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Chapter - II.

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2.1. Introduction

2.2. Review of Literature

2.3. References

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CHAPTER - II REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2.1. Introduction:

The present study is made on the gender stratification in primary

education in Gulbarga district. Here the opinions based on the experiences of

the male and female students are collected on whether these students are

encouraged in getting education equally. Further, the attitudes of the parents of

both male and female students are studied based on the primary data collected

from these students. There are many studies on female literacy, primary

education, female education, gender inequality in education, etc. To find out

the research gap for the present study, it is essential to study all the information

that is published already. Of course, due to limited time frame, it is impossible

to study all the secondary literature that is published on the present study and

hence, the collected literature is essentially to be reviewed.

To serve this purpose, the researcher searched the relevant literature on

certain keywords which are able to fulfill the information requirements of the

research study. To collect the relevant literature, the researcher searched

various Journals and other publications such as books in the Sociology, Social

Work, Education and other related subject disciplines on the following

keywords:

Primary Education;

Gender Inequality;

Elementary Education;

Female Education;

Educational Inequality;

Govt. Welfare Schemes on Primary Education;

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2.2. Review of Literature:

The collected secondary literature on the above stated keywords is

reviewed to find research gap as under.

Karlekar (2000) in his paper entitled “Girl‟s Access to Schooling: An

Assessment”, stated that a supply and demand evaluation of girls‘ access to

schooling in India considers educational facilities and family dynamics as well

as efforts by nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) to reduce the gender gap.

A description of the educational content and teaching methods in primary

schools suggests a value-loaded curriculum that includes a hidden agenda of

appropriate socialization for girls. Other obstacles to equal access for girls

include the cost of school, inadequate nutrition, and burdensome household

chores. Actions shown to improve female school attendance, especially in rural

areas, include girls' schools, women teachers, free textbooks/supplies,

appropriate drinking water/toilet facilities, provision of child care to relieve

girls from caring for younger siblings, and family education aimed at changing

attitudes about the value of education for girls. It is argued that the primary

responsibility for making basic education available, setting teacher standards,

and regulating curricula/textbooks should lie with the state. However, NGOs

should increasingly support and assist the state in these activities. Other

strategies for improving girls‘ access to basic education are suggested.

Sudarshan (2000) in his paper “Educational Status of Girls and

Women: The Emerging Scenario”, describes education in India from

independence to the present, evaluates the status of girls/women, and analyzes

quantitative data on a range of educational indicators within the context of an

evolving educational policy. Strengths and weaknesses of the current system

are examined, along with school attendance/literacy outcomes across states,

and variations in educational access between men/woman as well as social

groups/castes. Significant regional differences were found in terms of access,

attendance, and literacy. Although there was a positive correlation between

62

literacy and income/land ownership, there was roughly a 20% male/female

differential. The results of an evaluation of the validity of the resource

constraint argument for the inadequate provision of basic education indicate

India has sufficient resources to improve educational performance.

Examination of various points of intervention suggests that the most effective

ones focus on quality of schooling instead of access. Success is also associated

with an environmental approach that reduces the child's conflict with other

demands on his/her time.

Neelam Kumar (2001) published a paper entitled “Gender and

Stratification in Science: An Empirical Study in the Indian Setting” in

„Indian Journal of Gender Studies‟. The author conducted a study which

offers empirical evidence of gender inequities in the academic hierarchy as an

important aspect of the social organization of Indian science. While there are

no statistically significant differences in terms of writing books and articles and

presenting papers at conferences, the two groups (men and women scientists)

differ in terms of academic rank. Discrimination is one obvious explanation,

and gender stratification can be proposed as a perspective to explain this

phenomenon. Research performance appears to be unrelated to the differential

ranking of men and women scientists; rather, it points toward a lack of

universalistic factors in promotion. Another finding is that there is no

difference between men and women scientists in terms of recognition

measures, such as awards and membership of professional organizations.

The results reveal: (1) the role of gender, an inscriptive factor, as a reference

point from which differentiation does take place within Indian scientific

institutions; and (2) the association between scientific careers for women and

the class structure.

Alaka Malwade Basu (2002) writes on “Why does Education Lead to

Lower Fertility? A Critical Review of Some of the Possibilities” in „World

Development‟. In spite of close to a quarter century of research and policy

interest in the quite uniquely universal negative relation between female

63

education and fertility, the mechanisms behind this relation continue to intrigue

and to fascinate. This paper tries to review critically some of the more common

mechanisms suggested by the literature and offers a new look at some

alternative possibilities.

Manjrekar (2003) published a paper entitled “Contemporary

Challenges to Women‟s Education: Towards an Elusive Goal?” in

„Economic & Political Weekly‟. Why has education been peripheral to the

concerns of the contemporary women‘s movement in India, especially given

the legacy of struggle by women to establish their right to education? How can

the women‘s movement re-engage with questions of education? Part of the

challenge in thinking through concerns about gender and education lies in

uncovering the dialectical linkages between the formal education system and

larger social and economic processes and their influence on girls‘ and women‘s

lives.

Vimala Ramachandran (2003) writes on “Backward and Forward

Linkages that Strengthen Primary Education” in „Economic & Political

Weekly‟. It is widely acknowledged that a significant proportion of children,

especially those from underprivileged backgrounds and girls, either drop out of

primary school or even if they attend school, learn very little. Moreover, there

is a wide gap in learning achievements between government schools and

private/aided schools. The active participation of children in primary education

hinges on a plethora of factors. Besides access, a range of demand and supply

issues influence why children choose to attend school regularly. Thus far,

policy-makers and education administrators have focused mainly on the formal

school system and on improving access to education. The creation of

‗backward and forward‘ linkages is essential to creating an environment where

every child not only goes to school but benefits from it.

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Divya Vaid (2004) published a paper entitled “Gendered Inequality in

Educational Transitions” in „Economic & Political Weekly‟. This paper

highlights the causes for the inequality in educational transitions in India.

Where education is concerned, not only do girls lag behind, but also certain

communities and classes fare worse than others. The aim of this paper is

twofold. Firstly, to highlight the factors responsible for this inequality for both

boys and girls from socially deprived origins, and secondly, to highlight in

particular the inequality faced by girls at each educational transition stage.

The paper uses a unique National Election Study (1996) data set that contains

information on the respondent and the respondent‘s parent‘s caste, class,

religion and locality. The major results of this study are only partly consistent

with previous research. There was weak support for the effect of caste, but

class on the other hand emerged as a strong determinant of the relative chance

of a child continuing in school. No support was found for an additional class

effect where the education of girls is concerned, thus refuting the notion of a

more egalitarian Indian middle class.

Naomi Hossain and Naila Kabeer (2004) published an article

“Achieving Universal Primary Education and Eliminating Gender

Disparity” in „Economic & Political Weekly‟. Bangladesh has achieved

remarkable success in expanding primary education, especially for girls,

despite continuing prevalence of widespread poverty and social devaluation of

women and girls. This paper argues that underlining this success is a

confluence of both demand- and supply-side factors involved in bringing about

a profound social change. It explores the changing structure of economic

opportunities and gender relations affecting parents‘ perception of the value of

female education. The challenge now is to improve the quality of education

that may prove more difficult than the expansion of access.

Vimala Ramachandran (2004) published “Is Schooling for the Poor

on the Government Agenda?” in „Economic & Political Weekly‟. While

elementary education, its availability and distribution have shown an

65

improvement in recent years, vast sections such as the poor, girls in rural areas,

tribals and some among the scheduled castes remain out of its reach. The new

government needs to review existing centrally-assisted programmes to ensure

that region- and context-specific issues are highlighted, more particularly that

such schemes are tailored to meet the varying needs of a vast and complex

country.

Anand and Yadav (2006) in their paper “The inclusion of SC Girls in

Education: A Long Path Ahead” published in „Social Change‟, discussed on

the issue of the Scheduled Caste or what may be called the Dalit issue is one of

the worst examples of discrimination against, and the oppressive living

conditions of millions of people in India. The girl child is a critical agent in any

society. Despite more than half a century of various affirmative action policies

and programmes, there remains little improvement in the overall status,

particularly educational status of SC girls. A large number of SC girls do not

have access to successive stages of education. The drop-out rate of the

Scheduled Caste Girls is another crucial indicator in the field of educational

development. The present paper not only lists the factors responsible for the

low female literacy and non-participation of SC girls in education but also

makes an attempt to look into some of the initiatives undertaken by the

government to improve the situation. Finally, the paper identified the critical

concerns in the field and suggests strategies to reach out to the SC girl child in

the area in the area of education.

Chandrasekhar and Mukhopadhyay (2006) write on “Primary

Education as a Fundamental Right Cost Implications” in „Economic &

Political Weekly‟. In an attempt to attain the goal of universal primary

education, many developing country governments, including India, have

abolished official fees in primary education. The 86th

amendment to the Indian

Constitution made free and compulsory education a fundamental right for all

children in the age group 6-14 years. There are other direct and indirect costs

that can deter children from going to school. In this paper, using a rich

66

nationwide data set, the authors construct the incompressible direct costs of

attending primary school in India. After controlling for the opportunity cost of

going to school (as proxied by the ratio of children‘s wages to adult‘s wages),

it is found that the direct costs of education adversely affect the probability of

children going to school, more so for children from poorer households.

The results show that relative to boys, girls are more likely to be affected by the

direct costs of schooling. The authors show that making primary education

completely free will not increase the attendance rates to 100 per cent. They find

that the government will have to incur an additional minimum expenditure of

over Rs. 2,900 crore every year in order to defray the basic or incompressible

cost of attending school.

Mehrotra (2006) writes on “Reforming Elementary Education in

India: A Menu of Options” in „International Journal of Educational

Development‟. This paper reports on findings from a large sample survey in

the states of India that account for two thirds of the children out of school.

It then examines the feasibility of the central government‘s goals to ensure

all children complete 5 years of school by 2007, and 8 years by 2010.

These goals—more ambitious than the global EFA goals—are unlikely to be

achieved without significant reforms by the central and state governments.

It examines key reform options: in the public spending pattern; improving

teacher accountability and work environment; incentives to improve demand

for schooling; and the private sector. It argues that central to universalising

elementary education will be improving the level, equity and efficiency of

public spending. However, even with these reforms, improving teacher

accountability will still remain key to the achievement of the goals.

Ravikumar (2006) in his paper “When Gandhi‟s Talisman No

Longer Guides Policy Considerations: Market, Deprivation and Education

in the Age of Globalization” published in „Social Change‟, remarked that

now people have witnessed a flurry of activities in the ‗education sector‘ in

India. These activities are located within the larger context of globalization

67

dominated by the neo-liberal capital. The paper argues that given the social and

economic segregation in Indian society education has always seen

discriminatory. However, recent neo-liberal influences in policy making have

accentuated the segregation furthermore. Everything, including education, is

out in the market for a sale as a commodity. When the purchasing capacity of

the majority remains low, it becomes difficult to buy education and therefore

most Indians- the poor, Dalits and the girl child – are getting alienated from

education. Gandhi‘s Talisman that, at least, appeared as the guiding force in a

welfare state no longer remains so in the neo-liberal era. The consequence is

institutionalization of discrimination in education.

Chinna Ashappa and Sultana (2007) in their paper presentation

entitled “Gender Equality in Education in India: The Imperative of

Reforms in Social Polity”, stated that the complex stratification systems in

India give rise to a multiplicity of social categories which often obscure the

relative status of women and men within the more disadvantaged segments of

the population. The past decade has witnessed a significant increase in the

importance accorded to education, with both instrumental as well as intrinsic

arguments made, for increasing financial investment and policy attention to

education provision. Although significant gains have been made in women‘s

education as a result of global advocacy and donor pressure, more often than

not these gains are fragile and vulnerable to changes in economic and social

environments and lagging behind male rates of enrolment and achievement.

The objective of the present study is to critically evaluate the effectiveness of

the current educational intervention programmes and bring out the case for

bringing the much needed reforms in social policy of the government.

The paper is based on the secondary sources of information. The argument of

the authors is that investing in education generally and women‘s education in

particular, is good for development is consistently made in policy documents of

the World Bank and other agencies. These arguments, however, have limited

value. Responding to these diverse and complex forms of exclusion remains a

68

challenge, and there has been a wide range of interventions targeted at

improving female education. However, efforts at local change need to be

backed up by macro level policy changes particularly in the area of providing

economic policies that encourage the participation of women in the workforce

and enable them to fight labour market discrimination. These changes are also

necessary to encourage the education of young girls. The paper concluded that

the lessons from micro level interventions that move beyond merely addressing

economic incentives to girls for their education and take into account the social

and cultural rules and norms that perpetuate discrimination against girls need to

be more centrally reflected in macro policies for promoting gender equity in

education.

Ghosh (2007) in his paper “The Gender Gap in Literacy and

Education among the Scheduled Tribes in Jharkhand and West Bengal”

published in „Sociological Bulletin‟ focuses on the gender gap in literacy and

education among the Scheduled Tribes in Jharkhand and West Bengal as

measured by the gender disparity index. The female literacy rates among the

Ho and Mahali in Jharkhand and the Lodha in West Bengal are low, with high

gender disparity, as compared with other tribes. The gender disparities among

most of the tribes tend to increase at the higher level of school education.

The article also analyses the enrolment ratios and dropouts of female children,

and discusses the issues related to tribal education.

Khasnabis and Chatterjee (2007) writes on “Enrolling and Retaining

Slum Children in Formal Schools: A Field Survey in Eastern Slums of

Kolkata” in „Economic & Political Weekly‟. India is yet to achieve the goal

of universalisation of elementary education or 100 per cent enrolment and

retention of children with schooling facilities in all habitations. Despite the

government‘s attempt to achieve this goal through the Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan,

which has a special focus on girl children, students belonging to disadvantaged

families still do not attend classes regularly. This paper examines various

reasons for poor attendance behaviour of students in formal schools. On the

69

basis of a study in the eastern slums of Kolkata, it finds that retaining the

students in a formal school is far more difficult than enrolling them,

particularly if the students are from very poor economic backgrounds.

Kingdon (2007) writes on “The Progress of School Education in

India” in „Oxford Review of Economic Policy‟. This paper provides an

overview of school education in India. First, it places India‘s educational

achievements in international perspective, particularly against countries with

which it is now increasingly compared, especially China. Second, the paper

examines schooling access in terms of enrolment and school attendance rates,

and schooling quality in terms of literacy rates, learning achievement levels,

school resources, and teacher inputs. Third, the paper investigates the role of

private schooling in India, examining the extent of growth of private schooling

and surveying evidence on the relative effectiveness and unit costs of private

and public schools. Last, the paper discusses some major public education

initiatives. The concluding section suggests a future research agenda and

appeals for rigorous evaluation of the impacts and costs of the numerous

existing educational interventions, in order to learn about their relative cost-

effectiveness for evidence-based policy-making.

Vidyasagar (2007) published “Educational Challenges and the Role

of Teachers in Andhra Pradesh: A Case for Institutional Initiatives” in

„Journal of Social and Economic Development‟. All is not well with the

elementary education system in the state of Andhra Pradesh, and this research

paper is an attempt to understand the current status of the system and the ills

that plague it. Although the problems in the educational system are

multidimensional, in recent times, the issue of teacher performance has

assumed significance. Educational inequality, quality and teacher performance

seem to have challenged not only governments at all levels, but the people at

large. Official records speak volumes on this predicament that affects the

marginalized far more than others. In this context, this paper attempts to

discuss all such developments that impinge upon the prevailing educational

70

scenario in the State. As policies and programmes of the Union Government

also impact the status of education at the state level, an attempt is made to

delineate some national interventions. While presenting a critical review of

certain institutional initiatives at various levels, this paper analyses immediate

concerns that deserve the attention of State and non-State agencies. As part of

assessing the contribution of several stakeholders towards strengthening school

management, which is a major challenge, this study also explores other related

issues.

Vinita Singh (2007) presented on “Women Students: A Study of

Continuity and Change” and the paper is based on a survey of women

students enrolled in the colleges in Ranchi. The paper analyses the factors

leading to the growth of consciousness and changing attitudes towards their

careers among the women students against the backdrop of the changing socio-

economic conditions. The paper looked into relevant issues such as the diverse

socio-economic backgrounds of the students, the reasons for growing mobility

among them, impact communication revolution, growth of popular culture and

their role in the on going process of global transformation. As representatives

of the changing socio-economic conditions, the women students are quick

paced to meet the challenges thrown upon them. The fact that they are

managing to strike a balance between their growing career aspirations and

personal lives is quite significant as it is symbolic of the continuity and change

that co-exists in Indian society.

Saleha Parveen (2008) published a paper entitled “Female Education

and National Development: As Viewed By Women Activists and

Advocates” in „Bulletin of Education and Research‟. The term development

is very broad and may be interpreted in different ways by different individuals.

It is a global process of societal change that is planned cooperatively by

government and international organizations with the full and informed

participation of the inhabitants of the area to be developed. In fact the progress

of any society largely depends on the effectiveness of its educational system

71

and the best educational system is that which gives equal opportunities of

getting education to all its members. Female literacy plays a very significant

and crucial role in the development of nation especially in the economic

development of a country. But Female Education in Pakistan, its status and

standard particularly is at the lowest ebb. Thousands of girls‘ otherwise

intelligent and capable enough to get education, but are deprived of because of

multifarious socio-cultural and economic reasons and gender prejudices. Due to

this reason they are unable to play active role in the development of society.

This study reflects the views of women activist about the role of females in

national development and suggests necessary measures for improvement of the

situation.

Sedwal and Kamat (2008) published a report “Education and Social

Equity: With a Special Focus on Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes

in Elementary Education”. The Scheduled Castes (SCs) and Scheduled

Tribes (STs) are among the most socially and educationally disadvantaged

groups in India. This paper examines issues concerning school access and

equity for Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe communities and also

highlights their unique problems, which may require divergent policy

responses. The paper is divided into seven main parts. The first two sections

introduce the reader to the nature of exclusion and discrimination faced by

Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, and outlines the debate on the role of

education in improving the socio-economic profile of both groups. The third

section explains the socio-economic conditions within which Scheduled Castes

and Scheduled Tribes live and their marginalized status in contemporary India.

The fourth section provides a discussion of literacy advancement among these

groups, and of national policies and programmes which aim to improve school

access and equity. The fifth section highlights special efforts made by certain

state governments to improve educational participation of these two

communities as well as the educational experiments on a more modest scale

undertaken by community based Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs).

72

The sixth section focuses on casteism as a deeply ideological issue that

undercuts even the most genuine reform measures, and suggests research and

policy options that may help to address underlying structural and ideological

issues. The concluding section highlights a few critical areas for further

research in the area.

Sai Sujatha and Brahmananda Reddy (2009) published a paper on

“Women‟s Education, Autonomy and Fertility Behaviour” in „Asia-Pacific

Journal of Social Sciences‟. In the present study, an attempt has been made to

study women‘s education, autonomy and fertility behaviour in Andhra Pradesh

based on the data of NFHS-II (1998-99) and NFHS-III (2005-06). Women‘s

education has shown an inverse relationship with fertility behaviour in

particular after achieving a threshold level of middle school education. Median

birth interval has decreased with increasing educational level of women.

Higher birth order children and son preference was found to be more among

illiterate women. Autonomy in decision making, access to money and freedom

of movement showed an increasing trend with the educational level of women.

This showed that women‘s education up to secondary education in particular

can play a significant role in initiating a fertility transition and women‘s

autonomy in Andhra Pradesh.

Pajankar and Pajankar (2010) published a paper entitled

“Development of School Education Status in India” in „Journal of Social

Sciences‟. India has a long history of organized education. Gurukuls were

traditional Hindu residential schools of learning; typically the teacher‘s house

or a monastery. The current system of education, with its western style and

content, was introduced and funded by the British in the 19th

century, following

recommendations by Macaulay. Traditional structures were not recognized by

the British government and have been on the decline since. Because of these

initiatives taken by the States and Centre, education system in India has

expanded exponentially over the past five decades, but its current achievements

are grossly inadequate for the nation to realize its potential greatness.

73

The present study is an attempt to study the changing scenario of school

education in India and educational needs at the various schooling stages.

The study also examines the salient features of school education on selected

parameters based on the seventh survey data. Tangible comparisons with sixth

survey data will also be made to reveal the temporal changes over two points of

time covering a period of nearly one decade.

Ruby Pal (2010) published a paper on “Enlightenment through

Education: The Case of the Children of Domestic Helps of Kolkata” in

„Journal of Social and Economic Development‟. Education is a yardstick of

development. The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) has

included ‗educational attainment index‘ in the measurement of development

since 1990. If an economy‘s progress attains increased pace with improvement

in educational attainment, one can expect the same for an individual or the

society. A study was conducted on 270 female domestic helps of Kolkata, who

were living close to or below the Poverty Line; they are usually less educated

but are trying hard to educate their children hoping to bring them to the

mainstream of economic activity and thereby improving their standard of

living. Will they be successful in achieving what they dream of? The answer is

sought in this study. It delves into the various intricacies of life of this section

of unorganized labour market and then looks into the discrepancy, if any,

between their hope and reality.

Sandhya Rani (2010) writes on “Women‟s Education in India: An

Analysis” in „Asia-Pacific Journal of Social Sciences‟. Education is a

reasonably good indication of development and the right of every individual to

education is one of the first provisions of the Universal Declaration on Human

Rights. But education is often neglected in societies struggling to meet the

needs of their people. Recently, education has received greater priority as

Planners and Policy makers finally recognized it as a key factor in determining

the pace of development. Women in India constitute 50 percent of the

country‘s human resources and their contributions are vital for the nation‘s

74

progress. But the magnitude of illiteracy among women is very high.

Only 54.16 percent of women are literates as per 2001 Census. Even though the

education system expanded very rapidly, the gender gap, in literacy remains

conspicuous by its presence. The Constitution of India confers on women,

equal rights and opportunities in all fields. The Government of India has

endorsed the same through its Plans, Policies and Programmes. In spite of all

these, women in India have not been able to take full advantage of their rights

and opportunities in practice for various reasons. Therefore, in this paper an

attempt has been made to highlight the International and National initiatives to

promote women‘s education in India.

Shahinshah Babar Khan (2010) writes on “Problems in

Universalization of Primary Education in Pakistan” in „Pakistan Journal

of Commerce and Social Sciences‟. ―Education for all‖ is a global slogan and

government of Pakistan is committed to achieve the goal of Universalization of

primary education. For this government is establishing new schools in remote

areas so that more and more children can get access to school. Public-private

partnership and collaboration with non-government organizations are the steps

to attain the level of Universalization of primary education. Government is

trying to make schools attractive for children, and is introducing schemes to

attract parents as well. There are number of problems like poverty, ignorance,

low quality teaching, which affects the government efforts. The aim of the

study is to highlight the problems in universalization of primary education in

Pakistan. A questionnaire was developed on five point Likert scale for knowing

the opinion of teachers about the problems in the universalization of primary

education. Each statement of the questionnaire was checked by using chi-

square technique. It was found that poverty, lack of awareness about

importance of education, cultural values are the main problems in achieving

universalization of primary education. On the basis of findings it is

recommended that awareness about education may be created among the

parents, Public schools play their role in decreasing the dropout rate, School

75

Curriculum may design as which match the work place, teachers may be

appointed in the far flung areas, Local Community may be involved. It is also

considered by people that public institutions are not catering quality education,

this notion may be abolished.

Sharmila and Dhas (2010) write on “Development of Women

Education in India”. Women constitute almost half of the population of the

world. Education for women is the best way to improve the health, nutrition

and economic status of a household that constitute a micro unit of a nation

economy. In this context, it can be argued that lack of woman education can be

an impediment to the country‘s economic development. In India, women

achieve far less education that of men. As per the Census report 2001, the

literacy rate of women is 54.16 per cent and that of men is 65.38 per cent.

There has been a sincere effort to improve the education attainment of women

by both government and voluntary organizations. The changes in the policies

and infrastructural supports on primary, secondary and higher education reflect

the initiatives of the Government of India towards women education. In this

backdrop, the paper examined the trends in women education and the

investment on education and infrastructural supports in India. The paper is

divided into three sections. Section 1 discusses the trends in female literacy

levels in India. The section 2 presents the investments on education and the

infrastructural supports in India. The last section provides the summary of the

findings and conclusions.

Zakir Husain (2010) published on “Gender Disparities in Completing

School Education in India: Analyzing Regional Variations”. This paper

examines gender differences in probability of completing school education

across regions in India. A Gender Disparity Index is calculated using National

Sample Survey Organization unit level data from the 61st Round and regional

variations in this index analyzed to examine the hypothesis that gender

disparity is greater in the North, comparative to the rest of India. This is

followed by an econometric exercise using a logit model to confirm the results

76

of the descriptive analysis after controlling for socioeconomic correlates of

completing school education. Finally, the Fairlie decomposition method is used

to estimate the contribution of explanatory variables in explaining differences

in probabilities of completing schooling across regions. The results reveal that

gender disparities are greater in North India, for total and rural population, and

in Eastern India, for urban population. However, the ‗residual effect‘ after

accounting for effect of explanatory variables - often referred to as

‗discrimination effect‘, as opposed to disparity is higher in Eastern India,

irrespective of the place of residence.

Ashiq Hussain et al. (2011) published a paper entitled “Causes of

Students‟ Dropout at Primary Level in Pakistan: An Empirical Study” in

„International Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences‟. The present

study has been designed to identify the causes of high dropout rate at the

primary level in Pakistan. Data was collected from 94 district mangers;

144 head teachers and 288 teachers; 288 parents and 864 students-50% dropout

students and 50% stay-ins at the time of study using Mixed-Research Methods.

The main causes and factors of high dropout at primary level in Pakistan

revealed from the findings of the study are: too expensive education, distance

from home to school, teacher‘s harsh behavior, lack of parents‘ interest,

difficult syllabus, poor health, poverty, non-availability of facilities and

excessive homework. The findings may be useful for the planners, policy

makers, and teacher educators to take measures for controlling dropout and

increasing enrollment or participation rate at the primary level in Pakistan.

Ashish (2011) published a paper entitled “Gender Disparity in the

Educational System: An Investigation of the Universal Primary Education

in India” in „African Journal of Education and Technology‟. Gender

inequality in education is one important aspect of educational disparity.

The Constitution of India provided for universal education to all children up to

the age of 14 years; the goal was to be achieved by 1980. While considerable

progress has been made in this regard in the decade of the 1990s, much still

77

remains to be done for girls‘ education. Enrolment rates at the primary level

have risen considerably but many of the children that enroll drops out and only

a very small number manage to get beyond the primary stage. Female literacy

rates varied from 20% in Rajasthan and 25% in Uttar Pradesh to 86% in

Kerala, reflecting very uneven efforts to expand educational achievements.

The comparative data of males and females reveals the literacy gaps between

them in the Indian society especially in the State of Punjab. According to 2001

census the State of Punjab is ranked seventh in terms of education amongst the

states. This study is analytically based using surveys, chronological facts and

figures with inferences deduced form the status of primary education in the

state of Punjab, India; it evaluated the status of female education in the State.

Incidentally, the selection of districts represents traditional geographical

categorization of Punjab, Majha, Malwa, and Doaba. The three divisions are

further divided into sub-divisions and villages. The research is an outcome of

questionnaire prepared to collect data from 200 respondents which includes

Girl Students. The paper criticizes the lack of judicial protection of the rights of

female education and concludes that the National Commission for Women

should take initiatives for checking gender disparities in education.

Bhat et al. (2011) writes on “Gender Disparity and Policies of

Inclusion: A Case Study of Women‟s Education in Jammu and Kashmir”

in „Researcher‟s World: Journal of Arts, Science, and Commerce‟.

Gender disparity has been a major issue in India‘s pursuit for achieving the

goal of universal elementary education. Education for women is the best way to

improve the health, nutrition and economic status of a household that constitute

a micro unit of a nation‘s economy. In this context, it can be argued that lack of

women‘s education can be an impediment to the country‘s economic

development. However, despite this significance of the education the

participation of women in the field of education is not very satisfactory.

The present paper is based on secondary data obtained from Census of India

2001 and supplemented with State Digest of Statistics and government reports

78

wherever necessary. Women in Jammu and Kashmir suffer disproportionately

in education relative to the men. Women of the state have low literacy rate,

show low enrolment ratio and exhibit high dropout ratio. There is no doubt that

both government and NGO‘s are making serious attempts at resolving gender

inequality in education in education in Jammu in Kashmir, but there is still the

need to make frantic efforts like implementation of Right to Education Act.

Sandhya Rani et al. (2011) presented on “An Analysis of Tribal

Women‟s Education in India”. Education system should make an individual

better suited to the needs of the ever changing dynamic world. The changes in

the educational system should also reduce the social gaps by enabling proper

recognition to whatever extent one is able to pursue or acquire a skill.

The tribal communities all over India have been subjected to various forms of

deprivation such as alienation from land and other resources. Especially the

tribal women though they are away from the main stream of national life, but

they are not kept away from the impact of socio – economic changes effecting

the society in general. In this process of change, the tribal woman is forced to

adhere to certain norms which may even take away her freedom, her control

over the traditional productive system, her house, family and children and even

her own life. The fact remains that a large number of tribal women have missed

education at different stages and in order to empower them there is a great need

of providing opportunities so as to enable them to assume leadership qualities

for economic self-reliance and even social transformation. It is often alleged

that the level of aspiration of these women as a group is low and they are quite

satisfied with what they are and with what they have. It is most often not true

only to womenfolk but to everyone who feels helpless and frustrated. However

in order to develop and raise their level of aspiration, adequate educational

opportunities are to be provided so that they get motivated to participate,

support and also ultimately learn to initiate their own programmes of

development. Therefore, in this paper an attempt has been made to analyze the

present status of educational facilities availed by tribal girls and women. It is

79

also suggested to provide skill and vocational training programmes to tribal

women living in rural areas.

Annie John and Shinde (2012) write on „Educational Status of

Muslim Women in India” in „Review of Research‟. The role of education in

facilitating social and economic progress is well accepted today. The literacy

rate among Muslims in 2001 was far below the national average. Education

contributes to economic growth. Education is a crucial social factor that

initiates the process of social, economic and cultural development of

communities. Muslim girls are among the least educated sections of Indian

society. The Constitution of India in Article 15(1) on right to equality provides

the basic policy framework that enshrines the vision of girls‘ education and the

spirit in which their education is to be provided.

Anugula Reddy (2012) writes on “Financing Elementary Education

in Himachal Pradesh: Lessons Other States can Learn” in „Journal of

Social and Economic Development‟. Himachal Pradesh has been appreciated

for its achievements in universalisation of elementary education in defiance of

conventional labeling common to North India. The latest Public Report on

Basic Education (PROBE) survey describes the persistence of its achievements

as an ongoing schooling revolution. Many explanations like gender parity,

community participation, etc. have been offered for its superior achievements

in school education. This paper looks at financing of elementary education and

the priority accorded to education and elementary education in comparison

with a few select north Indian states. From the comparison, the paper brings out

the high priority accorded to education in Himachal Pradesh to the fore and

argues that it is this priority that enabled other factors to contribute to the

achievement of universal elementary education. The paper asserts that the

lessons to be learned from the experience of Himachal Pradesh precisely lie in

this.

80

Bhunia and Shit (2012) written a paper “Appraisal of Teachers‟ Index

in Primary and Upper Primary Level: a Geospatial Analysis” in „IOSR

Journal of Humanities and Social Science‟. The present study analyses the

teaching-learning environment for educational development of Paschim

Medinipur district, considered as an important segment of social science

research. District Information System for Education (DISE) for the year 2009 –

2010 was used for the present study which has been recorded from the 4,671

primary schools and 751 upper primary schools across the entire district.

To develop a teacher index map pupil-teacher ratio, pupil-female teacher ratio,

school-student ratio, school-teacher ratio, classroom-student ratio, school-

classroom ratio, and the percent of trained teacher was used as influencing

parameters. A relational database was generated on the GIS platform and a

generalized score was given to each parameter to categorize the block to

measures the educational development status. Result of the study showed

average pupil-teacher ratio was 29.31 percent in the district, while the district

had 24.43 percent female teachers at primary level and 29.42 percent at upper

primary level. Results also illustrated that school-teacher ratio (rho – 0.52),

school-student ratio (rho – 0.44), school-classroom ratio (rho – 0.60) showed

positive and significant relationship with the average per cent of passed

student. However, blocks of the eastern part of the district are attaining highest

facility compare to the western part at both the primary and upper primary

level. These efforts on the part of pioneering teachers are to be acclaimed—

they have helped to demonstrate that powerful analytic tools can be made

accessible to students.

Byatappanavar et al. (2012) published a paper on “Government

Educational Programmes: Problems and Suggestions” in „Karnataka

Journal of Agricultural Sciences‟. Access to primary education is being

provided through massive programmes like Sarva Shikshana Abhiyana to all

those children who are involved in physical labor, street children, migrating

children etc. In spite of this, a few children are still deprived of Primary

81

Education due to inability of the parents to send their children to school due to

their poor economical status and sending their children to school means-

incurring extra financial burden on them. Hence, the study was undertaken to

know the problems and suggestions about selected 15 educational schemes in

six villages in Haveri district of Karnataka. The results revealed that majority

of stakeholders had problem of proper treatment by the doctors (91.96%) with

respect to free health checkup scheme followed by insufficient scholarship and

irregularity in distribution of scholarship money (84.92%). Most of the officers

of education department mentioned problem that government do not release

fund in time (46.15%). Cent per cent of parents suggested to distribute

scholarship amount in time with increased amount and good treatment by the

doctor. Most of the students suggested for regular attendance of parents and

nominated members in meetings of samudhayadatta shale scheme (83.33%).

More than 86 per cent of teachers suggested regularity in attending the

meetings by parents and nominated members. Eighty per cent of the

community leaders suggested, making the parents aware of education in

coolienda shalege scheme (labor to school). Majority of the officers of

education department suggested that awareness camps should be conducted for

community people (84.61%).

Dinesh Das and Minakshee Pathak (2012) writes a paper entitled

“Tackling the Millennium Development Goals: Reducing the Gender

Disparity in Primary and Secondary Education in India” in „International

Journal of Scientific and Research Publications‟. The paper makes an

attempt to explain the aim of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs): to

eliminate gender disparity in primary and secondary education to be achieved

by 2015, with special emphasis on girls‘ position. The Challenge of the

Millennium Development Goals was to provide children with access to primary

education either through formal or informal systems, and to reduce differences

in enrolment, drop out rates and mainstream a gender perspective in the

development process. Special measures needed to be adopted to eradicate

82

discrimination at the primary and secondary stages, universalization of

education and creation of a gender sensitive education system.

Farzana Afridi et al. (2012) published a working paper entitled

“Female Labour Force Participation and Child Education in India: The

Effect of the National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme”. It revealed

the impact of India‘s National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme (NREGS)

on children‘s educational outcomes via women‘s labour force participation.

Using data from the Young Lives Study and taking advantage of the spatial and

temporal variation in the intensity of implementation of the NREGS, we find

that greater participation of mothers in the program is associated with better

educational outcomes of their children. Father‘s participation in the NREGS,

on the other hand, has a negative effect on children‘s education. Further, the

estimated impact of mother‘s program participation is over and above any

income effect induced by the scheme and is robust to concerns about

endogeneity of labour force participation and differences in economic trends

between districts. We provide evidence which suggests that the mechanism

through which children‘s educational outcomes improve is empowerment of

mothers resulting from better labour market opportunities for females.

Ghazala Parveen Abbasi and Ahmad Saeed (2012) published an article

entitled “Critical Analysis of the Factors influencing Female Education in

Rural Sindh as viewed by Primary School Teachers” in „Interdisciplinary

Journal of Contemporary Research in Business‟. The status of women can

be improved through quality education. Women must have equal access to

education. Girls are forced into house work at the early ages of five to six

years. Girls are often not enrolled in schools, due to various factors. Even if

they are enrolled; their attendance is irregular or they drop out early.

The purpose of the study was to investigate the factors influencing female

education in province of Sindh. It further examined the major barriers and

troubles faced by female population, who have quest for knowledge. The study

83

would help to take adequate steps to improve the conditions related to female

education in rural Sindh.

Rupan Basumatary (2012) published an article entitled “School

Dropout across Indian States and UTs: An Econometric Study” in

„International Research Journal of Social Sciences‟. School dropout

depends upon various factors such as poverty level, distance of school from

home, transport facilities, quality of teachers, social environment and many

other factors. The present study is a quantitative analysis of school dropout

rate, which is regressed on various variables referred to as factors here.

The data for school dropout rates and many other variables across Indian states

and UTs are considered for the session 2009-10. The study found statistically

significant impact of state poverty level and the rural populations.

Sarwar (2012) published a paper “Christian Missionaries and Female

Education in Bengal during East India Company‟s Rule: a Discourse

between Christianized Colonial Domination versus Women

Emancipation” in „IOSR Journal of Humanities and Social Science‟.

The paper shows the role of distinct western missionaries who were bringing

Christianity in Colonized India as a path of female education, which implanted

values of reformations, and individual‘s right among the natives. These

missionaries under the banner of Civilizing Mission of White Men instructed

some modernizing process to the females of India within the framework of the

Acceptance of Imperial British Rule‗. In particular, the author examined the

role of distinguished devotees and private organizations of European

Missionaries engaged in imparting female education in Bengal. Other hand, the

author have tried to assess the way of responses of Bengali girls and women to

the New Education‗, which they received at the hands of missionary school

masters and schoolmistresses that produced an indigenous debate about

Christian domination versus women emancipation. A very rich and suggestive

literature is now appearing which examines the impact of modern schooling on

Indian women and delineates ideological responses, particularly within Indian

84

nationalist discourse. Finally, an attempt has been made to critically analyze

the ideology and motives of the European women missionaries, and their

limitation to the advancement of female education in Bengal.

Wood (2012) published a paper entitled “Teacher Perceptions of

Gender-Based Differences among Elementary School Teachers” in

„International Electronic Journal of Elementary Education‟. The purpose

of this study was to examine teacher perceptions of gender-based differences

among elementary school teachers. In this mixed-methods study, the researcher

utilized an online survey to collect data. Quantitative analysis revealed no

statistically significant differences; however, qualitative analysis showed that

there were more negative responses to survey statements pertaining to males.

More than half of the participants perceived differences between female and

male elementary teachers, including beliefs that female teachers are more

nurturing, that male teachers are more laid back, and that male teachers are

more dominant and commanding with students. Four conclusions were drawn:

elementary teachers perceive differences between female and male teachers,

male elementary teachers are perceived more negatively than female

colleagues, a vast majority of participants feel that more male elementary

teachers are needed in the elementary schools, and differences between female

and male elementary teachers remain unclear.

Ahmad Kainuwa et al. (2013) published a paper entitled “Cultural

Traditions and Practices of the Parents as Barriers to Girl-Child

Education in Zamfara State Nigeria” in „International Journal of

Scientific and Research Publications‟. This conceptual paper titled the

cultural traditions and practices of the parents as barriers to girl-child education

in Zamfara state Nigeria, aimed at enumerating cultural activities of the parents

in the study area that prevent them from sending their girl children to school.

The paper reviews literature on how cultural traditions practiced by the parents

affect the education of their girl children. The paper also examines the negative

role of parents‘ cultural traditions and practice on the Educational process of

85

their girl children. The study reveals that cultural practices serve as hindrance

to girl-child education and that inaccessibility of the girl-child to education

makes her vulnerable to diseases such as HIV/AIDS, early marriage, denial of

rights and child labour. In addition, studies and researches from the previous

works of scholars relating to the factors militating against girl-child education

were also analyzed and discussed throughout the paper. The discussion in the

paper is base on theoretical framework of ecological model of

Bronfenbrenner‘s theory. This theory is appropriate for the study because it

allows the reader to understand how girl-child education is seriously hampered

by the cultural traditions of their parents. Finally, Suggestions for parents on

how to modernize this cultural traditions and practice to help in the Educational

process of their children were presented. Conclusions from the literature were

drawn, and the paper concludes that Parents‘ cultural practice and tradition

serve as barriers to girl-child education in Zamfara State Nigeria.

Akshay Jain and Ashok Kumar (2013) published an article entitled

“A Survey of Government Polices to Improve the Primary Education in

Rajasthan” in „International Journal of Education and Psychological

Research‟. The main challenge confronting education strategies in Rajasthan is

the education of the girl child, especially among Scheduled Tribes and

Scheduled Castes. Our analysis of primary education in Rajasthan attempts to

identify key issues to strengthen initiatives for universalising literacy and

ensuring quality education that could sustain a pro-poor pattern of growth. In

this paper we are survey the government polices to improving the level of

primary education like Non-Formal Education Program Shiksha Karmi Project

Lok Jumbish Pariyojana Rajiv Gandhi Swarna Jayanti Pathshalas District

Primary Education Programme and their effect of the primary education

slandered.

Chamundeswari (2013) published a paper on “Study Habit, Socio-

economic Status and Academic Achievement of Students at the Secondary

Level” in „Asian Academic Research Journal of Social Science and

86

Humanities‟. The present study investigates the relationship between

study habit, socio-economic status and academic achievement of students.

Survey method is used to select a sample of 381 students at the secondary

level. The Study Habits Inventory is used to assess study habit, Vasanthi‘s

Adaptation of Kuppuswami‘s Socio-economic Scale is used to assess socio

economic status of students and academic achievement marks scored by

students in their quarterly examination were taken for academic achievement

scores. The results of the statistical analyses show a significant correlation

between study habit, socio-economic status and academic achievement of

students. A significant difference is found between study habit, socio-economic

status and academic achievement of students at the secondary level in state,

matriculation and central board schools.

Chaudhary and Aswal (2013) write on “Re-engineering Secondary

Education through Rashtriya Madhyamik Siksha Abhiyan” in „Asian

Academic Research Journal of Social Science and Humanities‟. Ever since

the success of Universalisation of Elementary Education (UEE), the Indian

Government has identified the increasing range of users & providers of

secondary education, which has further led to a government programme related

to Universalisation of Secondary Education (USE). This vision under RMSA

(Rashtriya Madhyhamik Siksha Abhiyan) may fulfill the demand-supply issues

in secondary education as envisioned in the XI & XII five year plan.

This article details a purview of Secondary Education in India along with a

discussion on the existing link between UEE & USE. Similarly, it traces a

crucial journey from USE to UHE (Universalisation of Higher Education).

An effort has been made to draw attention towards the existing policy of USE

along with a critical discussion over RMSA. The paper ends with underlining a

need to integrate the different levels of education.

Das Chandra Kanta (2013) published an article on “Parallel

Education System: A Micro-Level Study of Murshidabad District, West

Bengal, India” in „International Research Journal of Social Sciences‟.

87

Education is the basic empowerment tool for the weaker section of society.

Infrastructural development of the schools is getting maximum priority under

the financial assistance from different schemes. But, the quality of education in

the different Govt. aided schools is degraded. As a result of this the parallel

education system like private schools and private tuitions are getting priority in

the society of West Bengal. This parallel system is trying to collapse the school

education system. The present research article brings the ground truth reality

about the emergence of the parallel education system from the point of view of

Murshidabad district in West Bengal.

Dash Anjali (2013) writes on “Relates on Tribal Education and

Health: Evidence from Rural Odisha, India” in „International Research

Journal of Social Sciences‟. Education and health are commonly devolved

functions to sub-national governments, even in nations which have a unitary

rather than a federal structure. Education and health are the two major factors

which are influencing more to the economic development. So without

improvement of these two factors economic development impossible and now a

day India Vs Odisha under privilege Schedule Tribe population are deprive

more in all aspect. What are the main reasons behind their backwardness in

health and education? On behalf of illiteracy health and nutritional

consciousness among these STs Communities are low. Through various

programme government can eradicate diseases. Educated mothers are more

conscious about child health. This study is based on both primary data from a

rural village and secondary data from various report and research review of

research. Main objective of this paper is, to determine impact of education on

health status among primitive tribal people in tribal areas and rural areas. It also

analyses the correlation relationship between health, education and poverty.

Haque et al. (2013) published a paper on “Universal Pre-Primary

Education: A Comparative Study” in „American Journal of Educational

Research‟. Pre-primary education has become popular strategy to protection

drop-out from formal education of children all over the world. Early Childhood

88

Development (ECD) and pre-primary education are widely recognized as

having a significant impact on the performance of children in basic education

programmes. Pre-primary education would ensure a smooth transition to the

primary education and lay the foundation for lifelong learning. Development of

a child begins within the family and mostly depends on the parents. Educated

parents are able to prepare their child for the smooth entry into formal

education but no doubt uneducated parents are unable to do this. To apposite

develop of a country education is crying need. So protection drop-out from

formal education of child is most necessary for a nation. For this reason pre-

primary education is especially important for a nation. In this article we have

investigated the role of various governments such as India, Argentina, Nigeria,

EU countries etc in pre-primary schooling. Our main objective in this paper is

to study, analyze and compare the activities of the government of Bangladesh

and NGOs in pre-primary sector with others mentioned above. This paper

focuses on the importance of pre-primary schooling in Bangladesh with respect

of others developed and under developed countries.

Kakoli and Sayeed (2013) in their paper “Educational Progress in India in

the Context of Out-of-School Children” published in „International Research

Journal of Social Sciences‟, examined the level of out-of-school children in India

from the most recent nationally representative household survey. The study aims to

answer two key questions; first, what is the level of out-of-school children in India

and second, what are the factors that keep children out-of-school. The analysis

suggested that although there had been a decline in out-of-school children but,

significant proportions of children still could not attend school. The study suggested

that the urban poor had the highest probability to be out-of-school, but the presence of

adult literate female in the household increased likelihood of enrolment. The study

further suggested that the economic condition of the household had highest

contribution to out-of-school children. The study also observed that the reasons for

never attended school or dropout differ for male and female while boys had to provide

financial assistance to the family, girls performed household activities.

89

Majumder and Mondal (2013) published an article entitled “What are

the Causes of Drop out among the Primary School Children? A Study on

the Indo-Bangladesh Border Region” in „International Journal of

Innovative Research & Studies‟. The Right of Education Act came into effect

on 1st April 2010 which ensures free and compulsory education to every child

between the ages 6-14 years. ―Free Education‖ means that no child, other than

a child who has been admitted by his or her parents to a school which is not

supported by the appropriate Government, shall be liable to pay any kind of fee

or charges. On the other hand, ―Compulsory Education‖ casts an obligation on

the appropriate Government and local authorities to provide and ensure

admission, attendance and completion of elementary education by all children

in the 6-14 age groups. India is currently having 8.1 million eligible students

who are either dropouts or have never gone to school. Therefore, bringing them

back to school can be considered as one of the major challenges in

implementing Right to Education (RTE). In this paper, the authors have

undertaken a field based study in an anchal (Ramnagar) which is situated near

Indo-Bangladesh Border of East site of India. The findings of this study mainly

revealed that the causes of primary level school drop outs.

Monika Seth and Ghormade (2013) published a paper “The Impact of

Authoritative Parenting Style on Educational Performance of Learners at

High School Level” in „International Research Journal of Social Sciences‟.

Educational performance gets affected by a number of factors such as

intelligence, achievement, motivation, home environment, school environment,

interest and resources. The most significant influence on child is his or her

parents. Psychologists and educationists are of the opinion that child rearing

practices have the direct bearing on the educational performance of children.

In this competitive era, where every parent expects that his child should do well

at school, it is necessary to understand how different parenting styles determine

the child‘s educational performance at school. In the twenty first century of

competition, every student is expected to be higher achiever and up to the

90

expectations of parents and teachers. At present, though we assume that the

educational performance of students at high school level is influenced by

varying degree by the parenting styles, there are a few empirical studies

available in this regard to clearly establish to what extent the particular

parenting style determines or influences the educational performance of a child

at this level of learning. This study has tried to fill in this gap between

Authoritative parenting style and their impact on educational performance of

learners at high school level.

Prasanta Saikia and Arindam Sarma (2013) published an article

“Impact of Education on Fertility: A Case Study of Bodo Women in

Sonitpur District, Assam” in „Online International Interdisciplinary

Research Journal‟. Fertility behaviour is not merely a demographic variable

but rather a product of several socio-economic and cultural factors. There are

several factors affecting fertility and thus it is resultant of many such factors.

These factors include biological factors, physiological factors, indirect social

factors, direct factors and other social factors. The present study aims at

exploring the relationship between women education and fertility. The study

led to the findings that education does acts as an important factor in lowering

down the rate of fertility which mostly operates through some intervening

variables that determine the ideological demand for children, social prestige,

costs of rearing and education. In this present study we discuss only social

factors (education). The main objective of this paper is to see how the

educational status of the Bodo women plays a crucial role in determining the

fertility rate of the women.

Bhandari (2014) written a paper entitled “An Analysis of Women

Education in India” in „Educationia Confab‟. Education has been regarded

both as an end and a means of realizing other desirable goals. It develops the

personality and rationality of individuals, qualifies them to fulfill certain

economic, political and cultural functions and thereby improves socio-

economic status. It has been recognized as a major instrument, which societies

91

can use to direct the process of change and development towards desired goals.

The movements for improving the women‘s‘ status all over the world has also

emphasized. Education is considered the most significant instrument for

changing women‘s‘ subjugated position in the society. Education has been

recognized as one of the most important tools of empowerment. But in spite of

various policies and programmes initiated by government for girls‘ education

and education to all, still India has a population of illiterate females.

The present paper highlights the status of women education in Indian context.

Daragad and Venkat Lakshmi (2014) writes on “Factors influencing

Social Skills and Behaviour among School Children” in „Asian Academic

Research Journal of Social Science and Humanities‟. Social skills are the

tool for social behavior and effective communication. Social skills and

behavior play a pivot role in influencing the holistic development of children

from early years of life and more so during the formative years of school, since

school is the platform where teaching and learning takes place. The objective

of the study was to assess the factors influencing social skills and behavior

among school children from Dharwad district of Karnataka State. The sample

for the present study consisted of 72 school going children in the age bracket of

6-12 years and attending Government schools. Self –structured tool developed

by the investigator was used to elicit information from the subjects.

The subjects were selected for the present study through random sampling

method. The findings of the study revealed that there is a significant difference

between the age and social skills and behavior of school children. The ordinal

position had a non- significant influence on social skills and behavior in school

children. The study also highlighted that, type of family and religion does

influence the social skills and behavior. The study highlighted the need for

enhancing the social skills and behavior of school children through

comprehensive intervention program for better interpersonal relationship.

92

Meenakshi Girdhar (2014) published paper on “Positive Psychology in

Indian Society and Education System” in „ZENITH International Journal

of Multidisciplinary Research‟. The present paper encompasses the scope of

positive psychology in coping with several issues prevalent in today‘s Indian

society and education system. With increasing trends of globalization,

modernization, individualistic survival, materialistic attitude, instability in

Indian market and economy, current recession, increase in population,

decreasing of resources, wider gap between rich and poor; there is a

simultaneous augmentation in depression, anxiety, stress, drug abuse and

suicidal rate among Indian youth. Loss of humanity is manufacturing alienated

youth in employment market working as machine with machines, day and

night. WHO‘s World Mental Health Survey (27th

July, 2011) has reported India

as the highest among number of depressive cases in world. In education

system, approach towards inclusive education, quota to students of

economically weaker section, erosion of boards at secondary level, intrusion of

grading system without proper mind set- up and preparation is creating an

environment of confusion and hallucination. Teachers are not guided and

counseled to handle the situation resulting strain and hampered work

efficiency. The paper reviews the effective ways positive psychology can

introduce in the life of teacher and taught to work efficiently and lead a life full

of enthusiasm and happiness.

Rengma and Jha (2014) published a paper on “Impact of

Communitisation on Elementary Education: An Analysis” in ‗ZENITH

International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research‟. Communitisation in

Nagaland started as a unique partnership between the government and the

community involving transfer of ownership of public resources and assets,

control over service delivery, empowerment, decentralisation, delegation and

capacity building for improving the delivery of public utility systems. A study

was conducted with an objective to assess the impact of Communitisation on

elementary education in Tseminyu block of Nagaland. Respondents were

93

selected based on random selection procedure. Data were collected using pre

tested schedule by conducting personal interview. Data analysis was done

using SYSTAT 12 software. The findings revealed that Village Education

Committee constituted under communitisation of education was successful to

manage, direct, supervise and control the primary schools ensuring

administrative, academic and financial discipline. The study revealed that

impact of communitisation resulted in more number of enrolment of male as

well as female students, increased attendance percentage of teachers and

students and quantum gain in pass percentage of the students. There was an

overall improvement in the punctuality, discipline and participation of students

in extra co-curricular activities. Parents also gained confidence in management

of education system and a sense of belongingness by participation in the

decision making process.

94

2.3. References:

1. Ahmad Kainuwa et al. (2013): Cultural Traditions and Practices of the

Parents as Barriers to Girl-Child Education in Zamfara State Nigeria.

International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications.

Vol. 3. No. 11. November 2013. P. 1-8.

2. Akshay Jain and Ashok Kumar (2013): A Survey of Government

Polices to Improve the Primary Education in Rajasthan. International

Journal of Education and Psychological Research. Vol. 2. No. 3.

August 2013. P. 133-142.

3. Alaka Malwade Basu (2002): Why does Education Lead to Lower

Fertility? A Critical Review of Some of the Possibilities. World

Development. Vol. 30. No. 10. 2002. P. 1779-1790.

4. Anand, Mily Roy and Yadav, Mona (2006): The inclusion of SC girls in

Education: A long path ahead. Social Change. Vol. 36. No. 4.

December 2006. P. 114-130.

5. Annie John and Shinde, SV (2012): Educational Status of Muslim Women

in India. Review of Research. Vol. 1. No. 6. March 2012. P. 1-4.

6. Anugula Reddy (2012): Financing Elementary Education in Himachal

Pradesh: Lessons Other States can Learn. Journal of Social and Economic

Development. Vol. 14. No. 2. July-December 2012. P. 181-201.

7. Ashiq Hussain, et al. (2011): Causes of Students‘ Dropout at Primary Level

in Pakistan: An Empirical Study. International Journal of Humanities and

Social Sciences. Vol. 1. No. 12. September 2011. P. 143-151.

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