CHAPTER III CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK OF...
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CHAPTER III
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK OF WOMEN EMPOWERMENT
AND ENTREPRENEURSHIP
3.1 BACKGROUND
Empowering women is a prerequisite for creating a good nation. When women
are empowered, society with stability is assured. Empowerment of women is essential
as their thoughts and their value systems lead to the development of a good family,
good society and ultimately a good nation. – A.P.J. ABDUL KALAM57
.
Women's empowerment is a process in which women gain greater share of
control over resources-material, human and intellectual like knowledge, information,
ideas and financial resources like money. It also implies an access to money and control
over decision-making at home, community, society and nation and to gain 'power'.
According to the Report of Government of India, "Empowerment means moving from a
position of enforced powerlessness to one of power". The work participation rate
indicates to a great extent the economic empowerment of women in the society. The
status of women is intimately connected with their economic position, which in turn
depends on opportunities for participation in economic activities.
Empowerment of women is a holistic concept. It is a multi-dimensional
approach and involves a basic retaliation and awareness of women powers,
potentialities capabilities and competences right and opportunities of all round
development in all spheres of life women empowerment. Therefore it is a process
which enables women to have access and control over various factors necessary for
57
Shectal Sharma, “Educational Women Empowered Women”, The Journal of Yojana, ISSN-0971-8400,
Oct -2006, p.52
their economic independence, political participation and social development but such
political participation and social upliftment would be meaningless and almost
impossible, if their economic independence is not achieved. The process of
empowerment will be challenging, which has to be properly addressed at different
levels both individual as well as collective through entrepreneurship.
The empowerment of women is one of the central issues in the process of
development of countries all over the world. Tamil Nadu has a glorious tradition of
recognizing the importance of empowering women over several centuries now. The
Government of India has made Empowerment of Women as one of the principal
objectives of the Ninth Five Year Plan (1997-2002) and also declared 2001 as the year
of 'Women's Empowerment'58
. Our constitution has conferred and guaranteed equality
before law, universal adult franchise and equal opportunities for men and women as
fundamental rights. The imperative of gender partnership in matters of development has
been recognized. In order to give a fill up to empowerment of women, appropriate
institutional mechanisms and interventions have been consciously built into the
development design. The launching of Rashtriya Mahila Kosh, Indira Mahila Yojana,
Mahila Samridhi Yojana, reserving of one third of the number of seats in Panchayat
and the local bodies are programmes launched with a view to improving and
empowering women socially, economically and in political frontiers. In order to get
economic empowerment, entrepreneurship is a tool. Moreover the Indian Government
has been launching a number of development activities to empower the women
entrepreneurs.
58
Shobha, K. and Vinitha, V, “Inclusion & Female Labour Force in Mernrega”, Southern Economist,
May 1,2001, p.59
The industrial development in any country occurs mainly on account of constant
striving of entrepreneurs who are responsive to business incentives and motivation. The
next development or under development of an economy is both the cause as well as the
consequence of inadequate development of entrepreneurial talent in the society. Unless
entrepreneurship development takes place on a large scale with the growing demands of
technology, industry and economy industrial development will not acquire the requisite
tempo and the industry will not become diversified and disbursed. The inactivity or
scarcity of entrepreneurs has been a major hindrance to economic development in many
Asian countries.
The emergence of entrepreneurs in a society depends to a great extent on the
economic, social, religious, cultural and psychological factors prevailing in the social
entrepreneurship is the propensity of human mind to the calculated risks with
confidence to make a success of industrial enterprise. Researchers have proved that
entrepreneurship is not an inborn quality. It can be created and nurtured. In India where
human resources are found in plenty, individuals with requisite entrepreneurial skills
can be identified, motivated and trained through entrepreneur development programmes
for undertaking risk bearing venture.
In India, under McClelland’s guidance the National Institute of Small Industry
Extension Training–Hyderabad conducted the first experimental programme for
development of entrepreneurship in the mid-sixties. The State Bank of India conducted
its first entrepreneurial development programme in 197859
. The Government has started
Science and Technology Entrepreneurship Parks (STEP) in Universities. Both Central
and State Governments have been providing many financial and non-financial
incentives to the prospective entrepreneurs.
3.2 MEANING OF WOMEN EMPOWERMENT
Empowerment means individuals acquiring the power to think and act freely,
exercise choice and fulfill their potential as full and equal members of society. As per the
United Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM), the term women's
empowerment means:
Acquiring knowledge and understanding of gender relations and ways in which
these relations may be changed, developing a sense of self-worth, a belief in one's ability to
secure desired changes and the right to control one's life, gaining the ability to
generate choices and exercise bargaining power, developing the ability to organize and
influence the direction of social change and to create more just social and economic order,
nationally and internationally.
Thus, empowerment means a psychological sense of personal control or influence
and a concern with actual social influence, political power and legal rights. It is a multi
level construction referring to individuals, organizations and community. It is intentional,
involving mutual respect, critical reflection, caring and group participation, through
which people lacking an equal share of valued resources, gain greater access to and control
over these resources.
59
Himachalim, D, “ Entrepreneurship Development in Small Scale Sector”, Yojana, Feb 16-28, 1990,
p.16.
Mohini Giri (1998) states that women all over the world are overwhelmingly
concerned with the issue of gender equality through women's empowerment. The countries
of the world and the women's movement everywhere, during the past five decades that the
United Nations has been in existence, organized in a systematic and sustained manner, the
strategies and approaches that effectively enable women to be equal partners in one's
national progress and prosperity60
.
According to Sahay (1998), the actual definitions offered for "empower" are:
(1) To give power or authority to;
(2) Give ability to; enable; permit, (for example, court of law is empowered to
judge a person to be punished or not)61
.
'Power' is the key word of the term 'Empowerment', which means having control over
material assets like land and finance, intellectual resources like knowledge; information and
ideas, and to generate, sustain and propagate an ideology62
.
Empowerment has several other dimensions like social, economic,
psychological and political. Social empowerment connotes formation of social capacities such
as health, education, freedom and opportunities for realizing one's potentialities.
Economic empowerment implies entitlement to employment, income, property, productive
resources and benefits regardless of gender differences. Psychological empowerment
signifies confidence building, acquisition of a sense of efficacy and ability to overcome
60
Giri, M.V, “Emancipation as Empowerment of Women”, Gyan Publishing House, New Delhi.
61Sahay, S, “Women and Empowerment:Approaches and Strategies”, Discovery Publishing House, New
Delhi.
62Apte, J.S, “Education and Women's Empowerment”, Indian Journal of Adult Education, July-
September, 1995.
feeling of helplessness. Political empowerment implies equal say in the decision-making
process in the power structure at all levels from local to global. All these dimensions of
empowerment are so intertwined with one another that over reliance on one to the neglect
of the other are not likely to work63
.
Women are empowered in more ways than one. Feminists talk of different kinds of
empowerment-economic, social, political and integrated. Those who talk of economic
empowerment think that women are economically weaker and if they are empowered
economically, other kinds of empowerment are assured. Those who talk of integrated
empowerment want women to be empowered economically, educationally and
socially64
.
Empowerment in its simplest form means the manifestation of redistribution of
power that challenges patriarchal ideology and male domination. It is both a process and
the result of the process. It is transformation of the structures or institutions that reinforces
and perpetuates gender discrimination. It is a process that enables women to gain access to
and control of material as well as information resources. The concept of women's
empowerment throughout the world has it roots in women's movement. It is since the mid-
1980s that this term became popular in the field of development especially with reference to
women65
.
63
Sharma, S.L, “Empowerment without Antogonism: A Case for Reformulation of Women’s
Empowerment Approach”, Sociological Bulletin, Vol.49, pp.19-39.
64Suriakanthi, A, “Literacy-Essential for SHGs”, Social Welfare, Vol.47, pp.32-34.
65Chandra, S.K., “Women and Empowerment”, Indian Journal of Public Administration, Vol.43, July-
September 1997.
Empowerment is the means by which individuals, groups and communities take
control of their circumstances and achieve their own goals, thereby being able to work
towards helping themselves and others to maximize the quality of their lives66
.
Empowerment is the process of enabling or authorizing an individual to think,
behave take action and control work in an autonomous way. It is the state of feeling of
empowerment to take control of one's own destiny. Empowerment is the process by which
the powerless gain greater control over the circumstances. Various theories of
empowerment have been enunciated by theorists like Zimmerman 67
(2001) and Hall (1990),
among others. These theories enable us to understand the basics and the process of
empowerment. According to Zimmerman, as quoted by Fetterman (2001)68
,
empowerment processes are those in which attempts to gain control, obtain the needed
resources, and critically understand one's social environment are fundamental. The process
is empowering if it helps people develop their skills, so that they become independent
problem solvers and decision-makers. Empowering processes vary across levels of
analysis, according to Zimmerman. For example, empowering processes for
individuals may include organizational or community involvement; empowering processes at
the organizational level may include shared leadership and decision-making; and
empowering processes at the community level may include accessibility to
government, the media, and other community resources. This theory adds that the
outcomes of the empowering processes also differ across levels of analysis. At the individual
level outcomes might include situation-specific perceived control, skills and proactive
behaviors; at the organizational level outcomes might include organizational networks,
66
Adams, R, “Social Work and Empowerment”, London: Macmillan Press Ltd, 1996.
67Zimmerman, M.A, “Empowerment Theory”, Plenum, New Delhi.
68Fetterman, D.M, “Foundations of Empowerment Evaluation”, Sage Publications, New Delhi.
effective resource acquisition, and policy leverage and at the community level outcomes
might include evidence of pluralism, the existence of organizational coalitions, and
accessible community resources69
.
3.3 APPROACHES TO WOMEN EMPOWERMENT
Women's empowerment, according to Bhasin (1985), involved the transformation of
power relations at six different levels: Individual, family, group, organization, village
community and society. In order to empower the rural poor especially the women, female
development workers must first empower themselves.
The author identifies three approaches to women's empowerment: the integrated
development approach, which focuses on women's survival and livelihood needs; the
economic development approach, which aims to strengthen women's economic position
and the consciousness-raising approach, which organizes women into collectives that
address the sources of oppression. To be effective, empowerment strategies must
simultaneously address women's practical gender needs as well as strategic gender needs.
Finally, an undemocratic environment and a fragmented understanding of the concept and
process of empowerment will hinder experiments in empowerment70
.
3.4 STATUS OF WOMEN IN INDIA
Launching the nation-wide campaign to reverse the alarming decline in the
ratio of women in the population in the country, Minister for Women and Child
Development, Government of India said: "It is a tragedy that every year, half a million
69
Hall, C.M, “Identity Empowerment through Clinical Sociology”, Clinical Sociology Review,
Vol.8, 1990, pp. 69-86.
70Bhasin, K, “Education for Women’s Empowerment-Some Reflections”, Adult Education and
Development, March, 1985, p.38.
girl children are being killed and prevented from being born, ironically with the help
of modern tools of science and technology leading to the decline in the ratio of women
in the population. It is shocking that the declining sex ratio has already led to a
situation where brothers shared a wife and in some cases, even fathers and sons
shared a wife in several parts of the country". Ministry would therefore, observe the
next 10 years as the decade of the Survival of the Girl Child71
.
3.4.1 Contemporary Status
According to the Census of India 2001, 498 million women represented
48.2 per cent of the country's population of 1,027.01 crores. The sex ratio of 933
women per 1000 men as revealed by the Census Report 2001 shows the misuse of the
prenatal diagnostic technique to do away with female foetus. Health-wise, high rates of
infant and maternal deaths and severe anaemia in over half of all married women in
India are some of the indicators of the low priority accorded to women's health in the
country. Life expectancy of rural women, which was 32 years in 1947 has gone up to 64
years today. Infant mortality has decreased considerably.
According to the Census of India 2001, the literacy percentage of women
was only 54.16, though it has grown considerably since Independence. In 1951, the
literacy rate of women was only 8.86 per cent. In 2001, it had raised manifold which
went up to 54.16 per cent. The school enrollment has gone up to 99 per cent and
every eligible girl child today has all the freedom and opportunity to get education.
They now have access to higher education.
71
The Hindu, March 9, 2006, p. 13.
Ever since India became free, there have been phenomenal changes in the
condition of women. The constitution has given women the much needed status. They
are now equal before law. There can be no discrimination by the state on grounds of
gender. But, it is reported that in 1991, India had approximately 5157 dowry deaths,
20,611 molestation cases, 12,300 kidnappings and abductions, 10,283 cases of eve
teasing, 15,949 instances involving cruelty by husband and relatives72
.
In matters related to economic development, women continued to be
marginalized both in policy formulation and programme implementation. Low
level of skills lead to lower wages and low earning73
. In terms of employment,
women enjoy the same status as men and have to be given equal pay for equal work.
Assurance has been given to promote harmony and to renounce practices
derogatory to their dignity. Some of the recently enacted labour laws have
facilitated the employment of rural women as unskilled labourers in the organized
and unorganized sectors.
Politically, the reforms in the Panchayat Raj Act have given greater share for
women in rural governance. At present, the concept of Self-Help Groups for women,
particularly in rural areas has given them an opportunity to organize themselves to
engage in productive activities that could augment their earnings which leads to their
social and political empowerment.
3.4.2 Gender Disparity
72
Giri, M. V, “Emancipation as Empowerment of Women”, Gyan Publishing House, New Delhi,
1998.
73Agarwal, Bina, “Gender and Command Over Property: A Critical Gap in Economic Analysis and
Policy in South Asia”, World Development, Vol.22, No.10.
According to Amartya Sen (2001), gender inequality is not a homogenous
phenomenon but a collection of desperate and interlinked problems and the different
kinds of gender inequality were displayed in mortality, basic facility, special
opportunity professions, ownership, and household matters. We shall look into the
classification of gender disparity at birth, growth and survival.
3.4.3 Birth Disparity
In being born as female children and in giving birth to children, women
experience grave disparity, while the infant mortality reveals that the right to be born
is denied, the maternal mortality speaks of the lack of medical care and attention to
women.
3.4.4 Infant Mortality
Sex ratio (females per 1000 males) is a simple but very strong index of the
long-term status of women's welfare. India is one of the few countries where males
significantly outnumber females and their imbalance has increased over time.
According to Census of India 2011, the sex ratio is 940. Table 3.1 shows the sex
ratio in Tamil Nadu and India.
Table 3.1
Sex Ratio (1901-2011)
Sl. No. Year Tamil Nadu India
1. 1901 1044 974
2. 1951 1007 946
3. 1961 992 941
4. 1971 978 930
5. 1981 977 934
6. 1991 974 927
7. 2001 986 933
8. 2011 995.06 940
Source: http://updateox.com, Date: 01.10.2011
The table reveals that in Tamil Nadu, the ratio has registered a continuous
decline except in 2001. According to the 2001 Population Census, the sex ratio for
the State stood at 987 as against 974 in 1991 Census. The rural sex ratio is
relatively favourable at 992 compared to 981 in urban areas. It may also be noted
that sex ratio in Tamil Nadu was consistently better than all-India average.
In Tamil Nadu, the sex ratio has been raised to 995.06 in 2011 (1991 sex ratio-
974). The inter-district variations in Tamil Nadu have been striking. Table further
shows that in Tamil Nadu, the sex ratio was 1044 in 1901 and 1007 in 1951. After
completion of 50 years there have been rapid changes in men and women sex ratio.
3.4.5 Maternal Mortality
India's Maternal Mortality Rates (MMR) in rural areas is one of the highest
in the world. From a global perspective, India accounts for 19 per cent of 911 lives
births and 27 per cent of all maternal deaths. It is estimated that pregnancy related
deaths account for one-third of them, considered preventable forever.
3.4.6 Education
Education can pave the way for an overall development of individuals and for
the society. Female literacy is not only an end in itself, but also serves as a catalyst for
overall performance in other segments too. Table 3.2 shows the literacy ratio in Tamil
Nadu.
Table 3.2
Literacy in Tamil Nadu
Sl.No Year Male (%) Female (%) Total (%)
1 1951 31.73 10.06 20.85
2 1961 44.54 18.17 31.41
3 1971 51.78 26.36 39.46
4 1981 58.26 34.99 46.76
5 1991 74.88 51.30 63.72
6 2001 82.33 64.55 73.47
Source: Census of India (1951-2001)
It is clear from the table that the literacy levels of women in Tamil Nadu (64.55
per cent) have been always above the national average (India’s female literacy: 54.16
per cent).
3.5 STATUS OF WOMEN–GLOBAL SCENARIO
The status of women in global scenario is presented below.
3.5.1 Economic Status
At present, one in every four households in the world is headed by woman.
When compared to men, the majority of women earn on an average about three-
fourths of the pay of males for the same work outside of the agricultural sector in
both developed and developing countries.
The Value of women’s unpaid house work and community work is estimated
between 10-35 per cent of GDP worldwide amounting to $ 11 trillion in 1993. Women
hold 35.1 per cent of professional posts in the United Nations Secretariat including
17.9 per cent in senior management.
3.5.2 Educational Status
There is inequality in the opportunity given to girls for their formal school
education worldwide. Two-thirds of the 130 million children worldwide, who are not
in school, are girls. During the past two decades, the combined primary and secondary
enrollment ration for girls in developing countries increased from 38 per cent to 78
per cent.
3.5.3 Political Status
United Nations observed that despite the recent election of women heads of
state in Chile, Liberia and Germany, women are making scant progress around the
world in getting into leadership positions in business, government and academia, even
in wealthy nations. The pace is still too slow, said the report prepared by UN Secretary
General Kofi Annan to mark the International Women’s Day.
3.6 Status of Women in Tamil Nadu Demographic Features
Population growth has been stabilized over the years in Tamil Nadu. The
status of women with regard to population over five decades is given in Table 3.3.
Table 3.3
Growth of Women Population
(In millions)
Source: Directorate of Census Co-operations, Tamil Nadu.
Table reveals that the female population constitutes nearly half of the total
population in the State.
Census
Tamil Nadu All India
Male Female Persons Male Female Persons
1951 22.8 7.3 30.1 186 175.6 361.1
1961 16.9 16.8 33.7 226 212.9 439.2
1971 20.8 20.4 41.2 284 264.1 548.2
1981 24.5 23.9 48.4 353 330.0 683.3
1991 28.3 27.6 55.9 439 407.1 846.3
2001 31.4 31.0 62.4 531 495.7 1027.0
3.6.1 Women Literacy
Education is the main instrument for transformation in any society. The
economic and social returns to education for women are substantial. By educating
its women, a country can reduce poverty, improve productivity, ease population
pressure and offer its children a better future. A package approach is required for
developing female education.
The differences in the levels of literacy between males and females were
significantly higher in rural areas than in urban areas. This indicates that specific
intervention may be required for developing the literacy rates of the female
population especially (less privileged classes) in rural areas.
Table 3.4
Female Literacy Rate in Tamil Nadu - 2001 Census
Region Male Female Percentage
Rural 77.15 55.28 66.21
Urban 88.97 75.99 82.53
Total 82.42 64.43 73.45
Source: Director of Census Operations, Tamil Nadu.
Table 3.4 shows that the female literacy rate in Tamil Nadu is 55.28 per cent in
2001 but the male literacy rate in Tamil Nadu was 77.15 per cent in rural area. Table
further shows that the female literacy in urban area was 75.99 per cent against the male
literacy rate of 88.97 per cent.
3.6.2 Employment and Work Participation Rate
Table 3.5 shows the work participation rate as well as number of workers in
Tamil Nadu.
Table 3.5
Work Participation Rates and Number of Workers in Tamil Nadu
(Census based)
RegionsWork Participation Rate (%) No. of Workers (lakhs)
1981 1991 2001 1981 1991 2001
Rural 59.24 58.28 59.38 96.7 108.2 104.0
Male 33.55 38.50 41.33 54.1 70.1 71.8
Female 46.48 48.49 50.39 150.8 178.3 175.8
Urban 51.25 52.78 56.37 41.8 51.4 77.6
Male 11.97 13.10 18.42 9.3 12.2 24.8
Female 32.05 33.34 37.59 51.1 63.6 102.4
Total 56.58 56.39 58.96 138.5 159.6 181.6
Male 26.52 29.89 31.32 63.4 82.4 96.6
Female 41.73 43.31 44.78 201.9 241.9 278.2
Source: Census 1981, 1991 & 2000, GPI.
As per the Census results for Tamil Nadu, the work participation rate for
females rose from 26.52 per cent in 1981 to 31.32 per cent in 2001, the rate of growth
has been faster than males. However, the number of female workers accounted for
34.72 per cent in the total workforce of 278 lakhs in 2001. The corresponding figure
for 1991 Census was 34.06 per cent. In the total population, nearly half were females
but they accounted for only 34 per cent of the total workers. This proportion has to be
improved for ensuring better and all round economic empowerment.
3.6.3 Women and Political Participation
Political equality to all children regardless of birth, sex, colour, etc., is one of
the basic premises of democracy. Political equality includes not only equal right to
franchise but also more importantly, the right to access to the institutionalized
centers of power. Thus, political participation of women means not only using the
right to vote but also power sharing, co-decision making and co-policy making at
all levels. The active participation of women in political sphere is integral to
empowerment of women and helps to build a gender-equal society as well as to
speed up the process of national development, Women's political empowerment is
premised on three fundamental and non-negotiable principles: (a) the equality
between women and men; (b) women's right to the full development of their
potentials; and (c) women's right to self-representation and self-determination. In PRI
women are increasingly coming to the fore and are providing leadership at the grass
root level. This has profound social implications which go a long way in addressing
gender related discrimination in development.
3.6.4 Violence against Women
Table 3.6 shows violence against women.
Table 3.6
Violence against Women
Sl.No Year No. of Crimes
1 2005 5791
2 2006 4722
3 2007 6605
4 2008 6524
5 2009 5333
6 2010 6127
7 2011 4036
Source: Dinamalar News Paper, dt. 1-10-2011
Table 3.6 indicates that the number of crimes against women was 5791 in
2005 it has decreased to 4036 crimes against women in 2011. So it can be concluded
from the above table that 2005 between 2011, and violence against women has been
decreasing that been 2005 and 2011, due to high women literacy rate, government
policy, legal awareness etc.
3.7 NATIONAL INITIATIVES FOR WOMEN EMPOWERMENT
For various historic and socio-cultural reasons, women are a vulnerable section
of our society and several macro indicators relate to education, health, employment,
economic participation, etc. Women also comprise a sizeable segment of the poverty
struck population. Development and empowerment of women has been a priority in
successive plans and several public expenditure programs are directed to these
objectives. However, outcome of administrative inertness is not often realized. Women
face gender specific bureaucrats to access of public service and expenditure.
Gender Budgeting lends itself to strengthening of administrative processes and
action to achieve the targets for improvement in the position of women. It not only
entails a look at allocation of resources for women but goes beyond to cover tracking
the utilization of allocated resources, impact analyses and beneficiary incidence
analysis of public expenditure and policy from a gender expenditure and policy from a
gender perspective. As the nodal Ministry for women, the Ministry of Women and
Child Development has been undertaking several initiatives for empowerment of
women. In this context the ministry has honed Gender Budgeting as a tool for
14%
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15%
15%
Year
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achieving the goals and targets enshrined for women in our constitution and plans and
policies. In 2004–05 the ministry adopted “Budgeting for Gender Equity” as a Mission
Statement. A Strategic Framework of activities to implement this mission was also
framed and disseminated across all Ministries of Government of India. The year 2005-
06 has been devoted to carry forward this exercise and universalizing gender budgeting
initiatives in the government at the centre and states.
The term Gender Budgeting has been defined differently in various documents
on the subject to establish its gender-differential impacts to translate gender
commitment into budgetary commitments. Thus gender budgeting looks at the
government budget from a gender perspective to access how it addresses the needs for
women in the areas like health, education, employment, etc. Gender Budgeting does not
seek to create a separate budget but seeks affirmative action to address specific needs of
women.
In order to empower the weaker and socially and economically deprived
sections of the society, the Ministry of Welfare which was constituted on 25th
September 1985, was renamed as the Ministry of Social Justice and Empowerment
on 25th May 1998 during the IX plan period. The responsibility for implementation of
the schemes is shared between the Central and State Governments. The Department
of Women and Child Development, since its inception, has been implementing
special programmes for holistic development and empowerment of women with
major focus on improving the socio-economic status of women. Some of the recent
programmes and initiatives of women and development implemented by the
Departments of Women and Development and Rural Development in the area of
women's empowerment are as follows:
3.7.1 Women Development
In the Women and Child Development sector, the nodal Department of Women
and Child Development also implements a few innovative schemes besides
formulating policies and programmes; enacts/amends legislations affecting women
and co-ordinates the efforts of both Governmental and Non-Governmental
Organizations (NGOs) to raise the overall status of women on par with that of men.
The programmes of the Department include: (i) empowering strategies; (ii) employment
and income generation; (iii) welfare and support services; (iv) awareness generation and
gender sensitization and (v) other enabling measures. These programmes play the
role of being both supplementary and complementary to the other general
development programmes in the sectors of health, education, labour and employment,
rural and urban development, etc. Some of the important on-going interventions of the
nodal department during the ninth plan are detailed below.
3.7.2 Empowering Strategies
The erstwhile programme of Indira Mahila Yojana programme launched in
I995 was recast as Swayamsidha in 2001 to empower women by generating awareness
and helping them to achieve economic strength through micro-level income-
generation activities and facilitate easy convergence of various services such as
literacy, health, non-formal education, rural development, water supply,
entrepreneurship, etc.,
Another empowering intervention refers to ‘Swa-Shakti Project' sanctioned in
1998, for a five-year period till 2003 with assistance from the International
Development Association and International Fund for Agricultural Development
Swa-Shakti has been in action in 57 districts of 9 states of Bihar, Chhattisgarh,
Gujarat, Haryana, Jharkhand, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Uttaranchal and Uttar
Pradesh. Its major objective is to create an enabling environment for empowerment
of women through setting up of self-reliant women's SHGs and developing linkages
between SHGs and lending institutions in order to ensure women's continued access
to credit facilities for income generation activities.
3.7.3 Employment and Income Generation
The Support for Training and Employment Programme (STEP), launched in
1987, provides a comprehensive package of upgradation of skills through training,
extension inputs and market linkages to poor and assetless women in the traditional
sectors of agriculture, dairy farming, handicrafts, handlooms, animal husbandry,
sericulture and fisheries. Since inception of this programme, about 6.1 lakh women
have been covered under 133 projects launched in 19 states viz. Andhra Pradesh, Bihar,
Chhattisgarh, Gujarat, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya
Pradesh, Maharashtra, Manipur, Nagaland, Orissa, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu, Tripura,
Uttaranchal, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal. Nearly 60 per cent of the projects have
been in the dairy sector. About 8,000 women's dairy co-operatives with more than 4
lakh members have been organised throughout the country mainly through the
initiative of State Cooperative Milk Federations. Another Programme called
Training-cum-Production Centres for Women (popularly known as NORAD) was
launched in 1982-83 with the assistance from the Norwegian Agency for
Development and Cooperation (NORAD). The Scheme attempts to improve the
lives of young women/girls especially school drop-outs and semi-literates, by
extending training to non-traditional trades like electronics, watch assembling,
computer programming, garment making, secretarial work, community health
work, embroidery, weaving, etc.
3.8 CONCEPT OF ENTREPRENEUR
The word “Entrepreneur” is derived from the French verb entrepredre. It means
“to undertake”. In the early 16th
century the Frenchmen who organised and led military
expeditions were referred to as “Entrepreneurs”. In the early 18th
century French
economist Richard Cantillon used the term entrepreneur to business. Since that time the
word entrepreneur means one who takes the risk of starting a new organisation or
introducing a new idea, product or service to society.
According to J.B Say, “An Entrepreneur is the economic agent who unites all
means of production, land of one, the labour of another and the capital of yet another
and thus produces a product. By selling the product in the market he pays rent of land,
wages to labour, interest on capital and what remains is his profit”.
The Indian Government having realised the importance of the role to be played
by women in the development of the nation, has incorporated in the Sixth Plan a special
chapter on women’s development which explains in detail, the plan of action for
integration of women’s participation in national development74
. A separate programme
for training of women entrepreneurs was started in 1978-79. The programmes are being
operated through the network of small Industries services Institute and other institutions
74
C. Rani, 1992, “Potential women entrepreneurs – A study”, Women in enterprise and profession (C.
Kalbagh-Editor) Discovery.
like District Industries centres, State Financial Corporations, state small Industries
Corporations and commercial banks.75
In the 1980’s women have started looking up at entrepreneurship as an
economic and gainful option. The new Industrial policy 1980, has emphasised the need
for implementing the entrepreneurship programme for women in rural and urban areas
to uplift their status in the economic and social field. Product and process courses were
framed to train the women group for their participation in industries and business.
The Seventh Plan (1985 – 90) has stated that women section have to be given
special recognition and provided with requisite facilities for bringing them into the
main stream of economic growth. In this regard the plan has emphasised the following
tasks:
1. To treat women as specific target groups in all development programmes.
2. To properly diversify vocational training facilities for women to suit to their
varied needs and skills.
3. To encourage appropriate technologies, equipments and practice for
reducing their drudgery and increasing their productivity.
4. To provide industrial estates at the State level.
5. To increase women’s participation in decision making.
75G. Ravindran Nair, “A glimmer of hope for self employed women”, Commerce, Sep 3-9,
1988, p.48.
It is only after the draft of the seventh Five year plan and National Perspective
Plan for Women’s Development of 1988, that women’s employment issues started
gaining considerable focus.
Besides financial institutions and banks, a number of non financial and
voluntary bodies are also engaged in this field. At the state level, the state Technical
Consultancy Organisation and District Industrial Centre conduct entrepreneurship
development progammes for women. The ladies Association of Federation of Indian
Chamber of Commerce and Industry provides on the job training to women in addition
to entrepreneurship development programmes. Indian Council of Women
Entrepreneurs (ICWE) and National Science and Technology Entrepreneurship
Development Board also offer training programmes to interested women.
The Eighth plan focuses in a big way on generation of self employment among
women. Government of India has accepted the definition of “Women entrepreneurs
enterprise” are recommended by National level Standing Committee on women
entrepreneurs. Women entrepreneurs enterprise is an enterprise owned and
administered by a women entrepreneur having financial interest of 51 percent of share
capital and having atleast 50 per cent of the employment generated in the enterprise to
woman. This conceptual clearance brought about a change in the approach to the
development of women entrepreneurs.
The new Industries Policy for small scale sector announced by the Government
of India in August 1991 has placed considerable stress on promotion of
entrepreneurship and self-employment among women through several measures such
as specialised training programmes, ensuring timely and adequate availability of credit
at affordable rate of interest and marketing support76
.
The steps taken by the Government to foster the growth of women
entrepreneurship and the growth of industrialization, urbanization and a change in the
educational pattern has led to change in the custom bound society of India. More
women are coming forward to take up self-enterprise. It is evidenced by the response
shown to the entrepreneurship development programmes for women conducted by
various institutions77
.
The entrepreneurial opportunities available to women depend on their
education, skills aptitude, economic level and employment opportunities in the region.
Rural women play a active role in small industries like doll making, pottery, handloom
weaving, broom making, basket making, bee keeping and sericulture. They are also
engaged in a host of non-farm activities like palm-gur and canegur processing,
processing of cereals, goat and sheep rearing, daring needle work, embroidering,
tailoring etc.
Now-a-days elite women in cities are making a land mark in the non-
conventional fields such as consultancy, marketing, advertising, manufacturing,
electronics, garment exporting, interior decoration and designing, beauty clinics
handicrafts, textile printing, food processing, etc.,
Under the scheme of National Awards to outstanding small scale entrepreneurs
started in 1983, until March 1996, 10 awards out of a total of 104 had been won by
76
Shashi Singh Chowdry, 1993. Proceedings of 10th
national convention of women entrepreneurs,
National Alliance of Young Entrepreneurs, New Delhi. p.23.
77The Hindu, News item, 18th September, 1987.
women on their own merit. The total number of industrial units in the small scale
sector financed by the State Bank of India was about 12 lakhs. Out of this about a
lakh was constituted by women entrepreneurs thus representing about eight percent of
the total78
.
As the number of women entrepreneurs have steadily increased, they have
attracted the attention of the Government as well as the development agencies.
National conventions, International Conventions, Seminars and a number of
workshops have been held on women entrepreneurs. But there has been no census
carried out on women entrepreneurs in the country. The Department of Industries has
a record on the number of applications made in the name of women. But this does not
provide any indication as to whether these enterprises are operated and controlled by
women.
From 1975 to 1990 small scale industries in the country had increased four
times from 0.4 million to 1.8 million. Out of this about 0.15 million units were owned
by women entrepreneurs. The percentage of women owned enterprises to total small
scale enterprises is 8.33 only. This is less when when compared to the growth of
enterprises in other advanced countries. In advanced countries of the world, there is
phenomenal increase in the number of self employed women after the second world
war. In US women own about 25% of full business. In Canada over one third of all
small business are owned by women and in France it is one fifth. In United Kingdom,
since 1980, the number of self employed women has increased three times as far as the
number of self-employed men.
78
Sinha, K.C, (1990), “Proceedings of Eighth National Convention Entrepreneurs”, New Delhi. p.13
Not only the number of women entrepreneurs is less in India, but also the
women entrepreneurs enterprise is small in traditional manufacturing activities with
low investment, low turnover, minimum number of employees and with no
professional assistance. In India, the traditional business activities of women
entrepreneurs are popularly identified as pickles, pappads, powder, garments and
block printing etc., This reflect the feminine psyche, social and economic, educational
financial and legal limiting factors that contribute to the gender status in industry
today.
3.8.1 Concept of Entrepreneurship
Entrepreneurship is the process of identifying opportunities in the market place,
arranging the resources required to pursue these opportunities and investing the
resources to exploit the opportunities for long term gains. Entrepreneurship is the
indivisible process that flourishes, when the interlinked dimensions of individual
psychological entrepreneurship, entrepreneur traits, social encouragement, business
opportunities, government policies, availability of plenty of resources and opportunities
converge towards the common good development of the society and economy.
According to Schumpeter, “Entrepreneurship is essentially a creative use of an
organization” According to the Indian concept, entrepreneurship has yet another
dimension. An entrepreneur may not necessary be an innovator but an imitator, who
would copy the organization, technology and product of innovators from other
developed regions. Entrepreneurship has great importance in various economic
systems. It is an interesting dynamic and developing subject which today, has won the
attention of large masses of students, research scholars and businessmen at large.
3.8.2 Women Entrepreneurship
Women entrepreneurship is the process where women or group of women
initiate, organize and run business enterprise and provide employment opportunities to
others. The Government of India has defined women enterprise as an industrial
un i t where one o r more entrepreneurs have not less than 51 per cent of financial
holding. A woman as entrepreneur is economically more powerful than a mere-
worker. Women's active participation in economic activities leads to their economic
development. Participation of women in entrepreneurship will provide a change to
utilize their free time, rather than being employed outside their homes in some other
job. Emergence of women entrepreneurs in the economy is an indicator of women's
economic independence and their social status.
Entrepreneurship is not a totally new concept for women. Women have long
been getting things done in her household activities. Her traditional role as a supervisor
of household activities will no doubt enable her to run a business efficiently and
successfully. Women even the illiterate rural ones practice and use all the tools and
techniques of efficient management like financial management, human resource
management, time and space management and maintenance management. Only thing is
they do not know the modern jargons used by experts79
.
Self-employment is better suited to women than the employment for the double
role which a woman has to play even now. It is her own master. She can be with her
family whenever she wants or is needed unlike in employment where she is at the
mercy of the office timings, regulations and her boss.
79S. Panandiker, “problems and prospects of self employed women”, Women in Enterprise and
Profession (Ed. C.Kalpagh), Discovery Publishing House, Delhi, 1992, P. 73.
The quest for economic independence and better social status and
sometimes the sheer need for the family's survival force women into self-
employment and entrepreneurship. Motivational factors behind the entry of women
in entrepreneurial career are many.
3.9 ENTREPRENEURSHIP DEVELOPMENT IN INDIA
Manufacturer Entrepreneurship did not develop in India till 1850. It has been
due to weak transportation and communication systems. However, some kind of
entrepreneurship was observed among artisans in a few cities like Banaras, Allahabad,
Gaya which were established on the banks of the river because mostly rivers provided
the transport facilities. An entrepreneur was abundant among Indian Entrepreneurs too.
But India did not offer sufficient scope for its exercise. Hence, a large number of
traders and money lenders migrated to various countries like Malaysia, Burma,
Singapore and Kenya, lack of capital created various problems for the contusions.
In the wake of the Industrial Revolution, Agency Houses started employment of
natural resources and promoted leather and steel making. British people initiated
Entrepreneurship as far as plantations of tea and coffee were concerned. The Indian
entrepreneurs could not compete with the British entrepreneurs in those areas. British
entrepreneurs presumably were not interested in cotton, textile and steel, therefore
Indian entrepreneurs made good progress in these areas.
Modern factory system was introduced in India, from 1850 onwards. The first
cotton mill was set up in 1850. The textile industry was properly established in 1875.
The second phase of entrepreneurship growth began during and after the First World
War. During the decades, commandant, sugar industries experienced fast progress.
After India’s Independence the empowerment realized the need for balanced growth of
industries. Important measures were taken to encourage proper distribution no process.
The Government laid emphasis on the growth of small scale industries in cities, towns
and villages. During the Third Five Year plan the Government of India started
providing capital technical knowhow and in industrially potential areas.
3.9.1 Development of Women Entrepreneurship since Independence
Women entrepreneurship development has been broadly analysed in brief
under three phases; First phase (1947-83), Second Phase (1983-90) and Third
Phase from 1991 onwards.
3.9.1.1 Women Entrepreneurship - First Phase
The Government of India has taken a number of measures after
Independence to improve the conditions of women in general which includes
constitutional provisions, labour legislations, to protect women, honoring the I.L.O
Conventions and Charter and help in the field of employment, working conditions,
vocational training, ensuring equal pay and helping them in formation of women
organizations and voluntary agencies that help tiny women entrepreneurs. A significant
step was taken with the declaration of the Decade 'of Women (1975-85) by the U.N.
This resulted in a series of steps to improve the status and conditions of women at all
levels, including executive and entrepreneurial levels. Between 1971 and 1985,
SIDO through its Small Industries Service Institute has organised about 8100
programmes in women entrepreneurship.
3.9.1.2 Women Entrepreneurship - Second Phase
The year 1983 may be treated as a turning point in the entrepreneurship
development since after this year it became a national movement. Two apex
institutions NIESBUD in New Delhi and EDII, Ahmedabad were established in this
year. These two institutions began planning a variety of programmes for
entrepreneurship including women entrepreneurship. In 1985-86, out of a total of
1140 EDPs women received about 10 per cent (108). In 1989-90, IDBI also started
two new programmes called Mahila Udhyam Nidhi (MUN) under which seed capital
assistance were given to women entrepreneurs and the other called Vikas Nidhi under
which NGOs dealing with women entrepreneurs were given assistance.
3.9.1.3 Women Entrepreneurship-Third Phase-1991 onwards
The year 1991 marks an important landmark in Indian history. As a part
of the New Economic Policy (NEP), the government also announced a special
Industrial Policy for small scale and tiny industries on 6th
August, 1991. Industrial
Policy Resolution of 1991 has highlighted the necessity to provide special training
programmes to develop entrepreneurship in women. The entrepreneurship training was
made more institutionalized by making a part of curriculum in universities and other
higher educational institutions. Thus, since Independence, a number of institutions
were set up to render assistance to women entrepreneurs in form of training,
financial assistance and marketing assistance. Table 3.7 shows the development of
women entrepreneurship in India.
Table 3.7
Development of Women Entrepreneurship
Sl.NoFive Year
PlansViews on Women
1. First plan
(1951-56)
Set up Central Social Welfare board in 1953 to promote
welfare work through voluntary organizations, charitable
trusts etc.
2. Second Plan
(1956-61)
Supported the Development of education, pre-natal and
child health (1960-services, Supplementary feeding)
3. Third Plan &
Interim plan
Had provisions for women’s education, pre-natal and
child health (1961- services, Supplementary feeding for
children, nursing and expectant).
4. Fifth Plan
(1974-78)
A major shift in the approach towards women from
Welfare to Development.
5. Six Plan
(1980-85)
Accepted women’s development as a separate Economic
Agenda. Took a Multidisciplinary approach with a
three-pronged thrust on health, education and
employment.
6. Seventh Plan
(1992-97)
Had the objective of bringing women into the
mainstream of National Development.
7. Eight Plan
(1992-97)
Saw a paradigm shift from development to
Empowerment and benefits to women in the core sector
of education, health and employment. Outlay for women
rose from Rs.4 Crore to Rs. 2,000 crore in the Eighth
Plan.
8. Ninth Plan
(1997-02)
Had Empowerment of women as its strategic objective.
Accepted the concept of a women’s component plan to
assure that at least 30% of funds/benefits from all
development sector flow to women.
9. Tenth Plan
(2002-07)
Suggests specific strategies, policies and programmes
for Empowerment of Women.
10 11th
plan
(2007-12)
Women Empowerment on political and legal level
3.10 WOMEN’S EMPOWERMENT THROUGH SELF EMPLOYMENT
Employment in general and self-employment in particular is, intimately
connected with women's empowerment. Self-employment in the context of rural
women plays a significant role in connecting them with work-world and domestic
world. It helps them to earn fairly reasonable amount without affecting their familial
and domestic responsibilities.
Self-employment has a great impact on their status in the family. Financial
independence implies the control over their incomes. Employed women tend to push
through their decisions in personal and family issues. In order to provide greater
empowerment to women the Government of India has launched several schemes for
women's employment. The schemes would be implemented through Gram Panchayats.
But it is important to know whether the Gram Panchayat members and rural women are
aware of the schemes With the launching of the Ninth-Five-year Plan (1997-2002), a
number of schemes have been initiated with a bias for empowerment of rural women.
The major schemes, having women's component, as implemented by the Ministry of
Rural Development during the last few years, included Swaranjayanti Gram Swarozgar
Yojana (SGSY), the Jawahar Gram Smridhi Yojana (JGSY), the Indira Awas Yojana
(IAY) etc. At present the most important scheme for empowerment of rural women is
Swarnjayanti Gram Swarna-rozgar Yojana (SGSY).
The Swarnjayanti Gram Swarna-rozgar Yojana, which has been launched with
effect from April 1, 1991 is a holistic programme covering the various aspects of self-
employment, such as organization of the poor into self-help groups, training, credit
technology, infrastructure and marketing. It is envisaged that 50 per cent of the groups
formed in each block.
Table 3.8
Awareness of Self-employment Schemes
SchemesGPMs
No.% T. No
SHGMs
No.% T. No Total
136 68 200 126 63 200 65 400
Indira Awaz Yojana 138 69 200 92 46 200 55 400
Ambedkar Yojana 128 64 200 10 55 200 59 400
Ashraya Yojana 126 63 200 122 61 200 59 400
PMRY 136 68 200 56 28 200 42 400
Navagram Yojana 200 10 200 102 51 200 75 400
Kooligagi Kalu 200 100 200 200 100 200 59 400
Stree Shakti 192 96 200 190 95 200 90 400
Table 3.8 shows that an overwhelming majority of both GPMs and SHGMs
were aware of the schemes meant for women's development and empowerment.
Investigation revealed that rural women were more aware of SGSY, Kooligagi Kalu
and animal husbandry schemes meant for women.
It could be clearly stated that a majority of the rural women, under investigation,
had some idea of the schemes meant for their upliftment. Implementation of Self-
Employment Schemes for Women's Employment Self-employment is an important
method of making rural women economically self-dependent Self-employment enables
women to come in contact with men and women, other family members, kith and kin
and caste people. But empowerment depends on the nature of employment. For
example, daily wages, contract basis employment does not develop much ability,
power and courage in women. Jobs, which require education, skills, public contact
make women more powerful.
3.11 DEVELOPMENT AND PROMOTION OF WOMEN
ENTREPRENEURS
According to the Third All India Census of Small Scale Industries conducted
in 2001-02 and subsequent estimates made, only 10.11 per cent of the Micro and
Small Enterprises in India are owned by women while 9.46 per cent of the MSE
enterprises are managed by women. In 2006-07 their estimated number is 12.99
lakh women managed enterprise and 12.15 lakh women managed enterprise. In
order to encourage more and more women enterprises in the MSE sector, several
schemes have been formulated by this Ministry and some more are in the process
of being finalized, targeted only at the development of women enterprises in
India.
3.11.1 Trade Related Entrepreneurship Assistance and Development Scheme for
Women (Tread)
With a view to encouraging women in setting up their own ventures, the
government implements a scheme, namely Trade Related Entrepreneurship
Assistance and Development (TREAD) during the 11th Plan. The scheme envisages
economic empowerment of women through the development of their entrepreneurial
skills in nonfarm activities. There are three major components of the scheme,
Government of India grant up to 30 per cent of the total project cost to the Non-
Government Organizations (NGOs) for promoting entrepreneurship among women. The
remaining 70 per cent of the project cost is financed by the lending agency as loan for
undertaking activities as envisaged in the project. Government of India grant up to Rs.l
lakh per programme to training institutions/NGOs for imparting training to the women
entrepreneurs, subject to these institutions/NGOs bring their share to the extent of
minimum 25 per cent of Government of India grant and 10 per cent in case of NER. (iii)
Need-based Government of India grants up to Rs.5 lakh to National Entrepreneurship
Development Institutions and any other institutions of repute for undertaking field
surveys, research studies, evaluation studies, designing of training modules etc.
3.11.1.1 Operationalisation of the Tread
The scheme envisages that Women Associations/NGOs/SHGs should prepare
composite bankable proposals for a group of women entrepreneurs and submit to the
office of the DC (MSME) for forwarding to the banks for their appraisal. Bank examines
the proposal and issues approval. 30 per cent of the loan amount is sanctioned as grant and
made available to the bank by office of DC (MSME) for further disbursement to NGOs.
3.11.2 Micro and Small Enterprises -Cluster Development Programme (MSE-CDP)
A cluster is defined as a group of enterprises, ideally having 100 members,
producing same similar products/services. While 100 members could be the minimum per
cluster, depending on the density of population and other factors, even 200-300 could be a
good target group for undertaking Diagnostic Study and the subsequent Soft Interventions
in a cluster. However, in difficult and backward regions the target numbers could come
down to 50 or less but it should not be too small as a lot of Government expenditure is
made per cluster. The Cluster Development Programme (CDP) being implemented
envisages diagnostic study of identified clusters of traditional skill-based MSEs to
identify appropriate technologies and their providers and to facilitate adoption of
available technology meeting the specific needs of the end users. The Cluster
Development aims at enhanced competitiveness, technology improvement, adoption of
best manufacturing practices, marketing of products, employment generation etc. The
scheme provides assistance for capacity building, common facilities, marketing etc. the
delivery, assimilation and diffusion of the identified technology from its producers to the
recipient user/cluster of small enterprises.
3.11.3 Credit Guarantee Fund Scheme for Micro and Small Enterprises
The Scheme was launched in August 2000 to ensure better flow of credit to micro
and small enterprises by minimizing the risk perception of financial institutions and
banks in lending without collateral security. Under the scheme, guarantee cover is
provided to collateral free credit facility extended by member lending institutions
(MLIs) to the new as well as existing micro and small enterprises on loans up to Rs.50
lakh. The guarantee cover available is up to 75% of the loans extended. The extent of
guarantee cover is 80% for (i) micro enterprises for loans up to Rs.5 lakh; (ii) MSEs
operated and/or owned by women; and (iii) all loans in the North-East Region. The
lending institutions availing guarantee from the Trust have to pay one time guarantee
fee of 1.5 per cent and service charges of 0.75 per cent per annum of the credit facility
sanctioned. For loans up to Rs.5 lakh, the onetime guarantee fee is 1 per cent and
service charges are 0.5 per cent per annum of the credit facility sanctioned.
3.11.4 Support for Entrepreneurial and Managerial Development
MSME-Dls regularly organize a number of Entrepreneurship Skill Development
Programme (ESDPs), Entrepreneurial Development Programme (EDPs), Management
Development Programmes (MDPs) to train the potential entrepreneurs in improving
their techno/managerial knowledge and skill with a view to facilitating them to start
MSEs in various fields. Many of the programmes are tailor made for the target group for
SC, ST, OBC, Women, Minorities and other weaker sections and exclusively for women
also. These programmes are also called "Out-reach Programmes" as they are conducted in
rural and less developed areas. 22.5 per cent of total target of ESDPs/EDPs are conducted
exclusively for SC/ST, women and physically challenged persons with a stipend of Rs.
500/- per month per candidate under the Promotional Packages for MSEs. No fee is
charged from SC/ST, women and physically handicapped. No fee is charged from SC and
ST and 50 % fee from women and physically handicapped candidates who attend the ESDP
/EDP /MDP courses conducted for general candidates.
3.11.5 Swarnajayanthi Gram Swarozgar Yojana
In 1999 the central government launched a programme as “Swarna Jayanthi
Gram Swarozgar Yojana” (SGSY). It aims at establishing a large number of micro
enterprises (SHGs) in the rural areas. Funds under the SGSY will be shared by the
central and state government in the ratio of 75:25. The SGSY was implemented by the
District Rural Development Agency.” The process of planning implementation and
monitoring would integrate the banks and other financial institution, the Panchayat Raj
Institutions (PRI), Non Government Organization (NGO) as well as technical institutes
in the districts. As the result of Shankar Committee District Rural Development
Agency was setup in 1st
April 1999. SGSY funds issued through DRDA departments
which is located in every districts at collectorate. DRDA has traditionally been the
principal organ at the district level to oversee the implementation of the anti poverty
programmes of the ministry. This agency was created originally for the
implementation of Integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP) but was
subsequently entrusted with a number of programmes, both of the central and state
governments.
3.11.6 Entrepreneurship Awareness Programme (EAP)
In order to empower women, Science City has been organising
Entrepreneurship Development Programme (EDP) and Entrepreneurship Awareness
Programme (EAP) to bring out the talents of women and to make them stand on
their own feet. To ascertain the status of women scientists, Science City has
embarked upon the task of creating a data-base of women scientists in the entire
State of Tamil Nadu. To encourage the women scientists, Science City has
instituted Life Time Achievement Award and Young Women Scientist Awards.
During 2005, five women scientists were awarded the Young Women Scientists
Award.
3.11.7 Tamil Nadu Corporation for Development of Women
Tamil Nadu Corporation for development of women was established in
1983 which aims at the socio-economic empowerment of women. As a prelude,
the Corporation is implementing the Mahalir Thittam among poor rural women to
promote saving habits, nurture entrepreneurial skills and aptitudes and promote
exposure to banking transactions and to free them from the clutches of local
moneylenders. The scheme is being implemented in partnership with Non-
Governmental Organisations (NGOs) and Banks. Under the scheme, self help groups
are formed and monitored through NGOs affiliated with the Tamil Nadu
Corporations for Development of Women.
3.11.8 Self Help Groups
Self Help Groups are small homogenous groups consisting of 12-20 women
from below poverty line families voluntarily organised to promote savings. They are
self-managed groups of poor women which primarily came into existence to mobilize
financial resources through their own savings and lend the same amongst themselves
to meet the credit needs of their members. The specific objectives of SHGs are:
i. improve saving habits among women;
ii. increase the total family income;
iii. fulfill the economic needs through self-employment of women;
iv. utilize bank loan and government welfare schemes;
v. help the members to escape from the clutches of
moneylenders; and mobilize financial resources.
The Self Help Group Movement has emerged as a powerful and vibrant
movement spread over the length and breadth of the state. As on 30.6.2006 there
were 3,19,713 self help groups under Mahalir Thittam with a total savings of
Rs.1,127.89 crores in Tamil Nadu. The position of this vibrant movement is
presented in table 3.10.
Table 3.9
Status of Self Help Groups in Tamil Nadu
Particulars Status
Total number of SHGs 3,19,713
Total number of Group Members (lakhs) 51.68
Number of Rural Groups 2,62,270
Number of Rural Group Members 42,68,195
Number of Urban Group 57,443
Number of Urban Group Members 9,00,067
Total Savings (Rs. in crores) 1127.89
Credit Linked Groups 2,29,562
Amount of Loan disbursed (Rs. in crores) 1837.61
Source: Policy Note, Rural Development Department, 2006-07.
Table shows the status of self help groups in Tamilnadu. Table reveals that the
total number of self help groups was 3, 19,713 in Tamilnadu and the total number of
self help groups in rural areas was 2, 62,270. Table further reveals that in urban areas,
the number of self help group was 57,443.
3.12 STRATEGIES ADOPTED BY TAMIL NADU GOVERNMENT FOR
WOMEN EMPOWERMENT
The Government of Tamil Nadu have framed various policies, designed
specific interventions and implemented many programmes to eradicate poverty and to
provide education to the vulnerable sections of the society.
3.12.1 Education of Women
Education to women is the most powerful instrument of changing their position
in the society. Education also brings about reduction in inequalities and also acts
as a means to improve their status within the family. In order to encourage
education of women at all levels and to dilute gender bias in the provision and
acquaintance of education, schools, colleges and even universities were
established exclusively for women in the State To bring more girl children,
especially from marginalized BPL families into the main stream of education,
Government has been providing a package of concessions in the form of free supply
of books, uniform, boarding and lodging, clothing for hostilities, mid-day meals,
scholarships, free by-cycles and so on. The Mother Teresa Women University has
been established for the development of women studies and to encourage higher
education among women and their social mobility.
3.12.2 Periyar EVR Nagammai Scheme
Periyar EVR Nagammai Free Education Scheme has been implemented in
the State from 1989-90 to women students irrespective of caste, creed and community
to encourage their education and to reduce dropout rate. As per the scheme those
students' whose parental annual income was less than Rs.24,000/- were exempted
from payment of tuition fees in undergraduate courses. During 2005-06, 8936
women students were benefited under this scheme. In 2006-07, a sum of Rs.65.00
lakhs has been allocated for this scheme.
3.12.3 Free Coaching Exclusively for Women Students
To encourage and enable women students to appear for the IAS/IPS
examinations, the Government established two free coaching centers-one at Queen
Mary's College, Chennai and the other at Arulmigu Meenakshi Government College
for Women, Madurai. In each center, 60 women students are being given free
coaching. During the current year, the government has provided a sum of Rs.1.00
lakh for implementing this scheme.
3.12.4 Entrepreneurship Development Training Programme for Women (EDP)
EDP training is conducted by TNCDW to expose the SHG women to various
business opportunities and to motivate them to start economic activities. Up to
March 2006, the Corporation has trained 6,34,991 women in co-ordination with
other Government departments such as Rural Development, Agriculture,
Industries and Commerce, Backward Classes, TAHDCO, Slum Clearance Board,
etc. In 2006-07, 22000 more SHG women will be provided EDP Training by
TNCDW.
Table 3.10
Women Entrepreneurship in India
StatesNo. of Units
Registered
No. of Women
EntrepreneursPercentage
Tamil Nadu 9618 2930 30.36
Uttar Pradesh 7980 3180 39.84
Kerala 5487 2135 38.91
Punjab 4791 1618 33.77
Maharashtra 4339 1394 32.12
Gujarat 3872 1538 39.72
Karnataka 3822 1026 26.84
Madhya Pradesh 2967 842 28.38
Other States & UTC 14576 4185 28.71
Total 57,452 18,848 32.82
Source: Policy Note, Rural Development Department, 2006-07.
It is clear from table that the number of women entrepreneurs is high in
Uttarpradesh and followed by Gujarat. It is further clear from table that the number of
units registered is high in Tamilnadu followed by Uttarpradesh. In Tamilnadu, 9618
units have been registered and 2930 women entrepreneurs are there. The following
table shows the number of women entrepreneurs in various districts of Tamilnadu.
Table 3.11
Number of Women Entrepreneurs in Various Districts of Tamilnadu as on 1990
and 2011*
Sl.NO Name of District No of Unit Percentage Rank
1 Changai 249 3.8 8
2 Chennai 1175 18.2 2
3 Chidambaram 72 1.1 16
4 Coimbatore 1829 28.3 1
5 Dharmapuri 246 3.8 9
6 Dindigal 146 2.26 14
7 Kamaraj 371 5.7 4
8 Madurai 294 4.5 5
9 Nilagiri 94 1.45 15
10 North Argaud 285 4.41 6
11 Pasumpon
Muthuramalingham
59 0.9 18
12 Periyar 215 3.33 11
13 Puthukottai 224 3.47 10
14 Ramanathapuram 57 0.8 19
15 Salem 181 4.0 12
16 South Arcot 260 6.2 7
17 Thanjavur 405 0.9 3
18 Tirunelveli 60 2.9 17
19 Tiruchi 187 - 13
Total 6409 100
Source: Kala 1993, Status of Micro Enterprises set up by Women in Tamilnadu (Small
Scale Unit), Proceedings of IV International Women Entrepreneur Conference p.47.
*As per the table in Tirunelveli district 60 women entrepreneurs were registered
in 1990, whereas till March 2011, only 425 women entrepreneurs have been registered.
The above table indicates that the number of women entrepreneurs in various
districts of Tamilnadu as on 1990 and 2011. Further the table shows that the growth of
women entrepreneurs in Tirunelveli is very low due to the lack of awareness of
entrepreneurship, low self interest, government schemes and loan availability etc.
In 1990, Tirunelveli district had only 60 registered women entrepreneurs which
got 17th
rank whereas the Coimbatore district had got first rank (1829 registered women
entrepreneurs. Subsequently Chennai, Thanjavur, Viruthunagar, North Arcot, South
Arcot, Chengai, Dharmapuri, Puthukottai, Salem, Tiruchy, Dindigal, Nilagiri,
Chidambaram, Tirunelveli, Pasumpon Muthuramalingham and Ramanathapuram
district followed suit.
The following table shows the number of percentage of women entrepreneurs
registered with district industrial centres in Tamilnadu.
Table 3.12
Number of Percentage of Women Entrepreneurs Registered with District
Industrial Centre in Tamil Nadu
Sl.No YearNo. of Women Entrepreneurs
RegisteredPercentage
1 1990-91 1123 8.68
2 1991-92 1638 12.66
3 1992-93 2789 21.56
4 1993-94 3212 24.84
5 1994-95 4172 32.26
Total 12934 100
It could be seen from table that there has been consistent increase in the number
of women entrepreneurs registered every year. The following table shows the growth of
women entrepreneurs registered with district industrial centre in Tamil Nadu.
Table 3.13
Growth of Women Entrepreneurs Registered with District Industrial Centre in
Tamil Nadu
Sl.No YearNo of Women Entrepreneurs
RegisteredGrowth Rate
1 1990-91 1123 -
2 1991-92 1638 60.27
3 1992-93 2789 70.15
4 1993-94 3212 15.25
5 1994-95 4172 29.89
Average Growth Rate: 43.89
It is evident from the table during the year 1991-92 and 1992-93 there is
considerable increase in number of registration on the previous year i.e 60.27 per cent
and 70.15 per cent whereas in the year 1993-94 and 1994-95, the growth rate is not
significant. The average growth rate of women entrepreneurs’ registration between
1990-91 and 1994-95 is 43.89 per cent.
3.13 ASSOCIATIONS PROMOTING WOMEN ENTREPRENEURS
A brief analysis of various associations and agencies that are functioning at state
and national levels to promote women entrepreneurs is made for reference.
3.13.1 Self-Help Groups (SHGs)
The Self Help Group is an association of small group of self-employed rural or
urban women entrepreneurs who join together to take care of group welfare. The group
with the help of financial institutions and other NGOs get their needs satisfied. Each
member contributes little amount to cover seed money.
3.13.2 Federation of Indian Women Entrepreneurs (FIWE)
FIWE is the outcome of resolution passed in the 4th
International Conference
Women Entrepreneurs held at Hyderabad. It was started in 1993 with the following
main objectives. Moreover it interacts with various women associations of the country
through a network to facilitate the members in diversified activities.
Activities of FIWE are as follows:
To provide network facilities to women entrepreneurs in the country and
abroad to develop their business.
To provide facilities to member associations in the areas of marketing,
quality control, export management, standardization etc.,
Facilitates the member associations to participate in national and
international conference, fairs, exhibitions, to provide greater exposure to
women entrepreneurs in local regional, national and global business
environment and provide and access to various business opportunities
available.
Provides facilities to expand the business of members and of member
associations.
Women entrepreneurs can easily access the latest technologies relating to
their business through FIWE.
Other facilities such as providing new business opportunities facilitating
financial needs of members, better management of business enterprises etc.,
are also provided.
3.13.3 Women’s Trust of India (WTI)
Women’s Trust of India was established in 1968. The promoter Kamila Tyabji
made a small beginning with two shops in Mumbai and a training and production
centre at Panavel. The trust was started with the main objective of helping women
entrepreneurs and encouraged by various activities of trust, it further extended its
activities which are as follows:
Establishing Kamila Trust in UK in 1994 to market the products of WTI
members.
Has started educational programme in “Nursing” and Kindergarten training.
Has a plan to launch computer training for women.
It also provides assistance to its members to secure finance from financial
institutions. Training in business skills is imparted to needy women entrepreneurs. The
trust acts as an Information System to provide information to aspiring women on
business opportunities available to them.
3.13.4 SIDBI
Small Industries Development Bank of India is an institution established at the
national level to provide facilities to small scale industries. SIDBI has introduced two
special schemes for women (i) Mahila Udyam Nidhi which is an exclusive scheme for
providing equity to women entrepreneurs and ii) Mahila Udyam Nidhi which offers
development assistance for pursuit of income generating activities to women.
3.13.5 SIDO
Small Industries Development Organisation (SIDO) is conducting various
programmes including Entrepreneurship Development Programmes (EDPs) for women.
To cater to the needs of potential women entrepreneurs, who may not have adequate
educational background and skills, SIDO has introduced process/product oriented
EDPs in areas like TV repairing, Printed Circuit Boards (PCBs), Leather goods, Screen
printing etc., A special prize to repairing “Outstanding Women Entrepreneur” of the
year is being given to recognize achievements made by and to provide incentives to
women entrepreneurs training–cum- income generating activities for needy women to
make them economically independent.
3.13.6 Consortium of Women Entrepreneurs of India (CWEI)
Consortium of Women Entrepreneurs of India is a voluntary organization,
consisting of NGOs, SHGs, voluntary organizations and individual business units. This
came into being in 2001. The objective is to provide technology upgradation facilities
to women entrepreneurs and other facilities in marketing, finance, human resource
development and production.
3.13.7 NABARD
National Bank of Agriculture and Rural Development (NABARD) is an
autonomous financial institution at the national level established on the lines of Reserve
Bank of India (RBI) to provide various types of agricultural credit to agriculturists of
the country. As an extension function, NABARD provides liberal credit to rural women
entrepreneurs. “It aims at treating women as risk–free bankable clients, provide
linkages along with credit identify appropriate economic activities for women and
promote linkages along with credit, (SHGs) and link them with the formal banking
system. Schemes such as ARWIND (Assistance of Rural Women in Non- farm
Development), MAHIMA (to market the products other than agri products produced by
rural women and also finance them up to Rs. 10 lakhs in the form of refinance) and
support Regional Rural Banks and Co-operative Banks in the form of grant assistance
to establish women development cells.
3.13.8 Central and State Government Schemes
State Governments have come out with several schemes to develop women
entrepreneurs. DWCRA (Development of Women and Children in Rural Areas), a
scheme designed for state government was implemented in 1982–83. The scheme
provides a structured programme for women development. Women in groups can seize
the business opportunities under this scheme. Uncountable women throughout the
country have availed the facilities to develop themselves as entrepreneurs and have
organized different types of trades and business houses on a sustained basis under this
scheme. DWCRA focuses on the issued like improving the economic, social, health and
education status of the rural women.
3.13.9 Self- Employed Women’s Association (SEWA)
SEWA is a Trade Union of Women which was registered in 1972 under Trade
Union Act. This has been functioning since then to empower poor rural women
entrepreneurs. Even urban poor women have become the members of SEWA to
become self-employed person. The SEWA members are not coming from the organized
sector. They are the women of unorganized sector and are unprotected. They constitute
nearly 90 per cent of the women labour force of the county. SEWA has international
affiliations. One with “Home Net” the international network for home-based workers
and the other with “Street Net International” an association of hawkers and vendors.
With these affiliations, SEWA has extended its operations to the global level and has
the opportunity of receiving grants from international organizations such as Ford
Foundation, the United Nations International Children’s Fund, (UNICEF), International
Labour Organization (ILO) etc., Government of India (GOI) is also providing funds to
this organization.
3.13.10 Association of Women Entrepreneurs of Karnataka - AWAKE
Association of Women Entrepreneurs of Karnataka is one of the premier
institutions in India which is totally devoted to promote and develop entrepreneurship
among women. Association of Women Entrepreneurs of Karnataka was established in
1983, with an intention to help women entrepreneurs and today it is one of the pioneer
institutions in India which is working in the areas of training and helping the women to
start their own business and there by empower them to join the economic mainstream.
AWAKE focuses on women form both urban and rural areas, which are aspiring to be
socially and economically self–reliant, irrespective of their academic, social and
economic background.
3.13.11 Entrepreneurial Training and Development Cell
Tirunelveli Entrepreneurial Training and development centre has started its
functions in 1997 with the general and specific objectives. The general objective is
focused on unemployed youth both men and women and the specific objective is only a
women entrepreneur’s training programs to women only.
The general objectives are
i. To give guidance and direction for unemployed youth to start a self
employment
ii. To give proper training to become an entrepreneur
iii. To provide vocational training to both men and women. This institute
covers the following the functional areas such as Tirunelveli, Tuticorin,
Ramnadu, Nagercoil and Kanyakumari. Further it gives various training
program to young women entrepreneurs. Management Training program,
Vocational Training, Carrier Guidance and Consulting, etc.
3.13.12 Prime Minister Rojgar Yojana (PMRY)
Under the Prime Minister Rojgar Yojana Scheme this center has been providing
various services to Tirunelveli and Tuticorin district only. This center had conducted
WETP (Women Entrepreneur Training Program) in 2001 to 2005. It is only for women
under Self Help Group members. It has highly concentrated on the women
development and self employment. It gives various training like vocational training,
computer training, screening printing, cell phone services, tailoring, flower bouquet etc.
The Age limit of the beneficiary is between 18 years to 60 years.
3.14 PROBLEMS AND CONSTRAINTS FACED BY WOMEN
ENTREPRENEURS
Though development policies and performances have created a positive
impact in women’s position in society, still the growth and expansion of women
entrepreneurial field is haunted by a number of difficulties, snags and problems. The
major barriers encountered by women entrepreneurs are as follows:
The main problems faced by Indian women entrepreneurs are financial
constraints, over dependence on intermediaries, scarcity of raw material, intense
competition, high cost of production, low mobility, family responsibilities, economical
social status and adverse effects of risk bearing, lack of education and skill
acquisition, low need for achievement.
Women entrepreneurs in India are always seen with suspicious eyes,
particularly in rural areas, they face more social barriers. Women generally lack,
confidence in their own capabilities. Having accepted a subordinate status for long,
even at home, members of their family do not appear to have total confidence in
their abilities and on their decision making. Society in general also lacks confidence in
women's strength, traits and competence.
In our society, more importance is given to educating the male child as
compared to the female child. This results in lack of schooling and vocational
training of women, lack of attaining technical skills and thereby lack of awareness of
opportunities available. Moreover, due to their family responsibilities women have
less time compared to males as they have to play dual role at home and at business
premises. They have to strive hard to balance their family life.
The most important problem faced by women entrepreneurs is lack of access
to funds because they do not posses any tangible security and credit in market. Since
women do not enjoy right over property of any form, they have limited access over
external source of funds. As generally women entrepreneurs have small scale
business; they have to strive hard to sell their products in the modern competitive
world. They lack marketing knowledge and skills. Therefore, they generally depend
more on middlemen. Their margin of profit will be more and hence cause for higher
selling price which affects consumers attraction towards women's products.
Women entrepreneurs lack knowledge of availability of raw material,
financial facilities, government assistance, subsidy and advanced technology. The
inability of women entrepreneurs to keep pace with the latest advancement in
technology and lack of technical know-how results in high cost of technology
acquisition and machinery utilization. These problems result in increasing the cost
of production and adversely affecting the profitability of the unit. Hence it becomes
necessary to find remedies for the problems of women entrepreneurship. Though
over a period of time, the central, state government and non-government
organizations have taken so many steps to solve the problems, yet it is necessary to pay
special attention in the transition period.
3.15 Remedial Measures
For women's entrepreneurial development, women's organizations, women's co-
operatives and NGOs should be promoted to assist self employment for women. Through
this, income generation is accelerated to achieve empowerment . More financial
assistance should be given to small women entrepreneurs at lower interest rates
without stress on collateral security.
The critical factors affecting the success of a business are entrepreneurial
strength of the promoter, the viability of the project and the adequacy of finance. The
entrepreneurial training programmes must aim at building up the above factors into
the personality of potential entrepreneurs. The training component should
include skill formation knowledge on different technologies, handling of better
equipments, legal aspects of running a business, preparation of feasibility reports,
better marketing and communications. Wherever possible, training programmes
should be framed to support and promote group entrepreneurs. The great advantage
of group entrepreneurship is that it can be carried out with poorest of the poor. Group
entrepreneurship can also help the entrepreneurs to face the market from a strong
bargaining position.
As women have to face severe marketing problems, these entrepreneurs should
be taken into consideration by government markets should be developed in
rural and semi urban areas so that women entrepreneurs can sell their products easily
in the nearest markets. More and more fairs and exhibitions should be arranged for
the products produced by women entrepreneurs. Development of transport and
communication facilities throughout the country will also help women entrepreneurs
to market their products easily.
Women entrepreneurs are dogged by the problem of lack of information as
regards to their business field. At present data on nature and magnitude, of women
entrepreneurship at national level, its industry wise composition and its geographical
distribution across the country are not available. To solve this problem, information
bureaus should be started to help them in getting the required information.
Moreover, it is necessary to build up an effective research and data base in the field
of women entrepreneurs. It can help in locating gaps and the emerging needs in the
area of women entrepreneurship and in planning appropriate policies and programme
for women entrepreneurs in future.
Workshops and seminars should be organized frequently for the officials of
financial and support agencies and for women entrepreneurs to make their
relations cordial. Where several institutions are involved in the development of
women entrepreneurship, there should be proper co-ordination in terms of
objectives, fiscal targets and social outcomes. Women entrepreneurs should acquire
relevant training in technology. They should be knowledgeable about the functioning
of machines and processes. They should be more assertive with their employer.
Now it is clear that movement for development of Women Entrepreneurship is
still in a transition period. Entrepreneurship for women can be planned and developed
and the need for providing appropriate awareness and environment to promote
entrepreneurship is of vital importance. Government and public enterprises should
offer ancillary units to women entrepreneurs.
3.16 SUMMARY
Existing Entrepreneurial Development Programmes are largely adequate and
appropriate to help women entrepreneurs for their betterment. A new entrepreneurial
culture is developing among women entrepreneurs based on the values and strengths,
such as creativity, flexibility, openness to co-operation, a human approach to
business relations and attention to social and cultural as well as financial goals in
business. If Indian women's talent is utilized properly, one day India will become an
ideal country to others. Therefore, development of entrepreneurship among women has
become an important aspect of the overall economic development of women. Thus
women entrepreneurs can play a crucial role in industrial as well as human resource
development and strengthen the nation's economic development in the midst of a highly
competitive global business environment and emerge themselves in yet another new
dimension to the entire universe.