54

CHAPTER-II

PROBLEM TAKEN FOR WORK DONE

Introduction of Boswellia serrata (Family :Burseraceae) and Mesua ferrea

(Family: Clusiaceae), Types of Species, Historical background,

Summarized role in health and disease, Habitat and Distribution, Field

Recognition, Features, Botanical Descriptions, Taxonomical Hierarchy,

Names in different Languages.

55

Chapter-II

Problem Taken and Work Done

II-1 Introduction:

The medicinal plants resource base of a region is usually diverse. It

comprises of several species of herbs, shrubs, climbers and trees. These

species are found in the forests, grasslands, crop fields, gardens, backyards

and other such wild and cultivated habitats of a region. This diverse resource

base of a region, is an indicator of the extent to which local communities

depend on this resource.5

A wide range of plant parts is extracted from these medicinal plants, as raw

drugs. These raw drugs are the products of the medicinal plants that possess

different medicinal properties. These are derived from different parts from

medicinal plant such as stem, flower, fruit, root, exudates and modified

plants.7 While some of these raw drugs are collected in smaller quantities by

the local communities and folk healers for local use, many other raw drugs

are collected in larger quantities and traded in the market as the raw

materials for many herbal industries.12 Therefore, under the present plan,

following two plants are taken for their phytochemical investigation.

56

II -2 Boswellia serrata (Family: Burseraceae): The plant family Burseraceae, also known as the torchwood family, is a

plant family of incense trees. The incenses made from trees of the

torchwood family include the widely known aromatics frankincense and

myrrh.57 Even today, members of the Burseraceae family are considered as

highly valuable for their aromatic properties.

Burseraceae, family of flowering plants in the order Spindale’s, composed

of about 16 genera of resinous trees and shrubs. The oleo-gum resin from

several species of the genus Boswellia, called frankincense, was used in

biblical times in incense, in medicine, and for embalming. Myrrh is the resin

from plants of the genus Commiphora. Elemi resins are obtained from other

genera of the family, and species such as Aucoumea klaineana produce

useful timber.34, 35

Frankincense is obtained from the genus Boswellia, family Burseraceae

tree. “Frankincense”, also called “Oli-banum”, is an aromatic resin

obtained from trees of the genus Boswellia. The term “Oli-banum” is

derived from the Arabic al-lub-n, means “that which results from milking”.

Some have also postulated that the name comes from the Arabic term for

“oils of Lebanon” since Lebanon was the place where the resin was sold and

traded with Europeans. The word oli- banum may be from the Arabic word

57

for the resin “Laben” or “Luban” which is a word that also means cream.

The trees are found in East Africa (Somali country), South Arabia, and

India.

Oli-banum has been traded on the Arabian Peninsula and in North Africa for

more than 5000 years. This Oli-banum was found in the tomb of Ancient

Egyptian king Tutankhamen, who died in 1323 B.C. (about 3332 years

ago). Oli-banum was introduced to Europe by Frankish Crusaders, and it is

better known as “Frankincense” to westerners.

Boswellia is a genus of trees known for their fragrant resin. Frankincense is

an extract from the resin of the tree. There are four main following species

of Boswellia species, including Boswellia serrata in India, Boswellia carteni

in East Africa and China, Boswellia frereanam in Somalia and Boswellia

sacra in Arabia. Which produce true frankincense and resin is available in

various grades. The grades depend on the time of harvesting and it is in hand

sorted for quality. In the Indian medical system of Ayurveda, Boswellia

serrata is known as “Salai Guggal”, As in Sanskrit known as

“Gajabhakshya”, it suggests that human observed elephants ingesting this

plant i.e., ancient Indian Ayurvedic healers witnessed these huge animals

feeding on Boswellia serrata (belonging to family Burseraceae) trees,

58

which grow widely across the dry hills of northwest India.35 Coupling this

observation with their knowledge of elephant’s longevity and astounding

physical capacity, early doctors began questioning whether the elephant’s

dietary intake of Boswellia serrata might offer similar benefits to humans,

though in much smaller amounts.

II-2.1 Types of Boswellia Species:

There are four main following species of Boswellia species:-

1. Boswellia serrata (Roxburgh), a leafy forest tree of the India.

2. Boswellia Papyrifera (Del. Ex Caill.) yields a transparent resin, probably

destitute of gum, though thought to contain a volatile oil. It grows in western

Abyssinia.

3. Boswellia frereana (elemi frankincense), the Yegaar of the Somalis,

yields a fragrant resin of a lemon odour, it contains no gum, and is employed

in the east as a masticatory.

4. Boswellia Sacra (Flueck) is used in incense, perfumes and the resin has

many pharmacological uses particularly as anti-inflammatory agent.

59

II-2.2 Historical background:

“And when they had come into the house, they saw the young Child with

Mary, His mother, and fell down and worshiped Him. And when they had

opened their treasures, they presented gifts to Him: gold, frankincense, and

myrrh”. –Matthew45 2:11(2) page 150.

“And the Lord said to Moses: “Take sweet spices, state and niche and

galbanum, and pure frankincense with these sweet spices, there shall be

equal amounts of each. You shall make of this incense, a compound

according to the art of the perfumer, salted, pure, and holy.”

-Exodus 30:34-38, page 1671.

Members of the plant family Burseraceae have a long history of use. They

have been of great cultural significance historically, and many continue to

hold them in high esteem today. Old World species of the

Burseraceae Family include Commiphora myhrra, commonly known as

myrrh, and Boswellia sacra, commonly known as frankincense. The sap or

resin of these plants can be harvested to produce aromatic oils.57

The oils manufactured from frankincense and myrrh is highly valued for use

in religious rites, and is frequently mentioned in the Judeo-Christian

religious texts.

60

Commiphora gileadensis, commonly known as Balm of Gilead, has long

been valued for its fragrance, perhaps more so because it is relatively rare.

The Greek physician, pharmacologist, and botanist Pedanius Dioscorides

wrote of the benefits of this plant, as did the Roman physician Galen. It's

also mentioned in the Christian Bible.

The sap of the Commiphora africana, commonly known as bdellium, was

once used in ceremonial rites honoring the God Mars. The Roman historian

Pliny believed that the bdellium tree originated in Bactria. Women of the

ancient world were said to carry pouches of the tree's hardened sap, as a

form of perfume.

In Sanskrit, “Gajabhakshya” suggests that Boswellia sps. has been ingested

by elephants in Ayurvedic medicine since antiquity. Interest in this plant was

aroused due to elephants being capable of carrying their weight over a long

period of time, yet still outliving humans. Therefore, the elephants were

studied to find out what was in their diet, and Boswellia sps. was found to be

one ingredient.61

Large amounts of it were needed in Egypt for the daily cult temples and in

the funerary rituals. Internally, it served in the treatment of the abdomen, as

a purgative, as a stimulus to take food, liver and bladder ailments, for

61

coughs, poisons, worms, and skin diseases, pain in the arms, and sores. It

was known as a skin irritant, which caused better flow of blood; hence it was

used to stimulate menstruation.

Externally, it served in the treatment of stiffness, vessels, joints, wounds of

different kinds, inflammatory conditions, pain in the legs, demons, pus,

stomach problems, pressure in the ear, and to stimulate birth. The oil was

used as an ingredient in embalming liquids for mummification.

Boswellia sps. is also used to treat various diseases of the eyes, toothaches,

tongue problems, prevention of infection of the birth canal, and it was

chewed. The smoke is considered helpful for women’s problems, and to

eliminate odour in the house, clothing, or body. It is known as a disinfectant,

in general. Mixed with pomegranate juice, it found use as an astringent.

Aside from pharmaceutical applications, it has a strong placebo effect. The

patient believed if it is being offered to the Gods, then it would surely help

her/him. Traditionally, the various species are not differentiated medicinally.

Boswellia sps. is burned before the statues of the God and the ancient

Egyptians burned it at sunrise to honor the Sun God, the burning

frankincense was said to enhance spirituality, mental perception, prayer, and

62

consciousness.It is said to burning produce a psychoactive substance trans-

hydrocannabinol.

Chinese Herbalists used frankincense for moving qi/blood, rheumatism,

menstrual pain, and as an external wash for sores and bruises. The oils are

also believed to have medicinal properties, and have been used to disinfect

wounds, treat lice infestations, and cure gonorrhea.

South American species of the Burseraceae family, such as Bursera

simaruba, or the gum bolimbo tree, have also found medicinal uses among

native populations. The Mayans are believed to have used the resin of this

tree to treat fever, upset stomach, headache, nose bleed, and burns. They

may have also relied heavily on the resin for ceremonial incense production.

II-2.3 Habitat and Distribution:

The genus Boswellia (family Burseraceae) consists of many species wide

spread throughout the world. It includes approximately 23 species of small

trees that grow mainly in India, on eastern coast of Africa and in Arabia.

63

Table 4:

Summarized role of Boswellia Sps. in Health and Diseases Disease Role

Analgesic *Decreases motor activity and ptosis in rats .8,14

Arthritis *Decreases infiltration of leukocytes into knee joint and pleural cavity and

inhibits the migration of polymorph nuclear leukocytes.60

*Decreases severity of pain and disability in osteo-arthritic patients.56

Asthma *Increases stimulation of mitogen activated protein kinase MAPK1 and

mobilization of intracellular Ca2+.

*Effect on bronchial asthma26: result of a double –blind, placebo-controlled, 6-

week clinical study.

Autoimmune –

Encephalitis(AE)

*Inhibited ionophore stimulated release of leukotrienes from PMNL’s.

*Decreases symptoms of AE.53

Bowel disease *Use of complementary and alternative medicine in Germany – a survey of

patients with inflammatory bowel disease32.

Cancer *Inhibition TH1 cytokines and promotes TH2 cytokines in vitro.13

*Anti-proliferative and apoptotic effect on colon cancer. Induced anti-edema

effect in glioblastoma patients.

*Cytostatic and apoptosis -inducing activity of boswellic acids toward malignant

cell lines in vitro28.

*Anti-tumor and anti-carcinogenic activities of triterpenoid, beta-boswellic acid.

*Boswellic acid acetate induces differentiation and apoptosis in leukemia cell

lines.60

*Inhibition of boswellic acids of human leukocytes elastase42.

*Inhibitory activity of boswellic acids from Boswellia serrata against human

leukemia HL-60 cells in culture.

Chronic colitis *Effects of gum resin of Boswellia serrata in patients with chronic colitis24.

Crohn’s disease *Decreases activity index24.

Hepato-protactive *Effect of hexane extract of Boswellia serrata Oleo-Gum-Resin on chemically

induced Liver damage.33

*Evaluation of anti-ulcer activity of Boswellia serrata bark extracts using aspirin

induced ulcer model in albino rats32.

Hypolipidemia *Decreases cholesterol and increases HDL in rats.

64

*Induced nitric oxide production in rat macrophages.

Inflammation *Decreases galactosamine/endotoxin induced hepatitis in mice.

*Decreases inflammatory features in indomethacin-induced ileitis in rats.

*Decreases experimental murine colitis.

*Inhibits the synthesis of 5-LOX products.8,9,58

*Inhibits topoisomerase, elastase and C-3 convertase enzymes.

*Decreases canine inflammatory joint and spinal disease14.

Immunomodulatory *Immuno-modulatory activity of boswellic acids of Boswellia serrata Roxb.53

*Anti-anaphylactic and mast cell de-granulation.

*Effect of salai guggal ex- Boswellia serrata on cellular and humeral immune

responses and leukocytes migration45.

(Jacob, 1993, Man niche 1989, Bausch, et al., 2004, Schuss, 1999,

Jayaweera, 1981, Kapoor, 2001 and Duke, 2006)

II-2.4 Field Recognition Features:

● The tree is medium to large sized up to 18 meters in height and up to 2 and

a half meters in girth. The stem is easily breakable.

● The bark is greenish grey, yellow or reddish grey in colour and thick, with

smooth exfoliating thin papery flakes; it is resinous inside.

● Leaves are clustered at the tip of branch, about a feet long. Leaflets are 10

–15 pairs. The branch lets and leaflets when emit a mango smell crushed.

● White small flowers are arranged in racemes or panicles, twice the size of

mango flowers.

● The hard fruits are three angled; they split into 3 valves.

65

II-2.5 Botanical Descriptions:

A deciduous middle-size tree, bark ash coloured, peeling off in thin flakes;

young shoots and leaves pubescent.

Leaves 20-38 cm long; leaflets opposite, (2.5-6.3) x (1.2-3) cm, sessile 8-15

pairs and an odd one (the pair at the base of leaf often much smaller than the

others), variable in shape, ovate or ovate-lanceolate, usually inequilaterally

and obtuse, crenate-serrate, more or less pubescent, base acute, rounded, or

some what truncate.

Flowers in axillary racemes, shorter than the leaves. Petals 5 mm long,

ovate, pubescent outside, tips inflexed. Stamens inserted at the base of an

annular crenate disk; anthers slightly pubescent.

Ovary surrounded by the disk; Style grooved. Drupe trigonous; Pyrenes

heart shaped; Cotylendon trifid.

II-3 Mesua ferrea (Family: Clusiaceae):

The indigenous market of Indian traditional medicine is full of herbal

products mainly from Indian medicinal plants. ‘Nagakesar’ is a well known

plant in Ayurveda.12 Various plants of different genus and family are sold

under the same common name Nagakesar. In our market survey five

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medicinal plants viz. Mesua ferrea Linn. (Clusiaceae), Ochrocarpus

longifolius (Guttiferrea), Cinnamomum wightii (Lauraceae), Calophyllum

inophylum Linn. (Guttiferrea) and Dillenia pentagyna Roxb.

(Dilleniaceae) were found to be sold in the Indian market40 under the similar

common name ‘Nagakesar’.

There is a growing interest in the pharmacological evaluation of various

plants used in Indian traditional system of medicine. Mesua ferrea belonging

to family Clusiaceae, commonly called Ceylon ironwood, Indian rose

chestnut, Cobra's saffron or Nagkesar.

The plant is named after the heaviness of its timber and cultivated in tropical

climates for its form, foliage and fragrant flowers.54, 55 It is native to tropical

Sri Lanka but also cultivated in Assam, in southern Nepal, in Indochina

and the Malay Peninsula.

Mesua is a rather large genus consisting of about 48 species of stove

evergreen shrubs or trees that are widely distributed in many tropical

countries e.g. India, Burma, Thailand, Indochina and New Guinea.

67

II-3.1 Types of Mesua Species:

1. Mesua ferrea Linn. - Family -Clusiaceae. This is most accepted source of

“Nagkeshara” and considered to be the original source.

2. Ochrocarpus longifolius Benth & Hook -Family -Guttiferrea

Dried flower buds are considered as “Ratun Nagakeshara”.

3. Cinnamomum wightii Meissn. - Family - Lauraceae

Unripe fruits sold in the market as “Karu Nagkeshara” and “Siddha” and

Tamilnad Vaidyas use in the name of “nattu nagkeshara/sirungappu”.

4. Calophyllum inophylum Linn. -Family -Guttiferrea

Stamens are sold as Nagkeshara.

Other species Calophyllum elatum and Calophyllum apetalum.

5. Dillenia pentagyna Roxb. -Family -Dilleniaceae

Unripe fruits are used under the name -Malabar Nagkeshara in Malabar and

Chennai. Other species Dillenia indicia.

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II-3.2 Habitat and Distribution:

The tree is found in the Himalayas from Nepal eastwards, in

Northeastern India, Deccan Peninsula and the Andaman Islands, ascending

to an altitude of 1,500 meters.

II-3.3 Field Recognition Features:

●A medium-sized to large evergreen tree with a short trunk often buttressed

at the base.

●Bark is grayish or reddish brown in colour, exfoliating in large thin flakes.

●Its leaves are lancet shaped, leathery in texture, and are generally covered

with a waxy coating underneath; they are red coloured when young.

● White coloured large flowers are seen in singles or in clusters of 2-3; they

are fragrant. At the centre of the petals, there are yellow coloured numerous

stamens.

●Fruits are egg shaped, nearly woody, 1-2 inches. long, with a persistent

calyx.

● Seeds are dark brown in colour, measuring up to 1-4, up to an inch in

diameters; with fleshy and oily cotyledons.

69

II-3.4 Distinguishing features:

● Dried stamens form the raw drugs from this tree. They are short and thread

like pieces that measure about half a centimeter and appear as golden brown

or copper coloured coarse powder.

● Stamens sometimes carry small bead like anther lobes at the tip.

● Dried flaky petals, if present, are creamish white in colour.

● They emit an agreeable odour.

● The taste is slightly mucilaginous.

II-3.5 Botanical Descriptions:

A middle sized, glabrous tree; trunk straight, erect; bark smooth,

ash coloured; young branches twiggy, slender.

Leaves (7.5-12.5) x(2.5-3.8) cm oblong-lanceolate, red when

young, afterwards shining above, glaucous and pruinose beneath, rounded

or acute at the base and with close ,inconspicuous nerves; petioles 6-8 mm

long.

Flowers are very fragrant, 2.5-7.5 cm diameter Axillary or terminal,

solitary or in pairs, sus-bessile; buds sub-globose; bracts→0, Sepals→4,

70

orbicular, cupped, puberulous outside, persistent, the inner pair much longer

than the outer. Petals 4, pure white, spreading, obovate, cuneate, with

crisped and undulate margins often torn. Stamens very numerous, golden,

yellow, much shorter than the petals, slightly united at the base into a fleshy

ring; anthers oblong. Style twice as long as the stamens, stigma peltate.

Fruit 2.5-3 cm long ovoid with a conical point, surrounded by

the enlarged sepals; pericarp tough, semi-woody, at the length 2-valved.

Seeds 1-4, angular, smooth, and chestnut-brown.

Table 5:

Summarized role of Mesua Sps. in Health and Diseases

Disease Role

Antioxidant and Hepatoprotective Activities

Ethanolic Extract: An in vitro study of three Indian commercially available Nagakesar20. Methanolic Extract: An in vitro study of three Indian commercially available Nagakesar21.

Anticonvulsant Activity

The ethanolic extract of M. ferrea inhibits Maximum Electroshock Seizure (MES) induced convulsions.

Anti-Inflammatory C. Gopalakrishnan,et al, (1980) Studied anti inflammatory and CNS depressant activities of xanthones from Calophyllum inophyllum and Mesua ferrea.

Anti-Venom

Nunthaun Uawonggul et al, (2006), studied aqueous extracts of 64 plant species were screened for their activity against fibroblast cell lysis after Heterometrous laoticus scorpion venom treatment.

Cytotoxic Activities Cytotoxic activities of chemical constituents from Mesua daphnifolia17.

71

II-4 Taxonomical Hierarchy of Boswellia serrata:

●Kingdom: Plantae-Plants

● Phylum: Angiospermae

● Sub-phylum: Dicotyledonous

●Division: Spermatophyta

● Family: Burseraceae

●Tribe: Rosopsida

● Sub tribe: Rosidae s. lat.

●Order: Rutanae

●Class: Anacardiales

●Genus: Boswellia

●Species: Serrata

72

II-4.1 Names in different languages:

Latin: Boswellia serrata

Sanskrit: shallaki, gajabhakshya

Arabian: zarw

Urdu : Kundur

Punjabi : Salai Gonda

Marathi : Salai cha dink

Bengali: luban

Chinese: ru xiang (B. carterii), Fan Hun Hsiang

English: frankincense, Indian olibaum

French: baswellie-den telee, arbre à encens

German: salaibaum

Hindi: luban, salai guggul (B. serrata), sallaki guggul

Nepalese: gobahr shalla

Persian: husn-e-lubban

Sinhalese: kundirikkam

Tamil: kunthreekan

Unani: luban

73

II-5 Taxonomical Hierarchy of Mesua Ferrea:

●Kingdom: Plantae-Plants

● Phylum: Angiospermae

●Sub-phylum: Monocotyledones

● Division: Lignosae

●Order: Guttiferales

●Family: Clusiaceae

●Sub-family: Calophylloideae

●Tribe: Calophylleae

●Genus: Mesua

●Species: ferrea

74

II-5.1 Names in different languages:

Sanskrit: Nagkesara

Bengali: Nagesar,Nagesvara

English: Cobra’s Saffron, Iron-wood of Assam, Ceylon Iron wood.

Hindi: Naghas, Nogkesar

Marathi: Nagachampa

Punjabi: Naga kesar

Assam: Naboor

Bihar: Nagkeshur

Tamil: Irul, Karunangu

Telugu: Naga kesarãlu

Kannada: Kanchana, Nagasampige

Malayalam: Nagachempakam, veluttachempakam

Oriya: Nageshwar

II-5.2 Synonyms:

Punnaga: It denotes Gender mentioned best qualities among the trees.

Kesar: Its useful part strikeshara (Stigma)

Deva Vallabha :It has beautiful, fragment flowers and it is admired by

the Gods so called “Deva Vallabha”.

Naga Pushpa: This flowers fragrance like hastimada, so it is called

Nagapushpa.

Naga Kesara: Its kesara (Stamens) liked by snakes so it is called

Nagakeshara.

75

Table 6:

Taxonomical Hierarchy of Boswellia serrata and Mesua ferrea

Medicinal Plant-1 Boswellia-serrata

Medicinal Plant-2 Meusa ferrea

Kingdom Plantae-Plants Plantae-Plants Phylum Angiospermae Angiospermae Sub-phylum Dicotyledonous Monocotyledones Division Spermatophyta Lignosae Order -------- Guttiferales Family Burseraceae Clusiaceae Sub-family -------- Calophylloideae Tribe Rosopsida Calophylleae Subtribe Rosidae s. lat. -------- Overclass: Rutanae -------- Class: Anacardiales -------- Genus Boswellia Mesua Species Serrata Ferrea

76

Table 7:

Names in different languages

Latin Boswellia serrata Mesua ferrea

Sanskrit: Shallaki, Gajabhakshya Nagkesara

English: Frankincense, Indian olibaum Cobra’s Saffron, Iron-wood of

Assam, Ceylon Iron wood.

German: Salaibaum Nagassamen.

French: Baswellie-den telee, Arbre à

encens

Arbre de fer, Bois d’anis,Bois de

fer

Chinese: Fan Hun Hsiang, Ru xiang (B.

carterii)

Tie li mu, (Taiwan)

Hindi: Luban, Salai guggul , Sallaki

guggul

Naghas, Nogkesar

Marathi: Salaphli Nagachampa

Gujarati: Dhup,Gugali,Mukulsalai Naboor

Punjabi: Salhi Naga kesar

Bengali: Luban Nagesar,Nagesvara

Tamil: Kunthreekan Irul, Karunangu

Telugu: Anduga,Dhupamu,Guggilamu,

Parangisambrani

Naga kesarãlu

Malayalam: Hladini,Stayyanti,Mukundam,

Palankam,Parankisamprani

Nagachempakam,

veluttachempakam

Oriya: Loban Nageshwar

Persian: Husn-e-lubban Narmishka

77

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