CHAPTER - III CONCEPT OF PRAK ṚTI AND PURU...

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CHAPTER - III

CONCEPT OF PRAKṚTI AND PURUṢA

In Hinduism, God is generally regarded as the creator, preserver, destroyer

and also the ruler of the universe, who controls everything in the world. But Indian

seers with close observation and deep reflection found that there are many

phenomenon of nature, such as sunrise, sunset, seasons, tides and phases of the

moon etc. - all of which occur with predictable regularity. There has been no

evidence of interference by supernatural beings. Accordingly, two distinct but

related and complementary aspects of God, viz., Puruṣa and Prakṛti are found. Of

them, Puruṣa is person or self or spirit and possesses intelligence and feelings, while

Prakṛti is impersonal or jaḍa or inert and devoid of both intelligence and feelings.

Both, Prakṛti and Puruṣa are regarded as the two basic principles essential for the

creation of the universe. They participate, regulate and implement the universal

creation process.

The dictionary meaning of the term prakṛti is the nature, natural form,

natural condition or state of anything. In philosophy, it means nature, the original

source of the material world, consisting of the three essential qualities, viz., sattva,

rajas and tamas. Another meaning is the personified will of the Supreme Spirit in

the creation identified with māyā or illusion.1 The term puruṣa means a male being,

mankind, an officer, agent or a member or representative of a generation. It also

��1 Apte, V. S., Sanskrit English Dictionary, p. 351

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means the soul or the Supreme Being, God (soul of the universe). In philosophy, the

word puruṣa means the soul, as distinguish from Prakṛti it is passive and the looker-

on of the Prakṛti.2

The concept of Puruṣa and Prakṛti are available in the Vedas, Upaniṣads, the

epics and Purāṇas also. The term puruṣa is traced first in the Puruṣasūkta3 of the

Ṛgveda. According to this hymn, Puruṣa is embodied spirit or ‘man’ personified and

regarded as the soul and original source of the universe, the personal and life giving

principle in all animated beings. It is said to have thousand that is innumerable

heads, eyes and feet, as being one with all created life. In the Ṛgveda, the Prakṛti is

known as nature. The boneless or unsubstantial is Prakṛti, nature, the original source

of the substantial that is the material and visible world. The Nāsadīyasūkta4 seems to

be the earliest mention of the eternal co-existence of a spiritual principle of reality

and an unspiritual principle of unreality, i.e. the Puruṣa and Prakṛti. The word

prakṛti is also called māyā, which can be found in its primitive meanings in the

Ṛgveda. In the Ṛgveda, the term māyā is used in the sense of illusion or appearance.5

In the Upaniṣads and later texts of Hindu philosophy, the concept of Puruṣa

moved away from the Vedic definition of Puruṣa and was no longer a person,

cosmic man or entity. Instead, the concept flowered into a more complex abstraction

in the Upaniṣads. The meaning evolved to an abstract essence of self, spirit and

universal principle that is eternal, indestructible, without forms and all pervasive.6 In

��2 Ibid., p. 342

3 RGV, X. 90

4 Ibid., X. 129

5 indro māyābhiḥ pururūpa īyate…….. Ibid., VI.47.18

6 BU, IV.3.15; KU, I. 3.10-11.

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the Upaniṣads,7 the concept of Puruṣa is explained with the concept of Prakṛti. The

Prakṛti is often used in the Upaniṣads as synonym for avidyā or māyā.8 The

Upaniṣads mention that the universe is envisioned as a combination of perceivable,

material reality and non-perceivable, non-material laws and principles of nature.

Material reality of Prakṛti is everything that has changed, can change and is subject

to cause and effect. Puruṣa is the universal principle that is unchanging, uncaused

but is present everywhere and the reason of the changes of Prakṛti.

In the Purāṇic tradition, Puruṣa is regarded as the Highest God and Prakṛti is

female goddess, and both are responsible for creation of the universe. The

Brahmāṇḍapurāṇa9

mentions that as he fills (āpūrayati) all the bodies with (his)

grace, he is known to be Puruṣa. Again, due to his reposing in the town, i.e. body

(puriṣatvāt)10

or due to the firm conviction of having a town (purapratyayikaḥ) in

his case11

or as he sleeps in the town,12

he is called Puruṣa. The word prakṛti is

generally accepted as the main source for the creation of the universe. According to

the Brahmavaivartapurāṇa,13

the word pra denotes excellence and kṛti means

creation. Thus, the goddess who is excellent in creation is known as Prakṛti.

��7 SU, I.4,8,9,10,13; IV.5,10; V.2; VI.13 etc.

8 PU, I.16

9āpūrayati yasmācca sarvān dehānanugrahaiḥ /

budhyate puruṣaścātra………… BNP, I.1.2.22-23

10 puriṣatvācca puruṣaḥ…………… Ibid., I.2.32.84(a)

11 purapratyayiko yasmāt puruṣetyabhidhīyate /Ibid., II.4.1.95(b)

12 puri śete yataḥ………………… MP, 144.77(c)

pure śayanāt puruṣaḥ…………… Ibid., 144.78(a)

13 prakṛṣṭavācakaḥ praśca kṛtiśca sṛṣṭivācakaḥ /

sṛṣṭau prakṛṣṭā yā devī prakṛtiḥ sā prakīrtitā// BVP, Prakṛtikhaṇḍa, 1.5.

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In the Mahābhārata and the Purāṇas, the concept of Prakṛti and Puruṣa are

discussed mostly in accordance to Vedānta philosophy than the Sāṁkhya-Yoga

philosophy. According to them, Prakṛti and Puruṣa are nothing but two forms of the

Supreme deity who is identified with one of the principal gods as per to the sectarian

character of the work. Now, the concept of Prakṛti and Puruṣa as reflected in the

Sāṁkhya-Yoga philosophy and the Sāttvikapurāṇas will be discussed.

PRAKṚTI AND PURUṢA IN THE SĀṀKHYA PHILOSOPHY:

It has already been mentioned that the Sāṁkhya system is known as a

dualistic system, because it advocates the dualism of Prakṛti and Puruṣa. According

to this system, the world has been explained only with the reference to Prakṛti and

Puruṣa, described as two distinct and independent principles. Of them, Puruṣa

means the self and Prakṛti is the ultimate ground out of which the world evolves.

The Sāṁkhya does not establish the existence of God, because according to them,

Prakṛti and Puruṣa are sufficient to explain this universe.

NATURE OF PRAKṚTI IN SĀṀKHYA:

The word prakṛti literally means the nature. It is, according to Hinduism, the

basic nature of intelligence by which the universe exists and functions. In the

Sāṁkhya system, it is explained as Mūla. It is the Mūla-Prakṛti (root evolvent)

because it is the root of all other evolves, while it has no root of its own.14

If Prakṛti

has a cause, then this cause will have another as its cause and it will lead to infinite

regress.15

��14

mūle mūlābhāvādamūlaṁ mūlam, SS, I. 67;

mūlaprakṛtiravikṛtiḥ…. SK, 3.

15 STK on SK, 3

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Prakṛti is known by various names, such as – Pradhāna, avyakta, anumāna,

brahma, kṣetra, akṣara, māyā, brāhmī, vidyā, śakti etc.16

As the uncaused root

cause, it is called Prakṛti; as the first principle of this universe, it is called Pradhāna;

as the unmanifested state of all effects, it is known as avyakta; as the extremely

subtle and imperceptible thing which is only inferred from its products, it is called

anumāna; as the unintelligent and unconsious principle, it is called jaḍa; and as the

ever active unlimited power, it is called śakti. The Sāṁkhyakārikā of Īśvarakṛṣṇa

describes Prakṛti as – ahetumat (uncaused), nityam (eternal), vyāpī (all-pervading),

niṣkriyam (immobile), ekam (one), anāśritam (unsupported), aliṅgam (non-

mergent), niravayavam (partless), svatantram (independent), avyaktam

(unmanifest), triguṇam (constituted of the three guṇas), avivekī (indistinguishable),

viṣayaḥ (objective), sāmānyam (common), acetanam (non-intelligent) and

prasavadharmī (prolific).17

In other words, Prakṛti is uncaused; it is eternal and all-pervading. It is

immobile only in the sense that in the avyakta state, there is no manifestation of

products like mahat, ahaṁkāra etc. Motion and changes take place also in this

equilibrated state. Further, Prakṛti is one and is nothing but the unity of the three

guṇas in the state of potentiality and incoherence. Being the cause of all it supports

all, but it is not supported by anything else. It is aliṅga for it does not serve as the

��16 tathā prakṛtiparyāyā avyaktaṁ pradhānaṁ brahma akṣaraṁ kṣetraṁ tamaḥ

māyā brāhmī vidyā avidyā prakṛtiḥ śaktiḥ ajā ityādayaḥ, TYD, cf., SSR, p.33

17 hetumadanityamavyāpi sakriyamanekamāśritaṁ liṅgam /

sāvayavaṁ paratantraṁ vyaktaṁ viparītamavyaktam //

triguṇamaviveki viṣayaḥ sāmānyamacetanaṁ prasavadharmi /

vyaktaṁ tathā pradhānaṁ tadviparītastathā ca pumān // SK, 10-11.

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middle term to prove the existence of any other category. Prakṛti is partless also,

since in this state, the production of different evolutes, does not commence. It is

independent, non-manifested and unconscious, and also the objective ground of all

cognitions. Again, as such, it is not limited to individual consciousness, but enters

into the knowledge of all.

In the Sāṁkhyapravacanasūtra, it is stated that Prakṛti is constituted by the

three guṇas, viz., sattva, rajas and tamas. Prakṛti is the unity of sattva, rajas and

tamas held in a state of equilibrium.18

The three guṇas are not the qualities as in the

Nyāya-Vaiśeṣika system says; they are the ultimate elements in the constitution of

Prakṛti. Hence Prakṛti is not beyond the guṇas. The Sāṁkhyasūtra mentions that

Prakṛti has two functions – sāmya (equilibrium) and vaiṣamya (disturbance).19

When the three guṇas are held together in a state of equilibrium (sāmyāvasthā),

there is no action. This is the natural condition of Prakṛti. When a disturbance

(vaiṣamya) arises in the equilibrium state of the guṇas, then starts the process of

creation.

The most important characteristic of Prakṛti is that it is out and out

productive. It undergoes changes. It changes into forms and categories. Hence,

movement or becoming is also another inconvertible principle of experience and this

principle is Prakṛti or Pradhāna. Prakṛti has two movements: anuloma (forward)

and pratiloma (backward). In its forward movement Prakṛti becomes the generating

agent of all sargas (evolutes), while in the backward movement, it retraces the

stages through which it is developed.

��18 sattvarajastamasāṁ sāmyāvasthā prakṛtiḥ, SS, I.61

19 sāmya vaisamyābhyāṁ kārya dvayam, Ibid., VI.42

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The Sāṁkhya gives rational justification for postulating an avyakta Prakṛti

as the inexhaustive source of the manifest world. Īśvarakṛṣṇa advances in his kārikā

the following arguments for the existence of Prakṛti - because of the finite nature of

specific objects, because of homogeneity, because of evolution being due to the

efficiency of the cause, because of separation between cause and its product; and

because of the merging of the whole world of effects.20

(i) The world-objects are all finite. The difficulty in presupposing a finite

cause of the world-objects involves the unending process of finding a finite first

cause. If the first cause happens to be finite in character, it would always be

dependent on something and hence cannot be independent and complete. Logically

it follows, then, that something finite cannot be the first cause and that the infinite

Prakṛti can only be the first cause of the material world.

(ii) All the individual objects share at least three common characteristics

(derived from the three guṇas), like the tendency to manifest, the activity or force

that will make the manifestation possible, and the obstacle on the way to such

manifestation. Thus all objects contain the three guṇas, and this common feature

points to a common source that contains the three guṇas.

(iii) It is well-known that effects evolve due to efficiency of the cause; for,

no effect can ever arise from an inefficient cause. This efficiency is latent in the

cause and is no other than the existent effect in its unmanifest condition. Thus, on

��20

cf., bhedānāṁ parimāṇāt samanvayāt śaktitaḥ pravṛtteśca /

kāraṇakāryavibhāgādavibhāgādvaiśvarūpyasya //

kāraṇamastyavyaktaṁ pravartate triguṇataḥ samudayācca /

pariṇāmataḥ salilavat pratipratiguṇāśrayaviśeṣāt // SK. 15-16.

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the hypothesis that effect already exists in its cause, the existence of any other form

of causal efficiency other than the latent form at the unmanifest effect, cannot be

proved in the cause.

The difference between sand and sesamum seed which is the material cause

of oil, lies in the fact that it is only in the sesamum seed that oil exists in its

unmanifest state and not in the sand.

(iv) An effect arises from its cause, and is again resolved into the cause at the

moment it is dissolved. The effect is the manifestation of the cause into which it is

re-absorbed at the moment of destruction. The empirical universe is the

manifestation of Prakṛti.

(v) The perfect order and harmony in the world of objects imply that

everything is governed by a single principle, just as the different branches of a tree

belong to the same tree. As the main trunk of the tree gets divided into several

branches, so the single material cause, i.e.Prakṛti gets divided and sub-divided, thus

leading to increasing differentiation.

NATURE OF PURUṢA IN SĀṀKHYA:

According to the Sāṁkhya, Puruṣa is a pure spirit and entirely different from

Prakṛti and its evolutes.21

Thus, the Puruṣa is beyond the three guṇas also. As it is

pure, Puruṣa is free from merits, demerits, pleasure, pain, delusion, attachment,

aversion, desire etc. The Puruṣa in its real nature is beyond of all empirical

attributes.22

Puruṣa is unchangeable and immutable. It is eternal in the sense that it

��21 astyātmā nāstitvasādhanābhāvāt, SS.VI.1

22 Sinha, K.P., The Self in Indian philosophy, pp.50-51.

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is not affected by the change of time, and that it is an uncaused ultimate principle. It

is independent and is not supported by anything else. The Sāṁkhya holds that the

Puruṣa is of the nature of pure consciousness. Consciousness is not a product of

elements, since it is not present in the body, intellect etc.23

Again, it is not a mode or

attribute of the Puruṣa as some philosophers like the Naiyāyikas opine, but it is the

very essence of it. The Puruṣa should not be regarded as blissful consciousness also,

because bliss and consciousness, being two different entities, cannot be essence of

the same reality. Further, bliss is but another name of pleasure which belongs to

Prakṛti and as such cannot be the essence of the Puruṣa.24

As the nature of pure consciousness, the Puruṣa is sadāprakāśasvarūpa or

always self-manifested.25

It is different from all the elements of the world of objects.

It is different from matter or the material body, the senses, the mind and the intellect.

Puruṣa is different from matter, because the latter is the known, while the former is

the knower. It is different from the senses, since the latter are the instruments of the

knowing, while the former is the subject thereof. It is different from the mind;

because the mind is active and composed of guṇas, while the Puruṣa is inactive and

devoid of guṇas. Puruṣa is different from buddhi or intellect, since the latter is

unconscious, but the former is conscious. Though the Puruṣa is different from all

these elements, it holds together all the different stages of an individual and

illuminates the whole sphere of thought and feelings.26

��23 na bhūtacaitanyaṁ pratyekādṛṣṭeḥ sāṁhatye’pi ca, SS, V.129; and

na sāṁsiddhikaṁ caitanyaṁ pratyekādṛṣṭeḥ, Ibid., III.20. 24

naikasyānandacidrūpatve dvayorbhedāt, SS, V.66; STK on SK, 19 25 ataḥ sadāprakāśasvarūpatvānapāyena puruṣasyāpariṇāmitvaṁ sidhyati, SPB, I.75. 26

śarīrādivyatiriktaḥ pumān, SS, I.139;

dehādivyatirikto’sau vaicitryāt, Ibid., VI.2

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According to Sāṁkhya, the Puruṣa is incapable of movement and on

attaining release it does not go anywhere.27

The Puruṣa is not of limited magnitude

or madhyama-parimāṇa. Neither it can be atomic in size, because an atomic self

cannot account for the fact of our cognition throughout the whole body. Hence, the

Puruṣa should be regarded as of unlimited size or vibhu-parimāṇa, i.e. all

pervasive.28

Puruṣa is also called pumān. The Sāṁkhyakārikā describes Puruṣa or pumān

as atriguṇa, viveki, cetana, aprasavadharmī etc. and all these characteristics reveal

that Puruṣa and Prakṛti are diametrically opposite.29

However, both are equally free

and fundamental; and both lie at the root of the world. The fundamental point

regarding the point of Puruṣa is that it is always the subject of knowledge and never

an object of it.

The author of Sāṁkhyakārikā mentions the five characteristics of the Puruṣa.

These are – sākṣitvam (witness), kaivalyam (solitary), mādhyastham (neutral),

draṣṭṛtvam (seer) and akartṛbhāvaḥ (non-doer).30

According to the Sāṁkhya system,

Puruṣa is like a light. All the products of Prakṛti can be seen by the light of the self.

Puruṣa is self-manifested. With the help of the light of Puruṣa, Prakṛti and its

products are manifested. But all the activities belonging to Prakṛti and its products,

not belongs to the Puruṣa because of its inactivity. Though not kartā, the Puruṣa is

bhoktā or enjoyer. Actually enjoyment is also not natural to the self; it is ascribed to

��27

niṣkriyasya tadasambhavāt, Ibid., I. 49

28 murtatvād ghatādivat samānadharmāpattāvapasiddhāntaḥ, Ibid., I. 50

29 SK, 11

30 tasmācca viparyāsāt siddhaṁ sākṣitvamasya puruṣasya /

kaivalyaṁ mādhyasthaṁ draṣṭṛtvamakartṛbhāvaśca // Ibid., 19

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the empirical self, because of abhimāna or the egoistic sense which, on its part, is

born of aviveka or non-discrimination.31

When true knowledge arises all the

attributes like pleasure, pain, agency, enjoyment etc. wither away, only pure

consciousness remains. In its real nature, the Puruṣa is eternally free and perfect.

Hence, bondage and liberation, birth and death, pleasure and pain – all belong to

Prakṛti, not to Puruṣa. Puruṣa is never bound nor is he release nor does he

migrate.32

The Sāṁkhya philosophers have advanced a number of arguments for the

existence of Puruṣa. These arguments are presented in different forms by different

Sāṁkhya writers. For the purpose of authentic presentation, we shall take up these

arguments as presented by Īśvarakṛṣṇa in his kārikā. These arguments are as

follows –

The Puruṣa exists because – (i) the aggregate is for another’s sake, (ii) of

the absence of three guṇas and other properties, (iii) there must be some controller,

(iv) there must be some enjoyer and (v) of the tendency of activities towards final

beatitude.33

The first argument suggests that all the composite objects (saṁghātas) are

for another (parārthatvāt). Here the word para or another is to be understood in an

absolute sense, i.e. it must be non composite in character. It is meant for some non

��31 akarturapi phalopabhogo’nnādyavat, SS, I. 105;

tataśca bhogyaṁ pradhānaṁ bhoktāramantareṇa na sambhavatīti yuktāsya bhoktrapekṣā,

STK on SK, 21 32

tasmānna badhyate’sau na mucyate nāpi saṁsarati kaścit /

saṁsarati badhyate mucyate ca nānāśrayā prakṛtiḥ // SK, 62; SS, I.107, VI.28 33

cf., saṁghātaparārthatvāt triguṇādiviparyayādadhiṣṭhānāt /

puruṣo’sti bhoktṛbhāvāt kaivalyārthaṁ pravṛtteśca // Ibid., 17

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composite being, which is no other than Puruṣa. Both the commentators, Gauḍapāda

and Vācaspati Miśra talk about the analogy of bed and its user, while commenting

on this argument.34

In the language of Gauḍapāda – “In like manner as a bed, which

is an assemblage of bedding props, cotton, coverlet and pillows, is for another use,

not for its own and its several component parts render no mutual service; hence it is

concluded that there is a man who sleeps upon the bed and for whose sake it was

made. So this world, which is an assemblage of the five elements, is for another’s

use; or there is a soul, for whose enjoyment this enjoyable body, consisting of

intellect and the rest, has been produced.”

The second argument says that Puruṣa must exist because it is reverse of that

which has the three attributes and the rest. All the knowable has three elements

involved in it, first the element of sattva, by which we have the intelligence staff

causing all manifestations; second the element of rajas, which is always causing

transformations and the third is the tamas, which is the mass which serves the

potentiality for the rajas to actualize. Now such a Prakṛti, composed of these three

elements, cannot be a seer itself. For the seer must be always the same,

unchangeable, actionless entity - the ever-present constant factor in all stages of our

consciousness.

The third argument suggests just like a chariot which is controlled by a

charioteer, so also the triguṇātmikā Prakṛti requires an adhiṣṭhāna, i.e. Puruṣa.

Gauḍapāda suggests that chariot can function only in so far as it is controlled and

run by a charioteer. Pradhāna functions only when it is controlled by the Puruṣa.35

��34 GB & STK on SK, 17

35 puruṣādhiṣṭhitaṁ pradhānaṁ pravartate, GB on SK, 17

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The fourth argument (bhoktṛbhāvāt) attempts to establish Puruṣa as an

enjoyer. This is substantially the same as the first proposition. Gauḍapāda, thus, has

joined them together by a common interpretation. The difference is that the first

argument refers to an arrangement of utility and implies that it has been made for

someone use, while the fourth argument indicates ownership or possession and

therefore a possessor, as an estate implies an owner. Vācaspati has explained the

bhoktṛbhāva of Puruṣa in the sense of draṣṭṛbhāva, whereas Vijñānabhikṣu has

interpreted bhoktṛbhāva of Puruṣa in the sense of enjoyment through reflection.36

The fifth argument kaivalyārthaṁ pravṛtti seeks to prove the existence of

Puruṣa on the basis of the observed facts of the world. It says that because there is a

tendency in all scriptures and among all the intelligent persons towards freedom,

there must be something beyond the great principle and the rest; and this is the

spirit.37

The whole creation of this world is marching towards freedom which

belongs to the Puruṣa.

Thus, all these arguments which are advanced by the Sāṁkhya philosophers

do prove the existence of Puruṣa as consciousness and illumination.

The Sāṁkhya system believes in the plurality of the Puruṣa. According to

them, the self or Puruṣa is not one, but many and it is different in different

organisms. Further reasons are adduced by the Sāṁkhya philosophers for the

plurality of the Puruṣas. The arguments are as follows – (i) from the individual

allotment of birth, death and the instruments, (ii) from the simultaneity of activities

��36 bhoktṛbhāvāt draṣṭṛbhāvāt, dṛśyeṇa draṣṭuranumānādityarthaḥ, STK on SK, 17

37 tasmāt kaivalyārthaṁ………. ātmeti siddham, Ibid.,17

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and (iii) from the diverse modifications due to the three guṇas.38

In this way, the

Sāṁkhya have established the plurality of the Puruṣa on logical ground. They hold

that in their fundamental form these Puruṣas are the same but they are many in

number. Their essence is consciousness, which is the same in all the Puruṣas.

RELATION BETWEEN PRAKṚTI AND PURUṢA IN SĀṀKHYA:

It is already stated that Prakṛti evolves the world of objects when it comes

into relation with the Puruṣa. The evolution of the world has its starting point in the

contact between the Puruṣa and Prakṛti. However, the relation between these two is

the most perplexing point of the Sāṁkhya system. The Sāṁkhya holds that though

Prakṛti and Puruṣa are quite opposite natures, there is harmony between these two

realities. In their view, there can be no evolution unless these two realities are

somehow related to each other. According to Sāṁkhya, the contact between Puruṣa

and Prakṛti is not an ordinary kind of conjunction. The said contact means that the

Prakṛti is influenced simply by the presence of Puruṣa, just as our body is

sometimes moved by the presence of a thought or a piece of iron is moved by a

piece of magnet.39

Prakṛti is unconscious and active, while Puruṣa is conscious but

inactive. But through the union or contact between these two, the unconscious

Prakṛti appears as if it is conscious and similarly the neutral Puruṣa appears as if it

were the agent.40

However, the evolution of the world cannot be due to the Puruṣa

alone, for its inactivity; nor can it be due to Prakṛti alone, because it is unconscious.

��38 jananamaraṇakaraṇānāṁ pratiniyamādayugapatpravṛtteśca /

puruṣabahutvaṁ siddhaṁ traiguṇyaviparyayāccaiva // SK, 18

39 tatsannidhānādadhiṣṭhātṛtvaṁ maṇivat, SS, I. 96

40 tasmāttatsaṁyogādacetanaṁ cetanāvadiva liṅgam /

guṇakartṛtve ca tathā karteva bhavatyudāsīnaḥ // SK, 20

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Hence for the evolution of the world, the activity of Prakṛti must be guided by the

intelligence of the Puruṣa. In this context the question arises as how can these two

different realities co-operate to serve their respective purposes? In reply, Sāṁkhya

philosophers say that though distinct from each other, Prakṛti and Puruṣa can co-

operate for the evolution purposes, just as a lame man and a blind man can co-

operate with each-other and came out of the forest.41

The Puruṣa is compared to a

lame man and Prakṛti is compared to a blind man. Just as a lame man guides a blind

man, so the Puruṣa guides Prakṛti. Prakṛti is blind and unconscious and evolves the

manifold world under the guidance of the Puruṣas to realize their ends. When

Prakṛti acts, the Puruṣa experiences the fruits, since the activity of Prakṛti is

interested for the experience of Puruṣa.42

Prakṛti requires the presence of the Puruṣa

in order to be known or appreciated by it, and the Puruṣa requires the help of Prakṛti

in order to discriminate itself from the latter and thereby attain liberation.43

In

reality, the Puruṣa is neither bound nor released nor transmigrates from one to

another individuals. Prakṛti, in the form of mind, egoism, subtle essences and the

sense-organs, is bound, released and transmigrated. The Sāṁkhya philosophers hold

that Prakṛti though unconscious, has an imanent teleology because of which it acts

for fulfilling the needs of the Puruṣa, just unconscious milk flows for the

nourishment of the calf.44

When a particular Puruṣa is liberated, Prakṛti stops its

activities with reference to that Puruṣa, like an actress who desists from dancing

��41

paṅgvandhavadubhayorapi saṁyogastatkṛtaḥ sargaḥ / Ibid., 21

42 akarturapi phalopabhogo’nnādyavat, SS, I. 105

43 puruṣasya darśanārthaṁ kaivalyārthaṁ tathā pradhānasya / SK, 21

44 vatsavivṛddhinimittaṁ kṣirasya yathā pravṛttirajñasya / Ibid., 57

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when the spectators are satisfied.45

When the Puruṣa apprehends its distinction from

Prakṛti through knowledge, it becomes completely fulfilled, and then Prakṛti stops

its creative acts from it. When Prakṛti stops its acts, then Puruṣa abides in its

intrinsic nature, realizes its innate purity, and remains as indifferent seer. And when

the Puruṣa recognizes its distinction from the ever-evolving and dissolving world of

Prakṛti, the latter ceases to operate towards it.46

The evolution of Prakṛti is due to

their non-discrimination, not the mere presence of the Puruṣa. This non-

discrimination brings about a temporary union between Puruṣa and Prakṛti.

However, the union is not real, because it dissolves on the rise of true knowledge.

According to the Sāṁkhya system, aviveka is the cause of conjunction between the

Puruṣa and Prakṛti.47 The conjunction is not real change, because no new properties

are produced in the Puruṣa. The relation between these two is sometimes viewed as

that of the enjoyer and the enjoyable.48

PRAKṚTI AND PURUṢA IN THE YOGA PHILOSOPHY:

The Yoga system, like the Sāṁkhya philosophy, also recognizes the two

Ultimate Realities, viz., Prakṛti and Puruṣa. In addition to these two realities, the

Yoga also recognizes the reality of God. But God is not a separate reality. As per

Yoga metaphysics, he is a special kind of Puruṣa.49

Thus, the admission of the

reality of God does not make any fundamental difference between the Sāṁkhya and

��45 raṅgasya darśayitvā nivartate nartakī yathā nṛtyāt /

puruṣasya tathātmānaṁ prakāśya vinivartate prakṛtiḥ // Ibid., 59

46 doṣabodhe’pi nopasarpaṇaṁ pradhānasya kulavadhūvat, SS, III. 70 & SK. 61

47 vivekābhāvarūpasyāvivekasya saṁyogatve ………prakṛtipuruṣasaṁyoga… SPB, I.19

48 aparastu bhogya-bhoktṛyogyataivānayoḥ saṁyoga….. Ibid., I.19

49 YS, I.24

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the Yoga systems. Both the systems advocate the dualism of Prakṛti and Puruṣa,

which are the two ultimate and independent realities.

NATURE OF PRAKṚTI IN YOGA:

According to the Yoga system, Prakṛti is a material, non-intelligent,

independent principle. It is the beginning, indeterminate, unmediated and

undetermined. Prakṛti neither exists nor does it not exist. It is the principium of all

existence. It is unconscious but active. It is the nature of eternal change and thus,

different from the Puruṣa or self. Prakṛti is different from māyā or avidyā of the

Vedānta, since it is real.50

Patañjali uses the term dṛśya as synonym of Prakṛti.51 Like the Sāṁkhya

system, the Yoga also holds that the three guṇas are the constituents of Prakṛti. In

the Yogasūtra, it is mentioned that the dṛśya is of the nature of illumination, activity

and inertia; it consists of the elements and the sense-organs; it is for the purpose of

experience and emancipation.52

It is also called Pradhāna. Vyāsa mentions that this

is the final merging point of all the evolutes and thus it is called Pradhāna.53

The Yoga also holds that Prakṛti is the equilibrium state of the three guṇas.

Hence, the guṇas are not different from Prakṛti and apart from guṇas there is no

Prakṛti.54Prakṛti is naturally being productive by the influence of the guṇas. All the

actions of Prakṛti are only for the Puruṣas. The phenomenal world, the great

��50 Dasgupta, S.N., Yoga as Philosophy and Religion, p.12

51 YS, II.17

52 prakāśakriyāsthitiśīlaṁ bhūtendriyātmakaṁ bhogāpavargārthaṁ dṛśyam, Ibid., II.18

53 VB, II.18

54 guṇā eva prakṛtiśabdavācyā na tu tadatiriktā prakṛtirasti, YV, II.18

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pageantry of Prakṛti, is for Puruṣa; as such, it is a means to the end, and not the end

itself. Puruṣa being realized, the action of Prakṛti immediately ceases.55

The Yoga philosophers describe Prakṛti as being beyond both the states of

existence and non-existence. The state of the equilibrium of the guṇas is nowhere of

use in fulfilling the objects of the Puruṣa. Thus, it does not exist as such. On the

other hand, it does not admit of being rejected as non-existent like an imaginary

lotus of the sky. It is therefore not non-existent. Hence, it is said that Prakṛti neither

exists nor does it non-exist. Vyāsa describes this Prakṛti or Pradhāna as that, which

is devoid of existence and non-existence, neither real nor unreal, not unreal but

unmanifested, not a trace, the ultimate principle, in which all the evolutes of the

universe, viz., the intellect, the ego, the subtle-elements, the gross elements, the

senses of cognition and of action, the mind- all these merge.56

According to

Vācaspati Miśra, existence consists in possessing the capacity of effecting the

fulfillment of the objects of the Puruṣa and non-existence means a mere imaginary

trifle, e.g. the horn of a hare. The cause exists in that state in a potential form but not

in the form of the effect. Although the effect exists in the cause as mere potential

power, yet it is incapable of performing the function of fulfilling the objects of the

Puruṣa; therefore it is said to be non-existent as such. Further this cause is not such,

that its effect is of the nature of hare’s horn. It is beyond the state of non-existence,

that is, of the existence of the effect as mere nothing. If it were like that, then it

would be like the lotus of sky and no effect would follow.57

��55

tadartha eva dṛśyasyātmā, YS, II.21

56 niḥsattāsattaṁ niḥsadasat nirasadavyaktamaliṅgaṁ pradhānaṁ, VB, II.19.

57 TV, II.19; cf., Dasgupta, S.N., Yoga as Philosophy and Religion, p.9

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NATURE OF PURUṢA IN YOGA:

According to the Yoga system, the Puruṣa or self is a spiritual entity and is

different from Prakṛti, the material cause of the world. Patañjali describes Puruṣa as

draṣṭā or dṛśimātra, i.e. to say, it is consciousness.58

It is śuddha or pure, i.e.

without any contact with any feature of dṛśya or the knowable consisting of either

what is possibly the subject of an awareness or its object.59

Vyāsa mentions it as

sadājñātaviṣayaḥ,60

means constantly aware of things. Puruṣa is apariṇāmi or it has

no pariṇāma or change, transformation. Puruṣa is self-luminous, self-complete and

self-satisfied. It is free from bondage and liberation; it is only because of its false

identification with buddhi that it seems to be undergoing bondage and attain

liberation. The Puruṣa is all pervasive; it is neither atomic nor intermediary in

magnitude.61

It is also called dṛk or seer and śakti or power like Prakṛti itself.62

The Puruṣa in its real nature is distinct from the physical body, the senses,

mind and the intellect; but in the empirical state, it is neither quite similar nor quite

distinct from them. In this context, Vyāsa says that the Puruṣa is not quite dissimilar

to the elements of Prakṛti, because, had it been so, it could not perceive the ideas in

the form of mental modification.63

The Yoga philosophers accept the arguments advanced by the Sāṁkhya

philosophers for the existence of the Puruṣa. They believe that the Puruṣa exists

��58 draṣṭā dṛśimātraḥ… YS, II.20

59 Ibid., II.20

60 sadājñātaviṣayatvaṁ tu puruṣasyapariṇāmitvaṁ paridīpayati, VB, II.20

61 TV, I.4, IV.31

62 VB, II.6, 20.

63 sa buddher na sarūpo nātyantaṁ virūpa iti, Ibid., II.20

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because an assemblage of things is for another’s sake (saṁghāta-parārthatvāt). The

action of Prakṛti is by Puruṣa and for Puruṣa. Again, all the knowable is composed

of three guṇas (triguṇādi viparyayāt), i.e. Prakṛti, cannot itself be a seer. For the

seer, the Puruṣa must exist. There must be a presiding power, a pure consciousness

which co-ordinates all experience (adhiṣṭhānāt) and there must be an enjoyer

(bhoktṛbhāvāt). Thus, the Puruṣa is described by the Yoga philosophers as jñātā,

sākṣī, bhoktā etc.64

Moreover, because there is a tendency in all persons to move

towards liberation (kaivalyārthaṁ pravṛtti), there must be something beyond the

great principle and the rest; which is called Puruṣa.65

The Sāṁkhya was consistent in holding the doctrine of the plurality of the

Puruṣas. But Patañjali does not say anything on this point. But he presumed the

plurality of the selves as propounded by the Sāṁkhya system. Though Patañjali does

not infer the plurality of the Puruṣas, yet holds the view that although destroyed in

relation to him whose objects have been achieved, it is not destroyed, being common

to others.66

There is no controversy among the philosophers about the plurality of

the Puruṣas in their empirical state. But the Sāṁkhya-Yoga philosophers hold that

in the transcendental level also, the selves are many.

RELATION BETWEEN PRAKṚTI AND PURUṢA IN YOGA:

The most difficult point is to understand the relation between the two

complete different realities of Prakṛti and Puruṣa. Patañjali mentions that the

relation between Puruṣa and Prakṛti takes place for the sake of knowing the

��64

VB, YV on YS, II.18

65 SK, 17

66 cf., kṛtārthaṁ prati naṣṭamapyanaṣṭaṁ tadanyasādhāraṇatvāt, YS, II.22

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essential nature of them.67

Prakṛti is unconscious but active, while Puruṣa is

conscious but inactive. Prakṛti is of the nature of changing, but Puruṣa is

unchanging, neutral, constant seer. According to the Yoga philosophers, the main

difference between the Puruṣa and Prakṛti is that Prakṛti is constantly undergoing

modifications, as it grasps its objects one by one. But Puruṣa is the constant

perceiver of the modifications of Prakṛti. It is the light which remains unchanged

amidst all the changing modifications of Prakṛti. Due to proximity a reflection of cit

is caught in the buddhi by virtue of which buddhivṛttis get changed into

consciousness. Puruṣa reflects or turns into own light the concepts of citta or buddhi

and thus is said to know it. Actually the Puruṣa is absolutely free from all bondage,

absolutely unconnected with Prakṛti. From the side of appearance the self seems

only to be the intelligent seer imparting consciousness, though in reality he remains

the seer of himself all the while. The difference between the Puruṣa and Prakṛti will

be clear when we see that Puruṣa is altogether independent, free from all bondage

whatever; but buddhi exists on the other hand for the enjoyment and release of

Puruṣa. That being exists in and for itself, must be the unchangeable, self-centered,

self-satisfied entity. This entity is Puruṣa, which has no suffering of transformation

or modification and which never seeks any other end and never leaves itself. On the

other hand, Prakṛti is always undergoing endless modifications and as such does not

exist for itself.

However, the Yoga, like the Sāṁkhya, holds that the association of the

Puruṣa and Prakṛti is the cause of the evolution and their dissociation is the cause of

��67 svasvāmiśaktyoḥ svarūpopalabdhihetuḥ saṁyogaḥ, Ibid., II.23

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dissolution of the world. But they can neither associate themselves with each other

nor dissociate themselves from each other. Thus, God has been accepted as another

reality in the Yoga philosophy. He associates and dissociates Prakṛti and Puruṣa in

accordance with their merits and demerits, and brings about evolution and

dissolution of the world. He removes all obstacles to the evolution of Prakṛti and to

the achievement of liberation of the Puruṣas.68

Like Sāṁkhya, the Yoga also says that emancipation of the Puruṣa is said to

be the main purpose of Prakṛti. In common with the orthodox systems of thought,

the Yoga also recognizes avidyā or ignorance as the cause of all desires, and as the

hindrance to the comprehension of the true nature of things. Ignorance can be

dispelled by discriminative knowledge (viveka-khyāti). This isolation from Prakṛti is

not merely a negative state, but positive eternal life of the Puruṣa who is restored to

its true form or svarūpa.69

PRAKṚTI AND PURUṢA IN THE SĀTTVIKAPURĀṆAS:

In the Purāṇas also, Prakṛti and Puruṣa are regarded as the basic factors for

the creation of the universe. Like the Sāṁkhya-Yoga system, here also Prakṛti or

Pradhāna is described as the material cause of the world and has no beginning and

in it all the evolutes are resolved. And the word puruṣa is used in two senses in the

Purāṇas, i.e. jīvātman (the individual self) and paramātman (the transcendental self).

According to the Sāttvikapurāṇas, both the Puruṣa and Prakṛti are essential

principles for the production of the prapañca, as man and woman are for the

��68 VB, TV, YV, IV.3, II.22, I.26

69 VB, I. 3-4; II.15-17, 23-25.

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production of progeny. But they are not the Ultimate Realities as the Sāṁkhya-Yoga

philosophers hold. As per the Purāṇic tradition, God, the Supreme soul is the

Ultimate Reality or the Absolute. The Purāṇas upheld that God has innumerable

potencies and thus He is described as omnipotent. All these potencies are not alien to

Him but inhere in Him. He is the ruler, seer, knower of all. He is the supreme power

and Lord of all creatures.70

In the Purāṇas, only one God is eulogized under various epithets, such as

Śiva, Gaṇapati, Devī, Sūrya or Viṣṇu. The Tāmasikapurāṇas argue that Lord Śiva is

the Supreme God and the cause of all; and other gods are his associates (vibhūtis).71

Similarly, those who are the worshipers of Lord Gaṇapati, they think that Gaṇapati

is the cause of the universe.72

According to the Sāttvikapurāṇas, as they are

followers of the Viṣṇu cult, Lord Viṣṇu otherwise called Bhagavat, Vāsudeva,

Kṛṣṇa, Hari, Nārāyaṇa, Govinda etc. is the prime cause of the universe and He is the

Absolute.73

Further, the Purāṇas hold that the Supreme cause is one and He takes the

forms of Brahmā, Viṣṇu and Śiva for the purpose of creation, preservation and

destruction of the universe respectively.74

Before creation Prakṛti lay merged with

Supreme spirit without separate existence. But when the desire for creation was

��70

sarveśvaraḥ sarvadṛk sarvavicca

samastaśaktiḥ parameśvarākhyaḥ // VP, VI.5.86

71 sarveṣāmeva bhūtānāmantaryāmī śivaḥ smṛtaḥ /

sarveṣāmeva bhūtānāṁ paratvāt para ucyate //

paramātmā śivaḥ śambhuḥ śankaraḥ parameśvaraḥ // LP, II.16.15-16

72 BVP, III.13.46-66

73 VP, I.1.31, II.7.40; BP, I.2.11; NP, I.3.2 etc.

74 GP, I.4.12; PP, Sṛṣṭi, 2.116 etc.

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aroused, this Supreme spirit divided itself into two parts, viz., Prakṛti and Puruṣa.75

Then both of these Prakṛti (matter) and Puruṣa (spirit) united together for the

creation purpose by the will of God Viṣṇu. And therefore it is said that Prakṛti and

Puruṣa are not the independent realities as in the Sāṁkhya-Yoga. They are nothing

but two different manifestations of God. However, almost all the Sāttvikapurāṇas

maintain that these two are the original stuffs from which all material things are

evolved.

PRAKṚTI AND PURUṢA IN THE VIṢṆUPURĀṆA:

The Viṣṇupurāṇa also describes the concept of Prakṛti and Puruṣa, the two

co-present and co-eternal realities of the Sāṁkhya-Yoga. But these two realities are

not independent like in the Sāṁkhya-Yoga; they are purely dependent on God

Viṣṇu. According to the Viṣṇupurāṇa, Viṣṇu is the cause of all. Prakṛti, Puruṣa,

vyakta and kāla- these four forms have come out from out of His playful activity.76

Thus, according to the Viṣṇupurāṇa, Viṣṇu is the Ultimate Reality, not Prakṛti or

Puruṣa.

NATURE OF PRAKṚTI IN THE VIṢṆUPURĀṆA:

In the Viṣṇupurāṇa, Prakṛti is described as the chief principle from which all

material things evolve. It is also called Pradhāna, the unmanifested cause of the

world. The Viṣṇupurāṇa mentions it as subtle, uniform and sadasadātmaka, i.e. the

nature of both existent and non-existent. It is durable, self-sustained, illimitable,

��75

VP, I.2.23-24; BP, XI.24.3-4

76 vyaktaṁ viṣṇustathāvyaktaṁ puruṣaḥ kāla eva ca /

krīḍato bālakasyeva ceṣṭāṁ tasya niśāmāyā // Ibid., I.2.18

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undecaying and subtle. It is devoid of sound or touch and possessing neither colour

nor form. Prakṛti is constituted of the three guṇas, viz., sattva, rajas and tamas. It is

called as jagadyoni, i.e. the womb of the world. According to the Viṣṇupurāṇa,

Prakṛti is the cause of the universe, but it has no cause. It is without beginning and

has no end. In it all the products are resolved. At the time of dissolution everything

was permeated by this subtle Prakṛti and in the absence of everything there was

Pradhāna alone.77

The entire diversity surrenders itself to the One, who is, called

Prādhānikaṁ Brahma, i.e. Viṣṇu or the absolute that has accommodated the

Pradhāna or Prakṛti in itself.78

The Viṣṇupurāṇa, like the Sāṁkhya-Yoga system, says that the equilibrium

state of the guṇas is called Prakṛti.79 Prakṛti is also styled as vyaya or that which

may be expanded and as pariṇāmi or that which may be modified. According to the

Viṣṇupurāṇa, Prakṛti is available in both the forms, i.e. vyakta (discrete) and

avyakta (indiscrete). However, this Prakṛti is essentially same; because at the time

of dissolution, the discrete is finally lost or absorbed in the indiscrete. Thus, it is said

that the different forms or designations of Prakṛti, whether discrete or indiscrete, is

ultimately the same.80

From the above, it is seen that the Viṣṇupurāṇa uses almost the same

expressions in the description of Prakṛti as found in the Sāṁkhya-Yoga philosophy.

But this expression creates some incongruity also. In the Viṣṇupurāṇa, Prakṛti is

��77 Ibid., I.2.19-21

78 prādhānikaṁ brahma pumāṁstadāsīt / Ibid., I.2.23

79 guṇasāmyamanugriktamanyūnaṁ ca mahāmune /

procyate prakṛtirhetuḥ pradhānaṁ kāraṇaṁ param // Ibid., VI.4.34

80 Ibid., VI.4.35

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described as nitya (eternal) and anādi (beginningless). At the same time, it is said

that Prakṛti is produced from Viṣṇu. To avoid this incongruity, the commentator say

that the word nitya does not mean eternal, it means uniform and devoid of intellect

etc. Similarly, anādi means not created by any created things but proceeding from

the first cause.81

In this way, the commentators avoid all the incongruity noticed in

the description of Prakṛti in the Viṣṇupurāṇa.

NATURE OF PURUṢA IN THE VIṢṆUPURĀṆA:

The word puruṣa is used in the sense of the self or spirit in the Viṣṇupurāṇa.

It is also called pumān. It is described as pure, eternal, all pervading, uniform and

perfect. Puruṣa is also called avyaya (inconsumable), apariṇāmi (immutable) and

thus different from Prakṛti or the matter and also devoid of any qualities.82

It is

devoid of birth, growth and decay; it is omnipresent and is of the nature of supreme

knowledge.83

The self is neither God, nor man, nor animal nor the tree. All

distinctions, such as, man, woman, cow, goat etc. are names assigned to various

bodies which are the products of past karman.84

According to the Viṣṇupurāṇa, the Puruṣa or self in its real nature never

bound and never have been subject to change. By a false imposition the Puruṣa

conceives itself to be the agent in the changes that take place by the natural

��81

Wilson, H.H., The Vishnu Purāṇa, p.9

82ātmā śuddho’kṣaraḥ śānto niguṇaḥ prakṛteḥ paraḥ / VP, II.13.71

83 eko vyāpī samaḥ śuddho nirguṇaḥ prakṛteḥ paraḥ /

janmavṛddhyādirahita ātmā sarvagato’vyayaḥ //Ibid., II.14.29

84 cf., Ibid, II.13.97-98

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movement of the guṇas of Prakṛti. In reality, the Prakṛti itself is the cause and agent

of all and Puruṣa is only the passive enjoyer of all pleasure and pains.85

The Viṣṇupurāṇa, however, uses the word puruṣa in both the senses, i.e. the

individual self (jīvātman) and the transcendental self (paramātman). In many places,

the Viṣṇupurāṇa identifies these two selves. There is one beginningless, qualityless

Puruṣa, who playfully assumes the four forms, viz., vyakta, avyakta, Puruṣa and

kāla for the purpose of creation. It is this Puruṣa which is probably regarded as

Puruṣottama, Mahāpuruṣa, Paramātmā, Īśvara or Viṣṇu.86

In this context, H. H.

Wilson says that by these two forms of Puruṣa, the commentator understands the

text to signify that Viṣṇu is any form of spiritual being that is acknowledged by

different systems of thought, or that he is the Brahman of the Vedānta, the Īśvara of

the Pātañjala-Yoga and the Puruṣa of the Sāṁkhya system.87

However, in the

Viṣṇupurāṇa it is said that Brahman is distinct from entire universe comprising the

material things and the individual selves, but nothing is distinct from it. Again, it is

said that its pure and supreme abode, which lies beyond the selves and Prakṛti, is

visioned by the liberated selves.88

This means that Brahman and the self are not

absolutely identical but are both identical and different.

��85 duḥkhājñānamayā dharmāḥ prakṛteste tu nātmanaḥ /

….…………………………………………………

bhajate prākṛtāndharmānanyastebhyo hi so’vyayaḥ // Ibid., VI.7.22-24

86 Ibid., I.2.15-18

87 cf., Wilson, H.H., The Vishnu Purāṇa, p.2

88 cf., VP, I.2.15-16

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The Viṣṇupurāṇa holds that there is one universal self abiding in all bodies.89

It is therefore clear that the Viṣṇupurāṇa does not establish the plurality of the

Puruṣa. The false individual selves arise out of such false attribution, just like the

different colours of the same sky.90

Everything in this world is of the nature of that

self which is none other than Viṣṇu. All the individuals are non-different from the

Supreme self.91

RELATION BETWEEN PRAKṚTI AND PURUṢA IN THE VIṢṆUPURĀṆA:

According to the Viṣṇupurāṇa, Viṣṇu is the cause of all. Thus, Viṣṇu is the

ultimate cause of the Prakṛti and Puruṣa also. Alike the Sāṁkhya-Yoga, here also

Prakṛti and Puruṣa are described as the two complete different principles. But it is

also said that the association of Prakṛti and Puruṣa is essential for the purpose of

creation. In this context, the Viṣṇupurāṇa says that when Viṣṇu enters into Prakṛti

and Puruṣa by His will, His proximity alone is sufficient to bring about the

disturbance of the guṇas, which is necessary for creation, just as an odorous

substance produces disturbance in the mind by mere proximity.92

When the

equilibrium is disturbed, the unequal development starts, because Pradhāna then

becomes presided over by kṣetrajña or the embodied spirit.

However, the Viṣṇupurāṇa also says that the Puruṣa, in its real nature, is

pure and composed of happiness and wisdom. The properties of pain, ignorance and

��89 yadā samastadeheṣu pūmaneko vyavasthitaḥ / Ibid., II.13.91

90 sitanīlādibhedena yathaikaṁ dṛśyate nabhaḥ /

bhrāntidṛṣṭibhirātmāpi tathaikaḥ sanpṛthakpṛthak // Ibid., II.16.22

91 ekaḥ samastaṁ yadihāsti kiñcittadacyuto nāsti paraṁ tato’nyat /

so’haṁ sa ca tvaṁ sa ca sarvametadātmasvarūpaṁ tyaja bhedamoham// Ibid., II.16.23

92 cf., Ibid., I.2.30

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124 �

impurity are those of Prakṛti, not of the Puruṣa. The Viṣṇupurāṇa analyses this with

the help of an example. It mentions that there is no affinity between fire and water,

but when the later is placed over the former in a caldron it bubbles and boils; and

exhibits the properties of fire. In the same manner, when Puruṣa is associated with

Prakṛti it is vitiated by egoism and the rest, and assumes the qualities of grosser

nature, although essentially distinct from them.93

From the above discussion, it is clear that Prakṛti and Puruṣa are not

independent in the Viṣṇupurāṇa. These two principles are purely dependent on God,

the Ultimate Reality. In other words, God controls them. All the functions of Prakṛti

and Puruṣa in the matter of creation are depending on God, not on Prakṛti or

Puruṣa. Hence the combination and separation of them also naturally depends on

God.

PRAKṚTI AND PURUṢA IN THE BHĀGAVATAPURĀṆA:

In the Bhāgavatapurāṇa, the concept of Prakṛti and Puruṣa is described

almost in accordance with the Viṣṇupurāṇa. Like the Viṣṇupurāṇa, the

Bhāgavatapurāṇa also holds that God is the ultimate cause of all creatures. Thus,

Prakṛti and Puruṣa are mentioned as the different manifestations of God.94

However, though the Bhāgavatapurāṇa follows the Viṣṇupurāṇa to a great extent, it

has a Vedāntic touch and stands nearer to the philosophy of Saṅkarācārya.

According to the Bhāgavatapurāṇa, the Supreme Reality who is the Supreme Lord

is both immanent and transcendent. When this reality is realized as the possessor of

��93

cf., Ibid., VI.7.23-24

94 etadbhagavato rūpaṁ brahmaṇaḥ paramātmanaḥ /

paraṁ pradhānaṁ puruṣaṁ daivaṁ karmaviceṣṭitam // BP, III.29.36

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125 �

diverse powers and all auspicious qualities, He is called Bhagavat or Vāsudeva or

Kṛṣṇa. The blissful Lord or Bhagavat took His own Prakṛti as a partner in order to

carry on His sport, from which flows the stream of all creation.95

Again it is said that

it was with His māyā (energy) that the Lord created the universe.96

However, these

two principles of Prakṛti and Puruṣa are elaborately discussed in this Purāṇa as the

basic materials from which all other materials of this universe are evolved.

NATURE OF PRAKṚTI IN THE BHĀGAVATAPURĀṆA:

In the Bhāgavatapurāṇa, Prakṛti is described as the material cause of the

universe as mentioned in the Viṣṇupurāṇa. Prakṛti is also described as avyakta

(unmanifest), nitya (eternal), Pradhāna (principal cause) and sadasadātmikā, i.e.

exists both as cause and effect and that which is though undifferentiated in its causal

state is the source of all distinct categories, such as mahat-tattva and so on. The

Bhāgavatapurāṇa also defined Prakṛti as triguṇātmikā, i.e. constitute of the three

guṇas, viz., sattva, rajas and tamas. The gross elements, the five subtle elements,

the five senses of perception, the five organs of action and the antaḥkaraṇa

(microcosm) consisting of manas, buddhi, ahaṁkāra and citta – all these are known

as the evolutes of Pradhāna or Prakṛti.97

In accordance with the Sāṁkhya-Yoga and the Viṣṇupurāṇa, the

Bhāgavatapurāṇa also says that Prakṛti remains in an unmanifested condition, in

��95

svasukhamupagate kvacidvihartuṁ prakṛtimupeyuṣi yadbhavapravāhaḥ / Ibid., I.9.32

96 sā vā etasya saṁdraṣṭuḥ śaktiḥ sadasadātmikā /

māyā nāma mahābhāga yayedaṁ nirmame vibhuḥ // Ibid., III.5.25

97 Ibid., III.26.10-11

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126 �

which the three guṇas are held in the state of equilibrium.98

When the Supreme Lord

desired to create the universe, this equilibrium state of the guṇas in Prakṛti is

disturbed and then process of evolution starts from Prakṛti.

In the Bhāgavatapurāṇa, Prakṛti has also been termed as māyā, which is also

constituted of three guṇas. Again it is said that God assumes the dual forms of

Prakṛti and Puruṣa by His power māyā for the purpose of creation.99

Hence, this

māyā represents only the external power of God, through which He creates this

universe. The Bhāgavatapurāṇa mentions that māyā is that potency of Bhagavān

which by reason of three guṇas causes the creation, the sustentation and the

dissolution of the phenomenal world.100

However, the Bhāgavatapurāṇa does not make estimation of the illusory

character of the world. But the world is here regarded as the effect of God’s potency

or Prakṛti, which is as eternal as God Himself. Thus, Prakṛti in the

Bhāgavatapurāṇa is not independent character as in the Sāṁkhya-Yoga philosophy.

NATURE OF PURUṢA IN THE BHĀGAVATAPURĀṆA:

The Bhāgavatapurāṇa, like the Viṣṇupurāṇa, holds that the Puruṣa is no

other than self or spirit. Here also Puruṣa is described as the beginningless,

attributeless and existing beyond Prakṛti or matter. It is revealed in the heart of all

beings and self-effulgent and all- pervading. Puruṣa is a mere witness and therefore

��98

prakṛtirguṇasāmyaṁ vai prakṛteḥ… Ibid., XI.22.12

99 tanmāyāphalarūpeṇa kevalaṁ nirvikalpitam /

vānmano’gocaraṁ satyaṁ dvidhā samabhavad bṛhat // Ibid., XI.24.3

100 cf., Ibid., I.8.18-19; III.5.26-27; XI.3.16

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127 �

a non-doer. In reality, Puruṣa is independent, pure consciousness but inactive and

thus different from the matter or Prakṛti.101

Like the Viṣṇupurāṇa, the Bhāgavatapurāṇa alsosays that the Puruṣa or the

self in its real nature is never bound or never have been subject to change. By

identifying himself with Prakṛti, which is different from him, the Puruṣa attributes

the doership of actions which are being performed by the guṇas of Prakṛti to him.

This feeling of doership binds him to actions. And this bondage makes him helpless

in the matter of pleasurable and painful experiences and subjects him to repeated

births and deaths even though he is blissful by nature. Hence, the Bhāgavatapurāṇa

says that the knower of truth recognizes Prakṛti as responsible for the identification

of the soul with body, with senses and mind. As for experience of pleasure and pain

they hold the Puruṣa, identifying him with Prakṛti, to be responsible, although as a

matter of fact, he is beyond Prakṛti.102

In the Bhāgavatapurāṇa also the word puruṣa is used in both the senses, i.e.

the individual self (jīvātman) and the transcendental self (Paramātman). Further, the

Bhāgavatapurāṇa explains that the Absolute Being is simultaneously nirguṇa and

saguṇa both.103

He is nirguṇa in the sense that He has no attributes common to

Prakṛti. He is niṣkriya or inactive, because He is not the cause of creation etc. of the

world directly, but is the doer through His partial manifestations. Again, He is called

saguṇa, because all the auspicious qualities such as bliss, beauty, compassion,

��101

anadirātma puruṣo nirguṇaḥ prakṛteḥ paraḥ /

pratyagdhāmā svayaṁjyotirviśvaṁ yena samanvitam // Ibid., III.26.3

102 cf., Ibid., III.26.4-8

103 vide, Ibid., III.24.43; VI.9.47; X.20.4

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128 �

omniscience belong to it. The Bhāgavatapurāṇa mentions that this unborn Puruṣa

creates, protects and dissolves this entire universe. He is pure (subjective), absolute

consciousness uniformly abiding as the inner self of all. He is ever true and perfect,

has no beginning or end, and is devoid of guṇas, eternal and without a second.104

The Bhāgavatapurāṇa states that the Supreme God is also called Puruṣa as He

creates the puras (cities) in the form of bodies of men, sages, animals, birds and

celestial beings, and then resides in those puras in the form of jīvas.105

Further, the Bhāgavatapurāṇa proposes the perplexing idea that there are

three different Puruṣas – first, the primordial Puruṣa who is identical with God;

second, the Puruṣa who is said to be the cosmic ahaṁkāra106

and third, the

individual Puruṣas or the bound jīvas. The ultimate teaching of the

Bhāgavatapurāṇa is that there is only one Puruṣa, transcendent to Prakṛti, which

shines forth as all the individual selves.107

RELATION BETWEEN PRAKṚTI AND PURUṢA IN THE

BHĀGAVATAPURĀṆA:

Like the Sāṁkhya-Yoga and the Viṣṇupurāṇa, the Bhāgavatapurāṇa also

describes the complete separate existence of Prakṛti and Puruṣa. Prakṛti is

described as the material cause of the universe. However, Prakṛti is incapable of

acting alone and only begins to evolve its twenty-four categories, when it comes into

��104 Ibid., II.6.38-39

105 purāṇyanena sṛṣṭāni nṛtiryagṛṣidevatāḥ /

śete jīvena rūpeṇa pureṣu puruṣo hyasau // Ibid., VII.14.37

106 Ibid., III.26.25

107 svayoniṣu yathā jyotirekaṁ nānā pratīyate /

yonīnāṁ guṇavaiṣamyāttathā’’tmā prakṛtau sthitaḥ // Ibid., III.28.43

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129 �

contact with Puruṣa. The Puruṣa or ātman is imperishable and non different from

the Supreme Reality. The Puruṣa is immersed in the Prakṛti, but nevertheless, being

unchangeable, qualityless and absolutely passive, it is not in any way touched by the

qualities of Prakṛti, which is ever-changing. Kāla or time is a potency of God, which

causes fear to the Puruṣa (doer) who has come to associate himself with Prakṛti and

is deluded by egoism (arising out of self-identification with body etc).108

Thus, kāla

is responsible for the disturbance in the equilibrium of the guṇas. In this way the

Lord Himself, who by His own power māyā abides unaffected within all living

beings as the Puruṣa (their inner controller) and outside them as kāla.109

Then,

through the creative effort of the Supreme Being, which is designated as kāla, the

equilibrium of the guṇas of Prakṛti is disturbed and then the transformatory

movement is set up in the Prakṛti, and the categories, such as mahat, ahaṁkāra etc.

are evolved. It has already been mentioned that the influence of the Prakṛti is

limited to the image of Puruṣa in Prakṛti, and that, being reflected in the Prakṛti, the

one Puruṣa throws a shadow of infinite selves. These selves are deluded by egoism

and consider themselves to be the active agents, and though there are no real births

and rebirths, yet they continue to suffer the bondage of the saṁsāra cycle like a man

who suffers from bad dreams. The Puruṣa in its transcendent nature is pure

experience and as such is devoid of any qualities and is absolutely unassociated with

any kind of objective form. According to the Bhāgavatapurāṇa, the association of

��108 prabhāvaṁ pauruṣaṁ prāhuḥ kālameke yato bhayam /

ahaṁkāravimūḍhasya kartuḥ prakṛtimīyuṣaḥ // Ibid., III.26.16

109 antaḥ puru�arūpe�a kālarūpe�a yo bahiḥ /

samanvetye�a sattvānāṁ bhagavānātmamāyayā // Ibid., III.26.18

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the Puruṣa and Prakṛti is as illusory as creations in dreams, and must be regarded as

the products of māyā.110

In this way, the Bhāgavatapurāṇa describes the concept of Prakṛti and

Puruṣa as the causes of the cosmic manifestation and holds that the Supreme

personality of Godhead, i.e. Vāsudeva or Bhagavat or Kṛṣṇa is ascertained to be the

original cause of creation. The word prakṛti, which is used to indicate the source of

creation, refers to the material energy of Supreme God, and the word puruṣa refers

to the living entities or the individual selves, which are the superior energy of the

Lord. Therefore, according to the Bhāgavatapurāṇa, the Supreme Lord is the cause

of both Prakṛti and Puruṣa.

PRAKṚTI AND PURUṢA IN THE NĀRADĪYAPURĀṆA:

The Nāradīyapurāṇa also describes the concept of Prakṛti and Puruṣa as

same as in the other Sāttvikapurāṇas. Here also the imperishable, boundless and

omnipresent Nārāyaṇa is called the Ultimate Reality. Not only the Prakṛti and

Puruṣa but the whole universe also is pervaded by this Supreme Lord.111

The

Supreme Lord is everywhere, in Him all material things exist and therefore He is

also named as Vāsudeva.112

He directs and guides the guṇas of Prakṛti.

The Nāradīyapurāṇa stresses that the creation of the material world starts

with the disturbance of the equilibrium of the guṇas in Prakṛti, which is brought

��110

ātmamāyāmṛte rājan parasyānubhavātmanaḥ /

na ghaṭetārthasambandhaḥ svapnadraṣṭurivāñjasā // Ibid., II.9.1

111 nārāyaṇo’kṣaro’nantaḥ sarvavyāpī nirañjanaḥ /

tenedamakhilaṁ vyāptaṁ jagatsthāvarajaṅgamam // NP, I.3.2

112 bhūteṣu vasanādeva vāsudevastataḥ smṛtaḥ // Ibid., I.46.23 (b)

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about by the Supreme Lord.113

Thus, it is clear that the Nāradīyapurāṇa also gives

the same expression to describe the two realities of Prakṛti and Puruṣa as described

in the other Sāttvikapurāṇas.

NATURE OF PRAKṚTI IN THE NĀRADĪYAPURĀṆA:

In the Nāradīyapurāṇa, the word prakṛti is described as the power of

Supreme God through which He creates the manifold world. Like the other

Sāttvikapurāṇas, here also it is said that Prakṛti is the ultimate material entity from

which all other materials are evolved.114

Prakṛti is also called as Parāśakti (the

Supreme Power) in the Nāradīyapurāṇa. It mentions that the creative power of

Supreme Lord is called Parāśakti. This śakti is described as bhāvābhāvasvarūpā,

i.e. the nature of both the existence and non-existence.115

It is variously called Umā,

Lakṣmī, Bhāratī, Girijā, Ambikā, Durgā, Bhadrakāli, Caṇḍī, Maheśvarī, Kaumārī,

Vaiṣṇavī, Varāhī, Śāmbhavī, Brāhmī, Vidyā, Avidyā, Māyā.116

Just like the

Supreme Lord, his Parāśakti or the Supreme power also permeates through the

universe in the form of manifested (vyakta) and unmanifested (avyakta).117

It has

two divisions also, namely, vidyā (right cognition) and avidyā (wrong cognition).

When the manifold world is conceived as different from the Supreme cause, then it

��113

yathā harirjagadvyāpī tasya śaktistathā mune /

dāha śaktiryathāṅgāre svāśrayaṁ vyāpya tisthati // Ibid., I.3.12

114 yasya śaktirmahāmāyā jagadvisrambhadhāriṇī /

viśvotpatternidānatvātprakṛtiḥ procyate budhaiḥ // Ibid., I.3.27

115 tasya śaktiḥ parā viṣṇorjagatkāryapravartinī /

bhāvābhāvasvarūpā sā vidyāvidyeti gīyate // Ibid., I.3.6

116 Ibid., I, 3.13-15

117 Ibid., I.3.16

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132 �

is called avidyā, which is the cause of pain, sorrow etc. and when the complete

identity arises between the two, then it is called the right cognition or vidyā.118

According to the Nāradīyapurāṇa, the creation of the universe is attributed

to the Supreme Lord through the upādhi (adjunct) of avidyā. The avidyā is nothing

but Prakṛti (the matter). This avidyā or Prakṛti is the supreme power of God, the

primal cause. Because of the adjunct of avidyā this manifold world appears as

different from Mahāviṣṇu, just as ākāśa or ether appears as different because of its

adjuncts.119

Again, in the Nāradīyapurāṇa, Rādhā is described as the chief deity –Śakti –

in Śaktism. She is always associated with Lord Kṛṣṇa.120

According to the

Nāradīyapurāṇa, Rādhā is the mother of all and is known as the illusive power of

the Supreme Lord.121

Here, it is also mentioned that Rādhā is the Mūla-Prakṛti, the

primordial nature and constituted of the three guṇas, viz., sattva, rajas and tamas.122

NATURE OF PURUṢA IN THE NĀRADĪYAPURĀṆA:

Like the other Sāttvikapurāṇas, the Nāradīyapurāṇa also uses the word

puruṣa in both senses, i.e. the individual self and the transcendental self. According

to the Nāradīyapurāṇa, the Puruṣa or ātman is differentiated into twofold, viz., the

��118 yadā viśvaṁ mahāviṣṇurbhirnnatvena pratīyate /

tadā hyavidyā saṁsiddhā bhavedduḥkhasya sādhanam // Ibid., I.3.7

119 viṣṇuśaktisamudbhūtametatsarvaṁ carācaram /

yasmādbhinnamidaṁ sarvaṁ yacceṅgedyaccaneṅgati //

upādhibhiryathākāśo bhinnatvena pratīyate /

avidyopādhiyogenatathedamakhilaṁ jagat // Ibid., I.3.10-11

120 Ibid., I.83.10-11

121 tvaṁ devī jagatāṁ mātā viṣṇumāyā sanātanī / Ibid., I.83.46

122 devīnāṁ bījarūpāṁ ca mūlaprakṛtirīśvarī /

paripūrṇatamā tejaḥśvarūpā triguṇātmikā // Ibid., I.83.18

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Para (higher) and the Apara (lower).123

That which is devoid of the guṇas

(attributes) is called as Para, and the Apara is that which is combined with the

ahaṁkāra (ego). Again, that which is stationed in the heart as the witness (sākṣin) in

the body, which is constituted by the five elements, is spoken of Apara; while the

Supreme self is known as Para. In the Nāradīyapurāṇa, Puruṣa is also termed as

kṣetrajña, because it exists in the body or kṣetra.124

According to the Nāradīyapurāṇa, the Puruṣa is said to be the unmanifested,

pure, perfect and supreme. It is free from all kinds of impurities and it is of the

nature of existence, knowledge and bliss incarnate. It is devoid of all conditioning

factors. Due to ignorance, it appears to be endowed with attributes, though in reality

it is devoid of attributes. When ignorance is disappeared, then the self appears as

steady and attributeless as before.125

The Nāradīyapurāṇa says that the attributeless Puruṣa or ātman has no

function or rite to perform. It has neither form nor colour. It is neither an agent nor

an enjoyer.126

Again, it is said that he is minuter than the minutest atom; he is greater

than the greatest being; he is the eternal atman; he is the cause of the entire universe

and those who are the most excellent among the possessors of perfect knowledge

��123

ātmānaṁ dvividhaṁ prāhuḥ parāparavibhedataḥ / Ibid., I.33.56

124 pañcabhūtatmake dehe yaḥ sākṣī hṛdaye sthitaḥ /

aparaḥ procyate sadbhiḥ paramātmā paraḥ smṛtaḥ //

śarīraṁ kṣetramityāhustatsthaḥ kṣetrajñaḥ ucyate / Ibid., I.33.58-59

125 Ibid., I.33.145-146

126 na tasya karma kāryaṁ vā rūpaṁ varṇathāpi vā /

kartṛtvaṁ vāpi bhoktṛtvaṁ nirguṇasya parātmaṇaḥ // Ibid., I.33.63

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134 �

observe him as greater than the greatest and pure.127

The similar idea is reflected in

the Kathopaniṣad and the Śvetāśvataropaniṣad also.128


NĀRADĪYAPURĀṆA:

It has already been mentioned that the Prakṛti and the Puruṣa are the two

separate powers of the Supreme Lord according to the Nāradīyapurāṇa. Prakṛti is

the creative power of the Supreme Being, while Puruṣa is the pure consciousness,

which is also the power of the same being. Power or energies are always controlled

by the energetic, and hence the Prakṛti and the Puruṣa are always controlled by the

Supreme Lord. Unlike the Sāṁkhya-Yoga philosophy, they have no independent

existence. Prakṛti is always subordinate, because it is predominated by the Lord,

who is the predominator. Prakṛti does not apply its creative powers for itself.

Further, Prakṛti cannot create anything by itself. Its power can only be activated in

union with Puruṣa. The Puruṣa seems to be identified with the Supreme Soul, who

associates himself with Prakṛti to generate the universe. While Prakṛti gives the

shape to things, Puruṣa helps to manifest them as part of the universal

consciousness. Both the Prakṛti and the Puruṣa work together for smooth

functioning of the world in the direction of the Supreme Lord.

PRAKṚTI AND PURUṢA IN THE GARUḌAPURĀṆA:

In the previous chapter, it has been discussed that the Garuḍapurāṇa does

not mention the concept of Prakṛti in the process of creation. The other

��127

cf., aṇoraṇīyānmahato mahīyān sanātanātmākhilaviśvahetuḥ /

paśyanti yajjñānavidāṁ variṣṭhāḥ parātparastātparamaṁ pavitram // Ibid., I.33.149

128 KU, I.2.20; SU, 3.20

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135 �

Sāttvikapurāṇas describe the commencement of creation with the disturbance of the

three guṇas of Prakṛti, but in the Garuḍapurāṇa such description is not found.

Besides this, the Garuḍapurāṇa holds that this entire universe with its manifest and

unmanifest phases exists in the forms of Puruṣa and kāla.129

According to the

Sāṁkhya-Yoga and the other Sāttvikapurāṇas, Prakṛti is said to be the unmanifest

(avyakta). But here, kāla or time is mentioned as to be the unmanifest form of the

Supreme Lord.

However, in the Brahmakhaṇḍa of the Garuḍapurāṇa, the concept of Prakṛti

along with the concept of Puruṣa is found, which is almost similar to that of the

other Sāttvikapurāṇas.

NATURE OF PRAKṚTI IN THE GARUḌAPURĀṆA:

In the Brahmakhaṇḍa of the Garuḍapurāṇa describes the concept of the co-

existence of the dual forces of Prakṛti and Puruṣa. Here, Prakṛti is described as the

ultimate material cause of the universe (Mūla-Prakṛti), which has no cause.130

Like

the other Sāttvikapurāṇas, the Garuḍapurāṇa also says that Prakṛti is a composite

form of three guṇas, viz., sattva, rajas and tamas. The equilibrium state of the three

guṇas is known as Prakṛti.131

According to the Garuḍapurāṇa, the Supreme God assumes the two forms of

male (Puruṣa) and female (Prakṛti) for the creation of the universe, just as man and

��129 vyaktaṁ viṣṇutathāvyaktaṁ puruṣaḥ kāla eva ca / GP, I.4.5 130

mūlaprakṛtijā hyete na mūlā prakṛtiḥ smṛtā / Ibid., III.4.19 131

sāmyāvasthāṁ guṇānāṁ ca śṛṇvidānīṁ khageśvara / Ibid., III.4.39(a); guṇasāmyamiti

prāhurevaṁ, Ibid., III.4.45(b)

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136 �

woman are for the production of progeny.132

Thus, Prakṛti is also known as Lakṣmī,

the female Goddess. The Garuḍapurāṇa also mentions that the Goddess Lakṣmī or

Prakṛti assumes the three different forms in accordance with the three guṇas.

Affecting the quality of purity (sattva), she becomes Śrī; with the quality of activity

(rajas), she is remembered as Bhūdevī; and with the quality of darkness (tamas), she

assumes the awful form of Durgā.133

In the Garuḍapurāṇa, Prakṛti is also called as māyā. It is described as subtle,

eternal and ever changing. However, it is said that māyā is not the magical power as

hold by the Advaita Vedāntins.134

The Supreme Lord deposited energy in the

Prakṛti, otherwise called māyā for the production of this universe.135

NATURE OF PURUṢA IN THE GARUḌAPURĀṆA:

In the Pūrvakhaṇḍa of the Garuḍapurāṇa, it is found that the process of

creation started from the soul. Like the other Sāttvikapurāṇas, here also Viṣṇu or

Hari is said to be the Supreme Self and the Lord. He is everywhere and in Him all

material beings exist.136

He is the cause of the creation and destruction of the

universe.137

The Supreme Lord is said to be both manifest and unmanifest, i.e. the

��132 achintyavīryaiścintyavīryairdvirūpaḥ strīrūpamekaṁ puruṣaṁ tathā param/

Ibid., III.3.16(a) 133

sattvābhimāninī śrīstu bhūrdevī rajamāninī /

tamobhimāninī durgā hyevamāhumanīṣiṇaḥ // Ibid., III.4.2 134 māyā nāma prakṛtistvevamāhuḥ susūkṣmarūpā na tu cendrajālikā // Ibid., III.3.26 (b);

khageṁdrātah prakṛtiḥ sūkṣmarūpā sā nityā sā satyabhūtā sadaiva / Ibid., III.3.38 (a)

135 Ibid., III.3.13

136 sarvvadaṁ sarvvagaṁ sarvvaṁ sarvvaprāṇi hṛdi sthitam / Ibid., I.2.11

137 jagatasthiterahaṁ bījaṁ jagatkartā tvahaṁ śiva // Ibid., I.2.38 (b)

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137 �

Puruṣa and kāla, the primordial time.138

From Him, the unmanifest and the ātman

(soul) are originated;139

and from ātman all other things are originated.

However, in the Brahmakhaṇḍa, it is found that the Supreme Lord assumes

the dual forms of Prakṛti and Puruṣa; and both are stated as the ultimate sources of

the material universe. Here, the word puruṣa is used in the sense of Supreme Lord.

He is described as the ultimate cause of all. He created the three guṇas for the

creation purpose.140

At the time of creation, this Puruṣa creates disturbance in the

equilibrium states of the guṇas, which leads to creation of the universe.141

Again it is

said that, this Puruṣa takes the forms of Brahmā, Viṣṇu and Śiva for the purpose of

creation, preservation and destruction of the universe.142

RELATION BETWEEN PRAKṚTI AND PURUṢAIN THE

GARUḌAPURĀṆA:

From the above discussion, it can be said that the concept of Prakṛti and

Puruṣa are not clearly stated in the Garuḍapurāṇa. However, some differences

between the Pūrvakhaṇḍa and Brahmakhaṇḍa of the Garuḍapurāṇa are noticed

regarding the concept of Prakṛti and Puruṣa. Hence, the relation between these two

realities is not clearly found in this Purāṇa. However, it is said that these two

realities are combined themselves for the creation of this universe. Prakṛti and

��138

adetatsarvamevaitadvyaktāvyaktasvarūpavat /

tathā puruṣarūpeṇa kālarūpeṇa ca sthitam // Ibid., I.4.4

139 tasmādbhavati cāvyaktaṁ tasmādātmāpi jāyate // Ibid., I.4.6 (b)

140 puruṣākhyo haristasmāttriguṇānasṛjatprabhuḥ / Ibid., III.3.58

141 guṇatrayaṁ praviṣṭastu puruṣo hariravyayaḥ /

kāryonmukhaṁ yathā bhūyātkṣobhayāmāsa vai tathā // Ibid., III.4.10

142 Ibid., III.4.4-7

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138 �

Puruṣa are nothing but the two different manifestations of the Supreme God and

hence these two realities are not totally different from each other.143

Like the other

Sāttvikapurāṇas, the Garuḍapurāṇa also holds that Hari is the Ultimate Reality and

nothing else.

PRAKṚTI AND PURUṢA IN THE PADMAPURĀṆA:

The Padmapurāṇa also describes the concept of Prakṛti and Puruṣa, the two

co-present and co-eternal realities of the Sāṁkhya-Yoga, like the other

Sāttvikapurāṇas. Here also, Prakṛti and Puruṣa are regarded as the basic principles

for the creation of the universe. Both of them together create this universe.144

But

these two realities are not independent like the Sāṁkhya-Yoga; they are purely

dependent on God. According to the Padmapurāṇa, God is the Ultimate Reality. He

is the cause of all. Prakṛti and Puruṣa are the two different forms of the Supreme

God, which have come out from His playful activity.145

In the Padmapurāṇa, Rādhā and Kṛṣṇa are said to be Prakṛti and Puruṣa, the

primeval beings.146

Further, it is mentioned that the whole universe consisting of the

sentient and the non-sentient creatures is Rādhā- Kṛṣṇamaya and is to be known as

the vibhūti of both.147

��143

ubhe rūpe vīryavatī khagendra tayorabhedaścintanīyo hi samyak // Ibid., III.3.16 (b)

144 prakṛtiḥ puruṣastasmānnimitantu tridhā jagat /

tayordvayośca saṁyogāstattvayogo’bhyajāyata // PP, Uttara, 132.79

145 yo’sau prakṛtipuruṣaḥ procyate sa ehācyutaḥ / Ibid., 228.98 (a);

krīḍārthaṁ devadevena sṛṣṭā māyā jaganmayī / Ibid., 227.51 (b)

146 puruṣaḥ prakṛtiścādyau rādhāvṛndāvaneśvarau / Ibid., Pātāla, 71.48

147 cidacillakṣaṇaṁ sarvaṁ rādhākṛṣṇamayaṁ jagat /

itṭhaṁ sarvaṁ tayoreva vibhūtiṁ viddhi nārada // Ibid., 81.57

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139 �

NATURE OF PRAKṚTI IN THE PADMAPURĀṆA:

In the Padmapurāṇa, Prakṛti is defined as the source of the material objects.

Prakṛti is described as avyakta (unmanifest), kāraṇa (cause of the world), nitya

(eternal) and sadasadātmaka, i.e. it exists in both as cause and effect. It is also

stated that though undifferentiated in its causal state, it is the source of all distinct

categories, such as mahat-tattva and so on.148

It is also called Pradhāna (the

principal cause of the world) and māyā or avidyā. Like the Sāṁkhya-Yoga and the

other Sāttvikapurāṇas, the Padmapurāṇa also mentions that Prakṛti is constituted by

the three guṇas of sattva, rajas and tamas.149

Further, the Padmapurāṇa holds that Prakṛti does not perish, it is eternal; but

the world, which produced out of Prakṛti, is subject to destruction, just as the gold

does not perish but its products, i.e. ornaments etc. are subjected to decay.

Moreover, just as the ornaments etc. remain in latent form in gold, similarly the

whole universe remains in undifferentiated and latent form in Prakṛti.150

Similar idea regarding Prakṛti and the universe may be deducted from the

mysticism of the Rādhā- Kṛṣṇa-cult as described in the Padmapurāṇa. The whole

universe is stated to be the prapañca of Lord Kṛṣṇa but the universe is stated to be

��148 avyaktaṁ kāraṇaṁ yattanityaṁ sadasadātmakam /

mahadādiviśeṣaṁ taṁ sṛjatīti viniścayaḥ / Ibid., Sṛṣṭi, 2.8

149 avidyā prakṛtirmāyā guṇatrayamayī sadā /

sargasthitilayānāṁ sā hetubhūtā sanātanī //

yoganidrā mahāmāyā prakṛtistriguṇānvitā /

avyaktā ca pradhānañca viṣṇorlīlāvikāriṇaḥ // Ibid., Uttara, 227.52-53

150 cf., Ibid., Pātāla, 77.48-50; Uttara, 255.41-42

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140 �

the product of Prakṛti.151 Here, Prakṛti is named as Rādhā, Bhagavatī, Vidyā,

Avidyā, Śakti etc. She is described as cinmayī māyā of the Lord.152

For the sake of

protection of the universe, she exercises both the powers –the external powers like

māyā and the instrinsic powers like cit and others.153

Thus, she is described as the

combination of all the three potencies – icchā, jñāna and kriyā.154

The entire

universe is stated to be the result of her māyā. However, the above statements do not

make estimation of the illusory character of the world. But the world is here

regarded as the effect of Lord’s potency or Prakṛti, which is as eternal as Lord

Himself. It may be mentioned here that Prakṛti is not an independent character like

the Sāṁkhya-Yoga. Prakṛti, otherwise called Rādhā, is described as inseparable but

distinct potency of Lord Kṛṣṇa.155

NATURE OF PURUṢA IN THE PADMAPURĀṆA:

It has already been mentioned that the Supreme Lord assumes the dual form

of Prakṛti and Puruṣa for the creation of the universe. The Puruṣa seems to be a part

of the Supreme Lord or to be identified with the Supreme, who associates himself

with Prakṛti as part of krīḍā or play.156

From this, it is clear that the Puruṣa is

nothing but a manifestation of God. It is described as imperishable and not different

��151

pradhānaṁ yā bhagavatī sarvamidaṁ tatam / Ibid., Pātāla, 77.14;

carācaraṁ jagatsarvaṁ yanmāyā pariraṁbhitam / Ibid., 77.16

152 sṛṣṭisthityantarūpāyā vidyāvidyā trayīparā /

svarūpāśaktirūpā ca māyārūpā ca cinmayī // Ibid., 77.15

153 Ibid., 81.51-52

154 icchāśaktirjñānaśaktiḥ kriyāśaktistaveśituḥ / Ibid., 71.54

155 sā sarvajagadādhārā prakṛtirharisaṁśritā / Ibid., Uttara, 227.50

156 Ibid., 227.51; 228.98

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141 �

from God, the Supreme Reality.157

However, the Padmapurāṇa uses the term puruṣa

in both senses, i.e. jīvātman and paramātman. In the sense of individual self, Puruṣa

is called as pumān or kṣetrajña.158

It is different from body, which alone is

destructible and anitya.159

It is without any form or complexion, without any

attributes and devoid of decay or destruction, change and birth.160

Due to ignorance,

Puruṣa or the self is attached to worldly objects and unaware of its real nature. The

Padmapurāṇa has allegorically explained this topic in several verses.161

The Padmapurāṇa adopts unique way of explaining the individual self or

jīva which is denominated by the letter M of AUM.162

This seems to be the deliberate

attempt to assert that jīva is also a part of God. The individual self or jīva, though

known by the letter M is said to be a combination of twenty five letters (the twenty

five elements of Sāṁkhya), wherein the twenty-fifth letter alone is consciousness

and is paramātman.163

The jīvātman and paramātman both are identical and hence,

both are denoted by one and the same letter M. Here, it is seen that the concept of

the self in the Padmapurāṇa is in complete agreement with that propounded by

Śaṅkara’s Advaitavāda.

��157 ayamātmasvarūpeṇa daityadeveṣu saṁsthitaḥ /

ayaṁ brahmā ayaṁ rudro ayaṁ viṣṇuḥ sanātanaḥ // Ibid., Bhūmi, 9.5

158 Ibid., Uttara, 254.25, 33, 37

159 Ibid., Bhūmi, 64.59, 66, 93; 65.2-4

160 Ibid., Sṛṣṭi, 2.85-86.

161 Ibid., Bhūmi, chaps. 7 & 8

162 jagadādhārabhūtā śrirukāreṇātra cocyate /

makāreṇa tayordāsaḥ kṣetrajñaḥ procyate budhaiḥ // Ibid., Uttara, 226.33;

makāreṇocyate jīvaḥ kṣetrajñaḥ parabān sadā /

dāsabhūto harereva nānyasya tu kadācan // Ibid., 226.37

163 Ibid., 226.23-28

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142 �

RELATION BETWEEN PRAKṚTI AND PURUṢA IN THE PADMAPURĀṆA:

According to the Padmapurāṇa, Prakṛti and Puruṣa are the basic principles

for the creation of the universe. Here also Prakṛti is described as the ultimate

material from which the other objects are evolved. Puruṣa or the self is purely

untouched with the worldly objects. But for the purpose of creation of the universe

the union of these two different realities of Prakṛti and Puruṣa is essential. The

world of objects comes out, when these two principles are united together.164

Thus,

the Supreme Lord assumes the form of Prakṛti and Puruṣa and creates this universe.

The Padmapurāṇa gives all credit to God and says that He is the uncaused cause of

all.165

In this way, the Padmapurāṇa describes the concept of Prakṛti and Puruṣa

as the causes of the cosmic manifestation and holds that Hari, the Supreme God is

ascertained to be the original cause of creation. The word prakṛti, which is used to

indicate the source of creation, refers to the śakti or energy of Supreme God, and the

word puruṣa refers to the individual selves, which are not different from the

Supreme Self or God. However, the Padmapurāṇa does not clearly mention the

exact roles of Prakṛti and Puruṣa in the process of creation, such as how the

disturbance of the guṇas is affected. Similarly, the relation between the two is also

not clear in this Purāṇa.

PRAKṚTI AND PURUṢA IN THE VARĀHAPURĀṆA:

In the Varāhapurāṇa, God Viṣṇu is mentioned as the Supreme reality like

the other Sāttvikapurāṇas. Here also, Viṣṇu is regarded as the cause of all. He who,

��164 PP, Uttara, 132.79

165 yo’yaṁ kāraṇakāryādi kāraṇasyāpi kāraṇam / Ibid., Pātāla, 84.34

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143 �

created this pura (body) namely Prakṛti and resided therein, has become known as

Puruṣa or spirit.166

According to the Varāhapurāṇa, the Supreme soul is said to be

consisting of four parts, viz., vyoma (indiscrete in space), mahat (consisting of three

guṇas), Prakṛti or Pradhāna and Puruṣa or kṣetrajña.167

In this Purāṇa, the account

of primary creation is started from vyoma not from Prakṛti or Puruṣa. However, the

Varāhapurāṇa holds that Prakṛti is the source of the material world and Puruṣa is

the supreme self.

Further, the Varāhapurāṇa mentions the popular concept of Ardhanārīnara

(one half of a man and other half of a woman), which is the best explanation of the

aspects of Prakṛti and Puruṣa.168

In Indian mythology, the concept of

Ardhanārīnara or Ardhanārīśvara is considered to be the soul of world. All creation

starts from him. The Ardhanārīśvara is an aspect of God Śiva and Goddess Śakti, in

the form of half man and half woman. This divine unity of God and Goddess

indicates the dual principles of Prakṛti and Puruṣa, which is described as the

ultimate source of the material world.

NATURE OF PRAKṚTI IN THE VARĀHAPURĀṆA:

The Varāhapurāṇa does not mention about the nature of Prakṛti in detail.

Here, Prakṛti is also named as Pradhāna. Like the other Sāttvikapurāṇas, the

Varāhapurāṇa also holds that Prakṛti or Pradhāna is the originator or the main

source of the material world. The Sāṁkhya-Yoga and the other Sāttvikapurāṇas

��166

purā puraṁ śūnyamidaṁ sasarjja

tadā sthitatvāt puruṣaḥ pradhānam / Var.P, 3.14(a) 167

jñāyate caturaṅśaśca paramātmā sanātanaḥ / Ibid., 2.5 168

arddhanārīnaravapuḥ pracaṇḍo’tibhayaṅkaraḥ /

vibhajātmānamityukto bhrahmaṇā’ntardadhe punaḥ //

tathokto’sau dvidhā strītvaṁ puruṣatvaṁ cakara saḥ / Ibid., 2.47-48

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144 �

describe the three guṇas as the constituents of Prakṛti. But the Varāhapurāṇa says

that this is mahat or intellect, which is constituted of the three guṇas, viz., sattva,

rajas and tamas.169

When the quality of darkness (tamas) predominated in this

trinity form of mahat, there appeared the Pradhāna or Prakṛti.170 And out of that

Pradhāna the other things are evolved. Thus, in the Varāhapurāṇa the process of

creation is not clearly mentioned.

NATURE OF PURUṢA IN THE VARĀHAPURĀṆA:

In the Varāhapurāṇa also the term puruṣa is used in both senses, i.e. the

individual self and the Supreme self like the other Sāttvikapurāṇas. The term puruṣa

denotes pure conscious, divine self, residing inside the body. Hence it is also called

as kṣetrajña or kṣetravid, which is said to be come out from Pradhāna.171

Again, the

word puruṣa is used in the sense of the Supreme self or God. The Supreme self is

enshrined in various names, such as Brahmā, Viṣṇu, Śiva, Nārāyaṇa, Śaṅkara,

Puruṣottama.172

Whatever names he may be called, he is same and one in all. Viṣṇu

is the Paramapuruṣa or the Puruṣottama. He is eternal and the Supreme among the

��169 ādāvahaṁ vyoma mahat tato’ṇu

rekaiva mattaḥ prababhūva buddhiḥ /

tridhā tu sā sattvarajastamobhiḥ

pṛthak pṛthak tattvarūpairupetā // Ibid., 2.6

170 tasmiṁstrike’haṁ tamaso mahān sa

sadocyate sarvavidāṁ pradhānaḥ / Ibid., 2.7(a).

171 tasmādapi kṣetravidūrjito’bhūd

babhūva buddhistu tato babhūva // Ibid., 2.7(b)

172 nārāyaṇaḥ śivo viṣṇo śaṅkaraḥ puruṣottamaḥ /

etaistu nāmarbhirbrahma paraṁ proktaṁ sanātanam // Ibid., 72.12

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145 �

gods.173

It is also mentioned in the Varāhapurāṇa that Paramapuruṣa or the Supreme

self in its primordial form is the repository of all beings. The world evolves when He

transforms himself.174

However, the Varāhapurāṇa does not admit any strict

distinction between these two selves, while describing the nature of Puruṣa or spirit.

According to this Purāṇa, the Supreme Soul transcends both these types of Puruṣa.

He is far beyond the Puruṣa and hence is called Puruṣottama.


VARĀHAPURĀṆA:

The Varāhapurāṇa does not clearly mention about the relation between these

two principles of Prakṛti and Puruṣa. However, from the above mentioned

references, it is clear that the Varāhapurāṇa also accepts the Prakṛti and the Puruṣa

as the ultimate materials from which the other categories are evolved.

The idea of Ardhanārīnara, i.e. the half man and the half woman is also

mentioned in this Purāṇa, which indicates the dualism of the Puruṣa and Prakṛti.

This concept represents a transgendered entity, which depicts how the female

Goddess Śakti is inseparable from the male God Śiva. Goddess Śakti is the symbol

of Prakṛti and God Śiva represents the Puruṣa. Hence, it can be says that the Prakṛti

and Puruṣa is combined each other just as God and Goddess combine for the

creation of this universe.

��173 Ibid., 72.4-5

174 Ibid., 5.37

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146 �

COMPARISON ON THE CONCEPT OF PRAKṚTI AND PURUṢA OF THE

SĀṀKHYA-YOGA WITH THAT OF THE SĀTTVIKAPURĀṆAS:

From the above discussion, it is clear that the concept of Prakṛti and Puruṣa

of the Sāṁkhya-Yoga is broadly discussed in the Sāttvikapurāṇas. Both the

Sāṁkhya-Yoga and the Sāttvikapurāṇas accept Prakṛti and Puruṣa as the essential

factors for the creation of this universe. For both Prakṛti is avyakta (unmanifest),

which is subtle and uniform. It is the nature of both existence and non-existence.

Like the Sāṁkhya-Yoga philosophy, the Sāttvikapurāṇas also mention that Prakṛti

is constituted of the three guṇas, viz., sattva, rajas and tamas. Both maintain that the

equilibrium state of the three guṇas is called Prakṛti. In accordance with the

Sāṁkhya-Yoga philosophy, almost all the Sāttvikapurāṇas hold that Prakṛti is the

chief principle from which all material things evolves. Similarly, the concept of

Puruṣa is also discussed almost in the same way. In both the Sāṁkhya-Yoga and the

Sāttvikapurāṇas, the word puruṣa is used to denote the self or spirit. Puruṣa or

pumān is entirely different from Prakṛti and its evolutes. It is described as beyond

the three guṇas. Puruṣa is unchangeable and immutable. It is eternal in the sense

that it is not affected by the change of time, and that it is an uncaused ultimate

principle. It is independent and is not supported by anything else. Both the

Sāṁkhya-Yoga and the Sāttvikapurāṇas mention that the Puruṣa in its real nature is

neither bound nor released nor migrated nor does it subject to change.

In this way, the Sāttvikapurāṇas describe the concept of Prakṛti and Puruṣa

in accordance with the Sāṁkhya-Yoga philosophy. However, the remarkable

difference is that the Prakṛti and Puruṣa are independent in the Sāṁkhya-Yoga,

while the Sāttvikapurāṇas hold that they are not independent. They are purely

�

147 �

dependent on God. According to the Sāttvikapurāṇas, God is the cause of all

creatures. Hence, God is the cause of Prakṛti and Puruṣa also. Almost all the

Sāttvikapurāṇas mention that God assumes the dual forms of Prakṛti and Puruṣa for

the purpose of creation of this universe. Thus, according to the Sāttvikapurāṇas,

Prakṛti and Puruṣa are nothing but the two different manifestations of God. Again,

in the Sāttvikapurāṇas, it is seen that the term puruṣa is used in two senses, i.e. the

individual self and transcendental self; while the Sāṁkhya-Yoga uses this term

puruṣa only in the sense of transcendental self.

Further, both the Sāṁkhya-Yoga and the Sāttvikapurāṇas hold that the union

of Prakṛti and Puruṣa is essential for the purpose of creation. In this context, the

Sāṁkhya says that though they are complete different from each other, Prakṛti and

Puruṣa can co-operate just as a lame man and a blind man can co-operate.175

According to them, the conscious Puruṣa guides the blind and unconscious Prakṛti

and as a result the manifold world evolves. Yoga, however, mentions that God is the

prime mover of Prakṛti, upsets the equilibrium of the guṇas and thus starts process

of evolution. But God or Īśvara of Yoga is not the creator, preserver and destroyer.

He just removes the barriers for the transformation of Prakṛti into various effects

and guides the evolution of the world for the enjoyment of the Puruṣas.176

But the

Sāttvikapurāṇas clearly mention that God is all in all. He is the Absolute or the

Ultimate Reality. He is the cause of creation, sustenance and destruction of the entire

universe.177

By the will of the Supreme Lord, both Prakṛti (matter) and Puruṣa

��175

SK, 21

176 VB, I.26, II.22, IV.3

177 VP, I.1.31; NP, I.3.2; PP, Sṛṣṭi, 2.116 etc.

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148 �

(spirit) are united together. According to the Sāttvikapurāṇas, assuming the form of

kāla or time, God upsets the equilibrium of the guṇas in Prakṛti. Kāla is also

mentioned as the destructive power of God, through which He associates Prakṛti and

Puruṣa for the creation of the universe.178

Thus, it is clear that the Prakṛti and

Puruṣa are the causes of the cosmic manifestation and Viṣṇu, the Supreme God is

ascertained to be the original cause of creation of the universe according to the

Sāttvikapurāṇas.

�

��178 Ibid, I.2.24; BP, III.26.16; PP, Sṛṣṭi, 2.87 etc.

CHAPTER - III CONCEPT OF PRAK ṚTI AND PURU...

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