CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE A. Theoretical ...
Transcript of CHAPTER II REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE A. Theoretical ...
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CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
A. Theoretical Framework
1. The Nature of Reading
Reading is one kind of the four language skills. Reading is very
important for human being to get knowledge from the books or the
articles. Reading has interaction between the reader and the text. The
requirements of reading process are practice,development, and refinement.
The key of getting successful in reading is more practice by reading more
books or articles to improve ability. Reading activity is used for updating
the information in our daily life.
W.S. Gray stated,” Reading is form of experience”. Reading brings
us in a contact with the minds of great authors, with the written account of
their experiences. Their recorded lines and the advancementmade by them
are in various fields.1 It means that reading is certainly an important
activity for expanding knowledge of a language. Reading can give some
advantages because the reader can find everything that the reader does not
know before. Reading has also a relation between the author’s massages
and the information that the reader will find.
1 Dr. M.F. Patel. English Language Teaching (Methods, Tools & Strategies).( Jaipur:Vaishali Nagar, 2008), p.115
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According to Harmer reading is not passive skill.2 To do it
successfully, the reader have to understand what the words mean, see the
pictures that the words are painting to understand the arguments and work
out if the reader agrees with them.
In reading activity, a reader should be able to understand what she
or he reads about. Without knowing the content of reading material, the
reading activity becomes inadequate. Richards states that reading is
perceiving a written text in order to understand its content.3 Regarding this
idea, reading is accepting and concluding written text to get understanding.
Furthermore Stone also stated that reading is a fundamental goal that must
be mastered in order to be successful in school and in life.4 Reading is a
basic goal to get successful in school and life because the readers know
some information, they get knowledge, and they get advantages in their
life.
According to Grabe there are several purposes of reading namely
reading to search information, reading for quick understanding, reading to
learn, reading to integrate information, reading to evaluate, critique and
use information, reading for general comprehension (in many case, reading
for interest or reading to entertain).5 So, reading has several purposes. One
2Jeremy Harmer. How to Teach English. (Edinburg Gate: Longman, 2000), p.703Frangoise Grellet. Developing Reading Skill. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Pres,
1986) ,p.44Randi Stone. Best Practice for Teaching Reading. (California: Corwin Press, 2009), Pp.
395William Grabe. Reading in a Second Language: Moving From Theory to Practice. (New
York: Cambridge University Press), 2009, p. 8
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of the purposes of reading itself is to search information, to get knowledge,
or comprehension.
There are main ways in reading as follows6:
a. Skimming
Skimming is reading quickly over a text to get the gist of idea.
b. Scanning
Scanning is reading quickly through a text to find a particular piece.
c. Extensive Reading
Extensive reading is a reading longer texts, usually for one’s own
pleasure, mainly involvve global understanding.
d. Intensive Reading
Intensive reading is reading shorter texts to extract specific
information. This is more an accuracy activity involving reading for
detail.
Meanwhile, the important point should be known in teaching
reading; understand about the text, build vocabulary, and identify meaning
of the text. Hughes stated that,” Teaching reading must teach as follows;
identify pronominal references, main ideas, supporting details, what kind
of text is involved, topic, and making inferences”.7
Based on the definition above, it can be concluded that reading is
certainly an important activity for expanding knowledge of a language.
Reading has also relation between the author’s massages and the
6Frangoise Grellet. Op.Cit.,p.47Arthur Huges. Testing for Language Teacher;2rd Edition. (Cambridge; Cambridge
University Press, 2003), p.13
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information that the reader will find. Reading has some purposes. One of
the purposes of reading is to search information, to get knowledge, or
comprehension.
2. The Nature of Reading Comprehension
According to Duffy comprehension is the essence of reading
because the goal of written language is communication of messages. If the
reader does not understand the messages, the reader are not reading. 8 So,
it is clear that without getting comprehension, reading activity becomes
meaningfulness for a reader because the reader cannot get any information
or message from the reading material. Dorn and Soffos said that
comprehending involves intrepreting and synthetizing ideas in ways that
influence the reader’s mind.9 This statement emphasizes that people who
read with understanding, they can interpret and unify ideas because their
minds have been infuenced by some of the actions.
A good reader will integrate four types of knowledges to expand
their reading comprehension. They are as follows10 :
a. Generic Knowledge : Generic knowledge is the reader’s backgroud
information. It is cognitive information that the reader is active to
construct meaning from the text.
8Gerald G. Duffy. Explaining Reading: A Resource for Teaching Concepts, Skills andStrategies, Second Edition. (London: The Guilford Press, 2009), p. 14
9Linda J. Dorn and Carla Soffos. Teaching for Deep Comprehension: A ReadingWorkshop Approach. (Portland: Stenhouse Publisher, 2005), p. 14
10Ibid.
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b. Text Knowledge : Text knowledge relates to the precise meassage of
the text including the content knowledge, vocabulary meanings and
text structures.
c. Strategic Knowledge: Strategic knowledge is the readers’ knowledge
of specific strategic for problem solving, incuding cognitive strategy
for sustaining and expanding the meaning of the text.
d. Reflective Knowledge: Reflective knowledge is the mind’s ability to
think abstractly. It involves thinking beyond the text.
There are seven types of comprehension that enable readers to
make meaning from written text, they are:
1) Graphic and semantic organizers
The use of graphic representations of written material can aid readers
in making meaning.
2) Question answering
Readers are more likely to understand what they read when they are
asked questions about the reading by their teacher and receive
immediate feedback about their answers.
3) Question generation
Readers are more likely to understand what they read when they ask
questions of themselves about various aspects of their reading before
and during the reading itself.
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4) Text structure
Helping readers understand the underlying organization or structure of
a written text has been found to aid them in understanding and
recalling the information from the passage.
5) Summarization
Readers are better able to understand what they read when they
engage in distilling, integrating, and generalizing the information from
a passage into its key ideas in the form of a brief summary.
6) Cooperative learning
Students are more likely to make meaning from a text when they
engage in the process of making meaning with other students.
7) Comprehension monitoring
Successful comprehenders monitor their own comprehension and
make strategic decisions to employ certain strategies or processes,
depending on how successful they feel in making meaning from their
reading.
In addition, Brown stated that there are some reading
comprehension questions that can be evaluated, they are main ideas,
expression/idiom/phrase in context, inference, grammatical features, detail
(scanning for a specially stated detail), excluding facts not written
(unstated detail), supporting ideas, and vocabulary context.11
11H. Douglas Brown. Language Assessment: Principle and Classroom Practice. (SanFransisco: San Fransisco State University, 2004), p. 206
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The writer concluded that reading comprehension is not as simple
process. There are many processes that must be passed by a reader in order
to reach the comprehension.
3. The Nature of Narrative Text
There are many kinds of text learned by the students. One of them
is narrative text. According to syafi’i, narrative is story telling that tells a
true story or fiction. A narrative text gives an account of one or more
experiences. It tells a story to make a point or explain an idea or even12.
This statement emphasize that narrative text is a text which contains about
non fictitious story and fictitious story. It gives one or more experiences.
Commonly, the reader can learn the moral message after reading the
narrative text.
The text organization of narratives is as follows13:
a. Orientation: It tells about the setting in time, place, and characters.
This part sets the moods and invites the readers to continue reading.
b. Complication: This part tells about problems to be solved by
characters in the story.
c. Resolution: It describes the solution to the complications and gives
an ending to the story.
The grammatical features of narrative text are14:
12M. Syafi’i S. et. al. The Effective Paragraph Development: The Process of Writing forClassroom Settings. (Pekanbaru: LBSO, 2007), pp. 53
13Dr. Mukarto, M,Sc, Sujatmiko B, and Josephine S. English on Sky SMP Book VIII forJunior High School Students Year VIII (SMP), (Jakarta: PT. Gelora Aksara Pratama, 2007), p.123
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1. Use simple past tense.
2. Use the particular nouns to refer to describe the particular people,
animals, and thing that the story is about.
3. Use the adjective to build noun groups to s=describe the people,
animals, or thing in the story.
4. Use the conjuction and time connective to sequence event thought time.
5. Use the adverbial phrses to locate the particular incidents or events.
6. Use of saying and thinking verb to indicate what characters are feeling,
thinking, and saying.
Common forms of narrative text which are studied in junior high school
are15:
a. Legend
A legend is a narrtive of human actions that are perceived both by
teller and listener to take place within human history. Typically, a
legend is a short, traditional and historized narrative performed in a
conversational mode. The example of legend in narrative text are;
Malin Kundang, the legend of Tangkuban Perahu, and the story of
Toba lake.
14Peter Knapp and Megan Watkins. Genre, Text, Grammar: Technologiess for teachingand Assessing Writing, (Sydney: University of New South Wales Press Ltd, 2005), p. 17
15SMP Negeri 37 Jakarta. 5 march 2011. What is narrative ?, ( Article of narrative)retrieved on march 20, 2014. From http://www.smpn37.wordpress.com/2011/03/05/what-is-narrative/
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b. Fable
A fabel is short allegorical narrative making a moral print,
traditionally by means of animal characters who speak and act like
human being. The example of fable in narrative text are; The
smartest parrot, the story of monkey and crocodile, and mousedeer
and crocodile.
c. Fairy Tale
A fairy tale is typically features such folkloric characters as fairies,
goblins, elves, trolls, dwarves, giants or gnomes, and usually magic
or enchantments. The example of fairy tale are; Cinderella, snow
white, and Pinocchio.
d. Science Fiction
Science Fiction is fiction based upon some imagined development of
science, or upon the extrapolation of a tendency in society. Some
examples of science fiction are; starship trooper by Robert Heinlein,
to the moon from the earth by Jules Verne, and others.
4. Students’ Reading Comprehension in Narrative Text
Reading comprehension can be defined as an active thinking process
through which a reader intentionally constructs meaning to form a deeper
understanding of concepts and information presented in a text16. To
comprehend, readers must use information they already possess to filter, to
16 Peter Westwood. What Teacher Need to Know About: Reading and WritingDifficulties.(Victoria. Acer Press. 2008), p. 31
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interpret, to organise and to reflect upon the incoming information from the
page.
According to Snow reading comprehension is the process of
simultaneously extracting and constructing meaning through interaction and
involvment with written languange.17 When an effective reader reads for
comprehension and understanding, it is an actively engaged and thoughtful
process.
When teaching for comprehension, especially for making students
comprehend in narrative text. The challenge are two folds: to understand the
complexity of the comprehending process, and to apply this knowledge to our
work with students. If the mind cannot formulate questions about the reading,
true comprehension is impossible. Smith in Dorn and Soffos stated that
comprehension cannot occur if a reader is unable to ask questions of the
author18. In other words, comprehension is the part of reading that is very
important to be learned. Therefore, reading comprehension is the ability to
take information from written text and do something with it in a way that
demonstrates knowledge or understand the information.
There are some principal strategies for reading comprehension:19
a. Identify the purpose in reading a text.
b. Apply spelling rules and conventions for bottom-up decoding
17 Catherine Snow. Reading for Understanding: Toward an RBD Program in ReadingComprehension. (Santa Monica: Rand. 2002), p. 11
18Linda J. Dorn and Carla Soffos, Op.Cit., p. 4319 H. Douglas Brown, Op.Cit., p.188-189
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c. Use lexical analysis (prefixes, roots, suffixes, etc.) to determine
meaning.
d. Guess at meaning (of words, idioms, etc.) .
e. Skim the text for the gist and for main ideas.
f. Scan the text for specific information (names, dates, key words)
g. Use silent reading techniques for rapid processing
h. Use marginal notes, outlines, charts, or semantic maps for
understanding and retaining information.
i. Distinguish between literal and implied meanings.
j. Capitalize on discourse markers to process relationship.
In learning process, the rules of teacher in reading comprehension
basically teaches students how to use some certain reading comprehension
strategies. Modeling step by step is very important thing to implement those
strategies by the teacher. The teacher will help the students comprehend
narrative text easily. Teaching narrative text will become easy if the teacher
teaches the students to apply the reading comprehension strategies.
5. Factors Influence Students’ Reading Comprehension in Narrative Text
Comprehension problems can be caused by a variety of different
factors, including those instrinsic to the individual and others related to
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insufficient instruction to innappropriate materials.20 They are several factors
that may influence the comprehension. They are as follows21:
a. Prior Knowledge
Prior knowledge is so necessary for comprehension that some speculates
can often account for a large portion of the difference between successful
and unsuccessful comprehension.
b. Motivation and Interest
Comprehension is also improved when the students are motivated and
interested. To some extent, teachers facilitate motivation each time they
make the task easier by making sure that the students have the requisite
skills and schemata. Being interested in the material leads to more
motivation and the students read interesting material with greater
comprehension than uninteresting material, even when readability level is
the same for each.
c. Cultural differences
Teacher should be aware of how cultural differences influences the
comprehension of individual students. Should be careful to recognize the
validity of the thinking strategies of culturally different students, even
when trying to teach standard one.
d. Decoding fluency
Students cannot be expected to comprehend passage when they are
devoting large amounts of attention to identify individual words. They
20Grellet. Op.Cit., p. 6421Judith Westpal Irwin. Teaching Reading Comprehension Processes. ( New Jersey:
Prentice Hall, 1986), p. 102
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should be given material they can decode fluently if they develop their
comprehension skill.
6. Cooperative Learning (CL)
The teacher should be creative to find other teaching strategy that can
help the students in reading. In teaching reading, one of teaching methods
which might be used by teacher is Cooperative Learning (CL) method. Robyn
states that Co-operative learning was designed and implemented to develop
social strategies and acceptable social attitudes in students, and to improve
socialrelations within and between groups.22 In cooperative learning, students
work in group, so it makes them more active, creative and easy to understand
the reading comprehend or do the task.
According to Johnson there is persuasive evidence that cooperative
team activities achieve at higher levels of thought and retain information longer
than students who work individually.23 The cooperative learning environment
is more effective than the individual learning environment because they work
together to retain information in small group toward one goal.
Teaching by cooperative learning has some benefit. Kagan states that
cooperative learning (CL) offers three major benefits are provides a richness of
alternatives to structure interactions between students, addresses content area
learning and language development needs within the same organizational
22Robyn M. Gillies and Adrian F. Ashman. Co-operative Learning, The Sosial andIntellectual Outcomes of Learning in Group. ( London and New York: RoutledgeFalmer, 2003), p.54
23D. W Johnson, & Johnson, R.T, (Cooperative and the Use of Technology, inD.H.Jonassen, (Ed.), Handbook of Research for Educational Communications and Technology.(New York: Simon and Schuster Macmillan), p. 1017-1044.
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framework, and the variety of ways to structure student practice with lesson
material increases opportunities for individualized instruction, such aspeer-
provided clarification.24
In addition, Farrel and Jacob state that the most common way that
teachers can implement this view of learning as a social activity is by the use of
cooperative learning activities in their second language classes.25 So, it is clear
that cooperative learning is relevant to both teacher and students. It can be
applyed in multi-cultural classroom. But in this method, students participate
during the teaching learning process. The students explain their ideas to other
students because they are the center of learning process. Teachers on the other
hand, play as facilitator.
According to kagan, there are four basic principles of cooperative
learning:26
a. Positive Interpendence
Students perceive that they need each other in group task. The students in
group need each other’s output if they are to solve the problem or the task
they have been given. Every student in group has contribution for their
group.
b. Individual Accountability
Individual accountability is one of the most important motivating factors in
cooperative learning. Every student has their own responsibility. They have
24Kagan, Op.Cit., p. 6.1825Thomas, Farell and George Jacobs. Essenstial for Successful English Language
Teaching. (New York: Continuum Publisher, 2010)26Kagan, Op.Cit., p. 3.18
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an important role in the group. It makes them independent to answer the
question or solving the problem in group, and they should be accountable
for their own work.
c. Equal Participation
Everyone of the group can contribute equally to do the assignment in group
work. They have opportunity to be active in the group work.
d. Simultaneous Interaction
Simultaneous interaction focuses on the equality of active engagement per
students. It is used to simulate student’s brain before teacher gives the
material.
7. The Concept of Showdown Strategy
Showdown is one of the cooperative learning strategies that allows
students to work together by answering question in group. This activity can
be used to assess students to comprehend the text.27 According to Kagan in
Oktaviani showdown is one of the cooperative learning structures that can
be applied by teacher in the classroom.
Furthermore, using showdown is to assess and inforce learning. In
this activity, each group comes up with a list of ten questions on the topic
that has just been taught to pass the questions to another group.28 This
statement emphasizes that showdown can assess students’ comprehension
especially, in learning reading and it can also make students understand
27Oktaviani, Op.Cit., p.2.28Judie Haynes, December 2008. Cooperative Learning in the Content Area Classroom,
(A journal of Judie Haynes in Essensial Teacher) Retrieved on January 19,[email protected]. p.1
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because the questions are uncorrect in one group, it will be passed and it
gives it to another group. So, the students can solve the problem together
and they share their idea. Totten states that the share learning gives students
an opportunity to engage in discussion to take responsibility for their own
learning, and thus become criticsl thinkers.29
Showdown is an appropriate strategy used to improve reading
comprehension. It has several procedures that can help to give more
understanding about the material. Because it review the material before a
quiz or test given by the teacher.
Showdown is great way to review material or to generate ideas for
new material.30 In other words, showdown is great strategy that can help
the students to comprehend the material by reviewing the material and
developing ideas for new material is given.
According to Kagan in Virginia, she stated that showdown is to
identify elements of literature in response to questions; express an opinion,
summarize, explain, discuss, communicate ideas in an organized and
cohesive way; express a point of view providing supporting facts.31
Regarding this idea, this strategy do not only require the students answer
29Faith A. Brown, B. A., M.A. Collaborative Learning in the EAP Classroom:Students’Perceptions, (A Journal of Centre for Academic Development Communication & StudySkills Unit University of Botswana) Retrieved on February 12, 2014. Fromhttp://www.espworld.info.collaborativelearning.
30Kagan. 2009. Cooperative Learning Resources, ( Article of Description: Showdown),retrieved on March 9, 2014. Fromhttp://www.cooperativelearningresources.weebly.com/showdown.html
31Dr. Virginia P.Rojas. Strategies for Success with ELL: A Toolkit for Teachers.(EARCOS institute, 2009), p.20
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question, but it also build their thinking to express their opinions,
summarize, discuss, communicate ideas, and cohesive way.
Based on the explanation above, showdown is powerful strategy in
which it can help the students easy to comprehend the text and it can also
help the students to answer question because they work together and they
share each their ideas. This strategy also makes students enjoy learning
reading. So, they can be successful in comprehending the text given by the
teacher.
Teaching procedure of Showdown strategy as follows32 :
1. The teacher divides students into several groups
2. The teacher distributes the materials to each group: a deck of question
cards, one small basket and Thinkpad slips ( small slips of paper) for
each team member to each group.
3. The teacher selects a student on each team to be showdown captain for
the first round.
4. The teacher explains that the Showdown captain draws the top card,
reads the question aloud for all team member, Then provides think time.
Each team member will answer the question individually on their
ThinkPad slips and turn their answers face down on the table in front of
them.
5. When being finished, teammates signal they’re ready.
6. The showdown captain calls, “Showdown!”.
32Kagan, Op.Cit., p. 6.35
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7. Then, teammates show and discuss their answers.
8. The Showdown captain leads the checking, if correct, the team
celebrate; if not, temmates tutor, then celebrate.
9. The student at the left of the Showdown captain will become
Showdown captain for the next round.
10. Repeat from steps above for each round.
8. Using Showdown Strategy toward Students’ Reading Comprehension in
Narrative Text
Reading is a very important skill in the education field and life because
it can give some information, experiences, and several adventages in finding
information needed. Stone states that reading is a fundamental goal that must
be mastered in order to be successful in school and in life.33
Accoding to Duffy comprehension is the essence of reading because the
goal of written language is communication of messages. If the reader does not
understand the meassages, the reader are not reading.34 Regarding this idea,
comrehension is goal of the reader. The reader cannot get information or
messages because they do not understand the messages. So, reading
comprehension is the process to get information and construct meaning through
what the reader reads. In building reading comprehension, there are actually
some strategies related to the reading comprehension. One of the commonly
33Stone, Op.Cit., p. 3934Duffy, Op.Cit., p.14
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strategies is showdown startegy. It is one of the commonly strategies used to
improve students’ reading comprehension.
Teaching reading comprehension through showdown is one of the ways
to make students enjoy learning reading because they work together to solve
the problem and share their idea. In other words, this strategy makes students
enjoy in their learning because they work and they share their idea together.
The teacher provides time to think its answer and he or she asks students to
answer question. If one group cannot answer it and the other group will be
asked to answer. So, they can comprehend the text through answering question
given by the teacher and they enjoy learning reading. It is better for
comprehending because the teacher also gives the students opportunity to
engage learning and to make the students became critical thinkers.
B. Relevant Research
1. Research by Astri Dwi Octaviani. She conducted a research entitled “The
Effect of Using Showdown on Students’ Reading Comprehension at The
First Grade Students of SMP Negeri 2 Cibadak”.35 She found that to (3.42),
at the level of significant of 5% was 1.67 and at significant level of 1%
was 2.39. it means that to was higher than t table (1.67<3.42<2.39), so the
alternative hypothesis (Ha) was accepted. The result of this research
35Astri Dwi Octaviani. November 2012. The Effect of Using Showdown on Students’Reading Comprehension of SMP 2 Negeri Cibadak. (A journal of English education StudyProgram, Faculty of Teacher Training and Educational Sciences, Pakuan University) retrieved onMay 22,2013 from http://ejournal.unpak.ac.id,pp.2. Vol.5
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showed that there is effect of Showdown on Students’ Reading
comprehension of SMP Negeri 2 Cibadak.
2. This research from Delpidon. He conducted a research entitled “ The
Influence of The Cooperative Integrated Reading and Composition (CIRC)
Method on Students’ Reading Comprehension at the Second Year Students
of SMPN 06 Kuantan Tengah”.36 In his research, he concluded that there
was significant effect of the cooperative integrative reading and
composition (CIRC) on student’s reading comprehension.
C. Operational Concepts of The Research
In order to clarify the theories used in this research, the writer would
like to explain briefly about variables of this research. This research is
experimental research which focuses on gaining the effect of using showdown
strategy toward students’ reading comprehension. Therefore, in analyzing the
problem in this research, there are two variables, variable X and variable Y.
Variable X is using showdown strategy as independent variable. Variable Y is
students’ reading comprehension of the eighth grade at MTsN Andalan
Pekanbaru as dependent variable.
36Delpidon. The influence of the cooperative integrated reading and composition (CIRC)method on student’s reading comprehension at the second year students of SMPN 06 KuantanTengah. (Kuantan Tengah: Unpublished Thesis 2011)
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1. Variable X: Teaching Showdown strategy
The procedures of Showdown strategy can be seen as the follow:37
a. The teacher divides students into several groups
b. The teacher distributes the materials to each group: a deck of question
cards, one small basket, ThinkPad slips (small slips of paper) for each
team member to each group.
c. The teacher selects a student on each team to be showdown captain for the
first round.
d. The teacher explains that the showdown captain draws the top card, reads
the question aloud for all team member, Then provides think time. Each
team member will answer the question individually on their ThinkPad
slips and turn their answers face down on the table in front of them.
e. When being finished, teammates signal they’re ready.
f. The showdown captain calls, “Showdown!”.
g. Then, teammates show and discuss their answers.
h. The Showdown captain leads the checking. If correct, the team celebrate;
if not, temmates tutor, then celebrate.
i. The student at the left of the Showdown captain will become Showdown
captain for the next round.
j. Repeat from steps above for each round.
37Kagan.Ibid., p. 6.35.
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2. Variable Y: reading comprehension in narrative text
To find out the students ability in reading comprehension in
narrative text of the eighth grade at MTsN Andalan Pekanbaru, the writer
determines some indicators for reading comprehension in narrative text as
follows:
a. The students are able to identify main idea in Narrative text.
b. The students are able to identify generic structure in Narrative text.
c. The students are able to identify vocabularies in the Narrative text
d. The students are able to identify pronominal reference in Narrative
text.
e. The students are able to identify moral value in the Narrative text.
D. Assumption and hypothesis
1. Assumption
In this research, the writer assumes that:
a. The students’ reading comprehension taught by using showdown
strategy is various.
b. The students’ reading comprehension taught without using showdown
strategy is various.
c. The better implementation of using showdown strategy in reading the
better students’ reading comprehension will be.
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2. Hypothesis
Based on the assumption above hypothesis of this research is:
a. The Alternative hypothesis (ha)
There is significant effect of using showdown strategy on students’
reading comprehension in Narrative Text of the eighth grade
students at MTsN Andalan Pekanbaru.
b. The Null Hypothesis (ho)
There is no significant effect of using showdown strategy on
students’ reading comprehension in Narrative Text of the eighth
grade students at MTsN Andalan Pekanbaru.