshatrapa Liaka
CII, Vol.II, pt. I, pp.145.
39. Alam Bridge, Pakistan XI of Kanishka era
Kharoshthi No. AK 5 of Mukherjee Indian Museum Bulletin, 1987; DKI, p.186, No.177.
40 Ahichchhatra, UttarPradesh
12 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Setting up of Jina image as a gift of carpenters EI, Vol. X, pp.110-111
41. Govindnagar, Mathura 12 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Setting of a pillar IAR, 1976-77, p.63.
42. Dalpat ki Khirki, Mathura
14 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Installing of a standing Buddha image dedicated by Samghila, wife of Hasthi, a pravarika (cloak maker)
EI, Vol. XIX, pp.96-97.
43. Kankali Tila, Mathura 15 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Dedication of a Jina image by Kumaramitra, wife of a shreshthi.
EI, Vol. I, p.382, No.2
44. Private collection,Patna
16 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Setting up of a Bodhisattva image DKI, p.178, No.42
45. Dura, Agra 16 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Setting up of a votive pillar IAR, 1960-61, p.49.
46. Government Museum,Mathura, Acc. No.121
17 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Setting of a Bodhisattva image by Nagapriya, wife of a goldsmith
DKI, p.178, No.44
47. Chaubiya Para,Mathura
17 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Setting of a Jaina image by Kaushiki Griharakshita DKI, p.178, No.45
100
48. Kankali Tila, Mathura 18 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Setting of a Jina image by masigi for the welfare of all being
EI, Vol.II, pp.202, No.13
49. Kankali Tila, Mathura 18 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Setting of a Jina image by Mitashri EI, Vol. II, p.202, No. 14.
50. Manikiala Inscription, Rawalpindi, Pakistan
18 of Kanishka era
Kharoshthi Records the establishment of several relics of Lord Buddha by Dandanayaka Lala, a scion of th Kushana family, the donation master of the Kshatrapa Veshpashi, along with the Vihara architect (Navakarmika) Burita.
CII, Vol. II, pt. I, p.150.
51. Manikiala Bronze casket inscription, Rawalpindi, Pakistan
18 of Kanishka era
Kharoshthi Relics of sramana Gotama enshrined by Kapisa Kshatrapa, the son of the Kshatrapa Granavhryaka
CII, Vol. II, pt. I, pp.151 ff.
52. Kankali Tila, Mathura 19 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Dedication of a four faced Jina image by wife of Suchila, for the adoration of arhats
EI, Vol. I, pp.382-383, No.3
53. Kankali Tila Mathura 20 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Setting of a Jina image by Mitra, daughter of a manikara, wife of a lohakara, for the welfare and happiness of all being
EI, Vol. I, pp.383-84, No. 4
54. Kankali Tila Mathura 20 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Setting of a Bodhisattva image DKI, p.179, No.51
55. Mata Matha, Mathura 20 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Setting of a Kubera image DKI, p.179, No. 52
56. Inscription of year 20 of Kanishka era
20 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Records the gift of Dina, for the adoration of arhats, on a pedestal
EI, Vol. I, p.395, No.28
57. Garhi Matani, Pakista n 20 of Kanishka era
Kharoshthi Dedication of monk Buddha Varma CII, Vol. II, pt. I, pp.151 ff.
101
58. Kurram, Pakistan 20 of Kanishka era
Kharoshthi Estabilishment of a relic of lord Shakyamuni in the new vihara by sveda (sena) Varma
CII, Vol. II, pt. I, pp.152 ff.
59. Kathoti Kua, Mathura 21 of Kanishka era
Brahmi On a votive tablet DKI, p.179, No.53
60. Kankali Tila, Mathura 22 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Records of a gift of a Jina image by Dharmasvamini, wife of a sarthavaha (carvan leader) at the request of the preacher Arya Matridatta.
EI, Vol. I, p.395, No.29
61. Kankali Tila, Mathura 22 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Setting of a Jina image EI, Vol. I, p.391, No. 20
62. Madhubana, Mohali 22 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Setting of a Buddha image in the pravarika-vihara (vihara of cloak-maker)
EI, Vol. XIX, p.66
63. Sonkh 23 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Setting of a bodhisattva statue by Pushyadata DKI, p.179, No.57
64. Kosam - Brahmi On a sealing referring to Maharaja Rajatiraja Devaputra Kanishka
DKI, p.176, No.3
65. Tokri Tila, Mat - Brahmi On the headless statue of Kanishka – Maharaja Rajatiraja Devaputra Kanishko
DKI, p.176, No. 4
66. Sravasti - Brahmi Setting of a Bodhisattva image with an umbrella and a shaft at Sravasti in the Kosambakuti, Bby monk Bala in the reign of Maharaja Devaputra Kanishka.
EI, Vol. VIII, pp. 179 ff.
67. Sravasti - Brahmi Setting of a Bodhisattva image with an umbrella and a shaft at Sravasti in the Kosambakuti, by monk Bala in the reign of Maharaja Devaputra Kanishka.
EI, Vol. IX, pp. 290-91.
102
68. Kankali Tila, Mathura - Brahmi Setting of a stone image DKI, p.176, No.7
69. Mora, Mathura - Brahmi Setting of a stone image by wife Kalavada EI, Vol. XXIV, pp.200-202, No. 2
70. Jamalpur mound,Mathura
- Brahmi Setting of a Buddha image DKI, p.176, No.9
71. Hunza, Pakistan - Kharoshthi On rock no. 1, Dani reads 'a gift to the Buddhist congregation of the lord of Gushan, the great king Kanishka'
Journal of Central Asia, Vol. VIII, no. 2, p.25.
72. Shahr-i-Bahlol - Kharoshthi Refers to Kaneshko DKI, p.187, no.188.
103
LIST OF INSCRIPTIONS OF VASISHKA
S. No.
Name/Findspot Year Script/Language Remarks Reference
1. Kamra, Campbellpur,Pakistan
20 of Kanishka era
Kharoshthi Records the digging of a well. Vasishka is called devamanusha i.e. Godman and devaputra i.e. son of god apart from saviour, victorious, the law of the living world etc.
Indian Museum Bulleting, Vol. VIII, 1973, pp.111 ff.
2. Sanchi, MadhyaPradesh
22 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Installation of a Buddha image by Vidyamati in the year 22 of king Vasu Kushana
DKI, p.179, No.58
3. Mathura YupaInscription, Isapur, Mathura
24 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Setting up of the Yupa after the performance of a sacrifice for twelve days by Dronala, son of Rudrila, a Chandyogya Brahmin of the Bharadvaja gotra
DKI, p.179, No.59.
4. Sanchi, MadhyaPradesh
28 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Installation of a Bodhisattva image by Madhurika, daughter of Vira, in the Dharmdeva Vihara
DKI, p.179, No.62
5. Jamalpur mound,Mathura
28 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Setting of a seated Buddha image DKI, p.179, No.63
6. Chilas II - Kharoshthi Dani reads "of Vasishka, the Kaisar, rajatiraja, of devaputra"
A.H. Dani, Chilas – The City of Nanga Parvat, Islamabad, 1983, p.114.
104
LIST OF INSCRIPTIONS OF HUVISHKA S.
No. Name/Findspot Year Script Remarks Reference
1. Govinda Nagar,Mathura
28 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Installation of an image of Amitabha Buddha by Nagarakshita, son of Buddha Bala, grandson of Sarthavaha Sattvaka and sreshthi Balakirti
IAR, 1977-78, p.97; 1979-80, p.91.
2. Mathura, OppositeChaurasi Jain temple
28 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Records a perpetual endowment of 550 puranas in each of the two guilds of Samitakara and raka for feeding a hundred Brahmins in the Punyashala by a Vakanpati and Kharasalerapati. Merit accrued to Devaputra Shahi Huvishka
EI, XXI, pp.55-61.
3. Tokri Tila Mat - Brahmi Records the repair of a tank and a devakula by a Bakanapati, son of a Mahadandanayaka, for the life and prosperity of Maharaja Rajatiraja Devaputra Huvishka
Journal of Royal Asiatic Society, 1924, pp. 397 ff, No.3
4. Kankali Tila, Mathura - Brahmi Installation of a Jina image EI, Vol. II, p.206, No.25
5. Government Museum,Mathura, Acc. No. 40.2879
29 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Setting of a Bodhisattva image of Maitreya DKI, p.180, No.68
6. Kankali Tila, Mathura 29 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Setting of a Jina image by Bodhinanda, a married lady, daughter of a grihapati, at the request of Gahaprakia
EI, Vol. I, p.385, No. 6
7. Kankali Tila, Mathura 29 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Setting of a Jina image by Migaka EI, Vol. II, p.206, No.26
8. Kankali Tila, Mathura 31 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Setting of a seated Buddha image by monk Buddhaswami of the Sajjha Vihara, founded by Mama
DKI, p.180, No.71
9. Kankali Tila, Mathura 31 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Setting of a Jina image by Grahashri, daughter of Buddhi, wife of devala EI, Vol. II, pp.202-03, No.15
105
10. Ral-Bhadar 31 ofKanishka era
Brahmi Seated Buddha image, gift of Khuda, female pupil of the nun Dinna DKI, p.180, No.73
11. Surkh Kotal,Afghanistan
31 of Kanishka era
Kharoshthi Restoration of Kanishko Oanindo Bagolaggo (Kanishka victorious sanctuary) and digging of well, by Nokonzoko. 3 versions of inscription
DKI, p.187, No.187
12. Kankali Tila, Mathura 32 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Setting of a four sided Jina image by Jitamitra, daughter of Ritunandi, wife of Buddhi, mother of a gandhika, at the request of arya Nandika
EI, Vol. II, p.203, No.16
13. Ahichchatra, Bareilly 32 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Setting of a Buddha image as a gift of monk Virana with his mother and father
JASB, XXI, 1955, p.65
14. Chaubara mound,Mathura
33 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Setting of a Bodhisattva image by Dhanavati, niece of nun Buddhamitra, female pupil of monk Bala
DKI, p.180, No. 76.
15. Ranipura Mohalla,Mathura
33 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Setting of a Jina image DKI, p.180, No. 77
16. Bjana, Mathura 33 of Kanishka era
Brahmi On a base of a pillar installed by Buddharakshita and Dharmarakshita, sons of Somaputra, a Brahmana in Svaka-Vihara
DKI, p.181, No. 78
17. Hunza, Pakistan 34 of Kanishka era
Kharoshthi Dani reads 'year 34 of Maharaja devaputra Huvishka' Journal of Central Asia, Vol. VIII, No.2
18. Airtam, near Termez,Uzbekistan
34 of Kanishka era
Kharoshthi Records the renovation of a temple and digging of a well or canal within the complex of a religious establishment
DKI, p.187, No. 189
19. Kankali Tila, Mathura 35 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Setting of a Jina image by Kumarbhatti, agandhika EI, Vol. I, pp.385-86, No.7
106
20. Saptarshi mound,Mathura
35 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Setting of an image of Tirthankara IAR, 1978-79, p.113
21. Jamalpur mound,Mathura
35 of Kanishka era
Brahmi On a pillar base recording the gift of monk Buddhadasa, the companion of Sanghamitra
DKI, p.181, No.81
22. Lakhnu, Hathras 35 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Setting of a Boddhisattva image DKI, p.181, No.82
23. Private collection,Varanasi
36 of Kanishka era
Brahmi On a Buddha image DKI, p.181, No.83
24. Kankali Tila, Mathura 38 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Setting of an elephant statue by Sreshthi Rudradasa, son of Sreshthi Sivdasa for the worship of Arhant
ASIAR, No.3, pp.32-33.
25. Palikhera, Mathura 39 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Setting of a Bodhisattva image by nun Buddhadeva and the female pupil of nun Pushahathini
EI, Vol. XIX, p.66, No.2
26. Shertala, Pakistan 39 of Kanishka era
Kharoshthi Excavation of a cell by Kshatrapa Pahaka, by order of Dandanayaka Bhaharaka
DKI, p.187, No.191
27. Government MuseumMathura, Acc. No. J234
40 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Records the dedication of a stone, pillar by Simhadatta, wife of the gramika Jayanaga and daughter-in-law of gramika Jayadeva
EI, Vol. I, No. 11, pp.387-88.
28. Chhargaon, Mathura 40 ofKanishka era
Brahmi Errection of a life size naga image at its own tank by Senahastin and Bhandaka
DKI, p.181, No.87.
29. Shakardara,Cambellpur, Pakistan
40 of Kanishka era
Kharoshthi Records the digging of a well at the Shala jerry as the gift of Dronipadra companions
CII, Vol. II, pt. I, pp.15a
107
30. Rawal, Mathura 40 of Kanishka era
Kharoshthi A clumsy copy of the Shakardara inscription recording the digging of a well by Dronipadra companions
CII, Vol. II, pt. I, pp.15a
31. Government Museum,Mathura Acc. No. E.25
42 of Kanishka era
Brahmi On a statue of a male figure clad in Indo-Scythian dress in a tunic, trouser and boots
DKI, p.181, No.88
32. Inscription of Huvishkaof year 45
45 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Installation of a standing Buddha image in Roshika Vihara by female lay worshipper Khvasicha
DKI, p.181, No.89.
33. Kankali Tila, Mathura 45 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Setting of a Jina image by Dharmavriddhi, daughter-in-law- of Buddhi EI, Vol. I, p.387, No. 10
34. Mathura 46 ofKanishka era
Brahmi Setting of a Bodhisattva image in the vihara of Mahadandanayaka EI, Vol. XL, pp.168-69, No.32
35. Kankali Tila, Mathura 47 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Setting of a Jina image by wife of Gina, at the request of Sena EI, Vol.I, p.396, No.30
36. Jail mound, Mathura 47 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Gift of a pillar by monk Dharmadeva ASIAR, Vol. 3, p.33, No.11
37. Jamalpur mound,Mathura
47 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Gift of a pillar by monk Jivaka ASIAR, Vol. 3, p.33, No.12
38. Jamalpur mound,Mathura
47 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Gift of a pillar DKI, p.181, No.95
39. Jamalpur mound,Mathura
47 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Gift of a pillar by monk Buddhisreshtha DKI, p.181, No.96
108
40. Jamalpur mound,Mathura
47 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Gift of a pillar by Devila, the priest at the shrine of Dadhikarna DKI, p.181, No.97
41. Jamalpur mound,Mathura
47 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Gift of a pillar by monk Datta DKI, p.182, No.98
42. Jamalpur mound,Mathura
47 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Gift of a pillar by monk Dharma Datta DKI, p.182, No.99
43. Jamalpur mound,Mathura
47 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Gift of a pillar by monk Dharma Datta DKI, p.182, No.100
44. Jamalpur mound,Mathura
47 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Gift of a pillar by monk Buddharakshita DKI, p.182, No.101
45. Jamalpur mound,Mathura
47 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Gift of a pillar by monk Datta DKI, p.182, No.102
46. Jamalpur mound,Mathura
47 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Gift of a pillar by monk Buddhanandi DKI, p.182, No.103
47. Jamalpur mound,Mathura
- Brahmi Gift of a pillar DKI, p.182, No.104
48. Jamalpur mound,Mathura
- Brahmi Gift of a pillar DKI, p.182, No.105
49. Jamalpur mound,Mathura
- Brahmi Gift of a pillar by Buddharakshita DKI, p.182, No.106
50. Jamalpur mound,Mathura
- Brahmi Gift of a pillar by monk Datta DKI, p.182, No.107
109
51. Kankali Tila, Mathura 48 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Setting of an image of Sambhavanath by Yasa, daughter-in-law of Budhika, granddaughter of Sivatrata, at the request of Dhanisiri
DKI, p.182, No.108
52. Kankali Tila, Mathura 48 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Setting of a Jina image ASIAR, Vol.3, p.34, No.15
53. Kankali Tila, Mathura 49 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Setting of a Jina image by female lay worshipper Dina Datta, at Vodha stupa
EI, Vol. II, p.204, No.20
54. Kankali Tila, Mathura 50 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Setting of Jina image by Vijayasiri, daughter of Babu, first wife of Rajyavasu, mother of devila
EI, Vol. II, p.203, No.18
55. Kankali Tila, Mathura 50 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Setting of Jina image by Vijayasiri, daughter of Babu, first wife of Rajyavasu, mother of Devila
EI, Vol.II, p.209, No.36
56. Government Museum,Mathura, Acc. No. B-29
50 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Setting of Buddha image DKI, p.182, No.113
57. Inscription of Huvishkaof year 50
50 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Setting of Buddha image as a gift of Raha of the family of agriculturist (halikaya) Bahuvira
DKI, p.183, No.114
58. Kankali Tila, Mathura 50 of Kanishka era
Brahmi On a stone slab, gift of son of Indrabala, the Sarthavaha DKI, p.183, No.115
59. Anyor, Mathura 51 of Kanishka era
Brahmi On a pedestal statue of Buddha, for the acceptance of Mahasamghikas DKI, p.183, No.116
60. Jamalpur mound,Mathura
51 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Setting of a Buddha image in Vihara of Maharaja Devaputra Huvishka, by monk Buddhavarma
DKI, p.183, No.117
110
61. Wardak Vase Inscription 51 of Kanishka era
Kharoshthi Records the establishment of a relics of the Lord Shakyamuni in the Vagramarega Vihar in a Stupa at Khawat by the Kamagulya scion Vagramarega
CII, Vol. II, pt. I, p.170
62. Hunza, Pakistan - Kharoshthi Dani No. 1, reads 'the great king, Huvishka, the Kushana' Journal of Central Asia, Vol. VIII, No.2
63. Bhutesar, Mathura 52 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Gift of a standing Naga image DKI, p.183, No.118
64. Mathura 52 ofKanishka era
Brahmi Gift of a lohakara, Gothika EI, Vol. II, p.203, No.18
65. Naroli 53 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Setting of a Buddhist image as a gift of Singha Sena DKI, p.183, No.120
66. Kankali Tila, Mathura 54 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Seated image of Sarasvati, gift a Gova, a lohakara of Kottiya gana EI, Vol.I, p.391, No.21
67. Sitalaghat mound,Mathura
57 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Setting of an image EI, Vol. II, p.210, No. 38
68. Kankali Tila, Mathura 58 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Setting of a Jina image by Nagasena EI, Vol. I, p.387, No.9
69. Kankali Tila, Mathura 60 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Setting of a Jina image by Datta, wife of a cotton dealer, Vir Dhumitaka EI, I, p.386, No.8.
111
LIST OF INSCRIPTIONS OF VASUDEVA S.
No. Name/Findspot Year Script/Language Remarks Reference
1. Palikhera 64 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Gift of a Buddha image together with a shrine by Guhasena, from the family of the Kutumbikas or agricultural householders, for the acceptance of the teachers of the Mahasamghika community.
EI, Vol.XXX, pp.181-84
2. Hunza, Pakistan 68 of Kanishka era
Kharoshthi Rock No. 1, Dani no.15, 'Ravada, the scion of the Ropasa family Journal of Central Asia, Vol. VIII, No.2.
3. Hunza Pakistan 70 of Kanishka era
Kharoshthi Rock No. 1, Dani No. 30 Journal of central Asia, Vol. VIII, No.2.
4. Hunza Pakistan 70 of Kanishka era
Kharoshthi Rock No. 2, Dani No. 54, refer to son of Yavuga Nada'ula Journal of Central Asia, Vol. VIII, No.2.
5. Mathura 71 ofKanishka era
Brahmi Setting of a Jaina image EI, Vol. X, pp.114-115, No.8
6. Mathura 72 ofKanishka era
Brahmi Setting of an image of Vardhamana by Jayadevi DKI, p.183, No. 129
7. Ramnagar 74 ofKanishka era
Brahmi Setting of an image of Tirthankara by Dharavala, wife of Deva EI, Vol. X, pp.115-116, No.9
8. Kaman 74 ofKanishka era
Brahmi Setting of a Buddha image by monk Nandika in the Mihira Vihara, for the acceptance of the Sarvastivadin teacher
EI, Vol. II, p.212, No.42
9. Jail mound, Mathura 74 of Kanishka era
Brahmi On a slab DKI, p.184, No.32
112
10. Chaubara mound,Mathura
75 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Setting of a Buddha image by Bala, the daughter of Hitaka, the master of the monastery
DKI, p.184 No.
11. Hunza, Pakistan 76 of Kanishka era
Kharoshthi Rock No.1, Dani 92, "for the merit of all the Buddhas" Journal of Central Asia, Vol. VIII, No.2
12. Government Museum,Mathura Acc No. 89.2
79 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Setting of a Bodhisattva image by monk Vinayadhara, a Sandhik, at Maja Vihara
DKI, p.184, No. 134.
13. Kankali Tila, Mathura 80 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Setting of a Jaina image DKI, p.184, No.134
14. Kankali Tila, Mathura 80 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Setting of a Jaina image EI, Vol.I, pp.392, No.24
15. Hunza, Pakistan 80 of Kanishka era
Kharoshthi Rock No.1, Dani No. 39 – 'Bosamitra, the son of Balamitra' Journal of Central Asia, Vol. VIII, No.2
16. Hunza, Pakistan 80 of Kanishka era
Kharoshthi Rock No. 1, Dani No.51 Journal of Central Asia, Vol. VIII, No.2
17. Hunza, Pakistan 81 of Kanishka era
Kharoshthi Rock No.1, Dani no. 13 Journal of Central Asia, Vol. VIII, No.2
18. Kankali Tila, Mathura 81 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Setting of a Jina image at the request of Datta, the female pupil of Ayika-Jiva
EI, Vol. II, p.204, No.21
19. Mathura 82 ofKanishka era
Kharoshthi Records the gift of a Jina image by Rudradeva and its pedestal as the gift of Grihamitra, wife of Rudradeva
DKI, p.184, No.138
113
20. Hunza, Pakistan 82 of Kanishka era
Kharoshthi Rock No. 1, Dani No. 45 Journal of Central Asia, Vol.VIII, No.2
21. Hunza, Pakistan 83 of Kanishka era
Kharoshthi Rock No. 1, Dani No. 34. 'Mitravardhana's son and Kshatrapa Dharmarakshita's son'
Journal of Central Asia, Vol.VIII, No.2
22. Kankali Tila, Mathura 83 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Gift of a Jina image by Jinadasi, wife of a gandhika, daughter of Sena
DKI, p.184, No.139
23. Government Museum,Mathura Acc. No.B-3
83 of Kanishka era
Brahmi setting of a Jina image ASIAR, vol.3, p.34
24. Balbhadra Kunda,Mathura
84 of Kanishka era
Brahmi setting of a Jina image by Kotabhava, wife of Ainnra, daughter-in-law of Bhattadatta, at the request of Kumaradatta
DKI, p.184, No. 141
25. Kankali Tila, Mathura 84 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Setting of an image of Vardhaman by Okharika, daughter of Damitra and Datta, wife of a Kutumbiniya or householder
EI, Vol. XIX, p.67.
26. Kankali Tila, Mathura 85 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Setting of a Jina image IAR, 1974-75, p.50
27. Mathura 86 ofKanishka era
Brahmi Setting of an Ekamukhi Shivalinga referred as Bhagvan Ishvara DKI, p.184, No.144
28. Kankali Tila, Mathura 86 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Setting of a Jina image by daughter of Dasa, wife of Priya at the request of Vasula
EI, Vol.I, p.388, No.22
29. Kankali Tila, Mathura 87 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Setting of a Jina image by Mitra, pupil of the venerable arya Kumarnandi
EI, Vol. I, pp.388-89, No.13
114
30. Kankali Tila, Mathura 87 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Setting of a Jina image ASIAR, Vol.3, p.35, No.18
31. Mamane Dheri,Peshawar, Pakistan
89 of Kanishka era
Kharoshthi On a Gandhara sculpture, a gift of Shramana Dharmapriya, in honour of his teacher Buddhapriya, for the bestowal of health of his fellow disciples
CII, Vol.II, pt.I, pp.171-172,
32. Alam bridge, Pakistan 89 of Kanishka era
Kharoshthi Rock No.10 'Ne' i'usa, the son of Dhammana' DKI, p.189, No.209
33. Kankali Tila, Mathura 90 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Setting of a Jina image, by daughter in law of Dina of Kottiya Gana EI, Vol.II, p.205, No.22
34. Mata Gali Lane, Mathura 91 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Erection of a stone channel for the strength of Mahasanghikas, at the Chutaka Vihara
EI, Vol.XIX, pp.68-69.
35. Hunza, Pakistan 91 of Kanishka era
Kharoshthi Rock No.1, Dani 21, records the name of Kshatrapa Bhulikadala Journal of Central Asia, Vol. VIII, No.2
36. Mohali 92 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Installation of a Bodhisattva image by monk Grahadasika, resident of Venda Vihara
EI, Vol.XXXIV, pp.10-11
37. Mathura 92 ofKanishka era
Brahmi Setting of a Vardhamana image DKI, p.185, No.151
38. Kankali Tila, Mathura 93 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Setting of a Jina image by daughter of a Suvarnakara or goldsmith, at the request of Ganinandi
EI, Vol. II, p.205, No.23
39. Mathura 93 ofKanishka era
Brahmi Setting of a standing Buddha with an umbrella by Dhana, after honouring the Shramana, a Kayastha
EI, Vol. XXXVII, pp.151-53.
115
40. Kankali Tila, Mathura 95 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Setting of sculptured panel by daughter of Grahadatta, wife of Dhanahastin
EI, Vol. I, p.392, No.22
41. Government Museum,Mathura, Acc. No. B-31
97 of Kanishka era
Brahmi A small pavilion for Vardhamana was created by Damini DKI, p.185, No.155
42. Kankali Tila, Mathura 98 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Setting of a Tirthankara image by wife of Arya Kshema, daughter of a pravaraka, daughter in law of a gandhika
ASIAR, Vol. 3, p.35, No.20
43. Kankali Tila, Mathura 98 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Setting of a Jina image EI, Vol. II, p.205, No.24
44. Lakhanu, Hathras - Brahmi Setting of a pedestal by daughter-in-law of Sena DKI, p.185, No.158
45. San Franciscoinscription
170 of unknown era
Brahmi On a noble Chakra or a Naga image DKI, p.185, No.159.
116
LIST OF OTHER INSCRIPTIONS OF KUSHANA RULERS
S. No.
Site Tehsil/District CulturalSequence
Remarks Reference
1. Kankali Tila, Mathura 25 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Setting of a Jina image by Rayagini wife of a rajaka or washerman Jayabhatta
EI, Vol.I, p.384, No.5
2. Jamalpur mound,Mathura
26 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Setting of a stone slab at the shrine of holy lord of naga Dadhikarnna by sons of the actors of Mathura, known as the Chandak brothers
DKI, p.179, No.61
3. Hidda 28 of Kanishka era
Kharoshthi Refers to Samghamitra, a navakarmika (architect) CII, Vol. II, pt. I, pp.157 ff.
4. Ara, near Attock 41 of Kanishka era
Kharoshthi Records the digging of a well by Dashavahara of the Peshawarian scions during the reign of Maharaja Rajatiraja Devaputra Kaisara Kanishka (II)
CII, Vol.II, pt. I, p.165.
5. Hunza, Pakistan 48 of Kanishka era
Kharoshthi Dani No. 16, reads the name Kushana Journal of Central Asia, Vol. VIII, No.2
6. Und 61 of Kanishka era
Kharoshthi Records the digging of a well CII, Vol. II, pt. I, pp.170-71
7. Rani ki Mandi,Mathura
62 of Kanishka era
Brahmi On a broken Jina statue, refers to a well ASIAR, Vo. XX, p.37
8. Kankali Tila, Mathura 62 of Kanishka era
Brahmi Setting of a Jina image by atapika Grahabala EI, Vol.II, p.204, No.19
9. Mathura 145 of unknown era
- On a round stone object recording the gift of land called Sarpa-bhumi by Balanadini, a women of the Gautama Gotra
DKI, p.185, No.165
10. Mathura 270 of unknown era
- Setting of a devakula by Ujhatika, daughter of … and Okharika and by Okha who was the lay sister of Shrika and Sivadinna
DKI, p.185, No.166
11. State Museum,Lucknow
299 of unknown era
- - DKI, p.185,No.167
117
12. Mathura 16 of unknown era
- On a female figure DKI, p.185, No.164
13. Salimpur nearPanjtar
122 of unknown era
Kharoshthi Records the gift of Moika, the son of Urumuja, causing the temple of lord Shiva to be built in the kingdom of Maharaja Gushana
CII, Vol. II, pt.I, p.70
14. Taxila silver scrollinscription
136 of unknown era
Kharoshthi Records the enshrinement of the relics of the lord by Urasaka, the Bactrian, in the Dharmarajika compound of Takshashila for the bestowal of health on maharaja rajatiraja devaputra, Kushan in honour of all Buddha
CII, Vol.II, pt. I, pp.70-71.
15. Dash-e-Nawur,Afghanistan
279 of unknown era
Kharoshthi and Bactrian
Two inscriptions on a rock, Bactrian inscription reads Shao Ooemo Takshoma (o) Koshano and Kharoshthi – Rajatiraja Devaputra… Dharmi (asa) Vhima Kushasa
DKI, p.189, No.214
16. Shaikhan Dheri,Pakistan
9 of unknown era
Kharoshthi - Ancient Pakistan,Vol. II, pp.109-113
17. Kaniza Dheri,Pakistan
- Kharoshthi - CII, Vol. II, pt. I, pp. 172 ff
18. Peshawar Museum,No.12
- Kharoshthi Records the digging of a well by Brahmana Vasudeva, son of Indradeva, a resident of Obhara. Four line unique Kharoshthi inscription in which Sanskrit language is used
CII, Vol.II, pt. I, pp.155 ff.
19. Circular road mound,Mathura
- Brahmi Setting of a Bodhisattva image DKI, p.185, No.160
20. GovernmentMuseum, Mathura Acc. No. A-64
- Brahmi Seated Buddha image recording gift of daughter-in-law of Phalguyasa DKI, p.185, No.161
21. Mathura - Brahmi - DKI, p.185,No.162
22. Mathura - Brahmi Setting of a Jina image by Dina, daughter of Vajaranadya, daughter in law of Vadhishiva
EI, Vol.II, p.208, No.33
118
Thus a study of Kushana coinage and inscriptions throws invaluable
light on various aspects of Kushana rule in India. Together, they enable us to
reconstruct the political boundaries of the Kushana empire and draw
reasonable conclusions about various aspects of polity, economy, society,
religion, etc. under their rule. The Kushanas evolved a powerful and pervasive
monetary system that even outlived the Kushana empire. The reckoning
started by Kanishka and followed by his successors is still prevalent as the
Saka Samvat in India and is recognized as the national era.
119