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CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
A. The Nature of Reading
1. Definition of Reading
Nuttal (1982:18) states that reading is the transfer of meaning from
mind to mind. It means that reader should know the meaning of the text in
reading. here are man! definition of reading. "ll the #ur#oses or
definitions attri$uted to reading %annot $e list in this stud!. he writer tries
to write some of them. "%%ording to Ned &. &arksheffel (1981:1')
reading has $een defined as a means of soling #ro$lems a wa! of
learning a #er%e#tion #ro%ess a means of relaxation a tool su$*e%t
getting meaning from the #rinted #age a thinking #ro%ess and a
stimulator of ideas.
+hile another ex#ert ,e!ler (2''-:) said reading is the #ro%ess of
o$taining and %onstru%ting meaning from a word or %luster of words.
/arris (198':2) de%lares that reading is the meaningful inter#retation of
written or #rinted er$al s!m$ols. In the other hand Nunan (2''0:1)
states that reading is a set of skills that inoles making sense and deriing
meaning from the #rinted word. ,o reading ia a skill to %arr! out the
meaning of the #rinted words.
2. Definition of Reading om#rehension
Reading %om#rehension is defined as the leel of understanding of a
#assage or text. 3rown (2''1:291) states that reading %om#rehension is
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#rimarl! a matter of deelo#ing a##ro#riate and effi%ient %om#rehension
strategies.
"%%ording to 4ustar!o (1988:12) %om#rehension inoles
understanding o%a$ular! seeing the relationshi# among the words and
%on%e#t organi5ing the ideas and re%ogni5ing the author6s #ur#ose making
*udgment and ealuation. om#rehension means reading in de#th in order
that the students %an answer the 7uestions a$out the reading material
%orre%tl!.
Daies as 7uated Nurul (2'12:12) de%lares that ex#lains that reading
%om#rehension is a #ro%ess of using s!ntati% semanti% and rhetori%al
information found in the #rinted texts to $e re%onstru%ted in the readers
mind. It means knowledge of word he or she #ro%esses %ognitie skills
and man! other things of his own will influen%e his a$ilit! in
%om#rehension the text gien.
Reading %om#rehension instru%tion ought to hel# %hildren a%7uire
the a$ilit! to understand the materials. n the other hand reading
%om#rehension %an $e defined as the ne%essar! information from materials
$! inoling their memor! ex#erien%e and senten%es.
In reading %om#rehension the reader does not de%ode onl! of the
s!m$ols of the language $ut he is also re7uired to hae the a$ilit! to
understand the material. It su##orts with the statement from &i%ule%k!
and effies (2''-: 1') in the reading #ro%ess !ou make %onne%tion
$etween what !ou are reading and what !ou alread! know. ,o reading
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%om#rehension is the #ro%ess of understanding reading text $! inoling
the reader6s memor! (old ex#erien%e).
3ase on some definition a$oe it %an $e %on%luded that reading
%om#rehension is an a%tie #ro%ess at thing king to get ne%essar!
information $! inoling reader6s knowledge ex#erien%e and #redi%tion.
;rellet (1999) found there are two reasons of reading:
a. Reading for #leasure
"nother #ur#ose of reading is *ust to get fun and en*o!ment.
Nowada!s reading for interest $e%omes more im#ortant as most new
la$or saing dei%es at home and industr! %reate more leisure time. "s
matter of fa%t it is one reason wh! #eo#le read the $ook arti%le stor!
news#a#er and soon.
$. Reading for Information
Reading not *ust looking at word reading is re%eiing and sorting
out information from word $! reading the students will know a$out
man! things. he! %an get a lot information the! read man! sour%es it
%an hel# them to intensif! their knowledge in arious field. In fa%t
man! #eo#le read to o$tain information to satisf!ing their %uriousl! to
%ommuni%ate effe%tiel! with the so%iet!
De#end on the sere a$out said that all of us as human life that
%reated of his must $e read and alwa!s read if we want to know the
meaning of something text to get mu%h information or $ook that
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%ontains of knowledge $e%ause of it %an make in%rease knowledge or
%om#rehension.
+e %an read eer!thing in the world not onl! $! written or text
$ut also from sign there are man! knowledge that we %an get from
them su%h as from our nature our so%iet! lie enironment et%.
3rown (2''':'term memor!.
. ?ro%ess writing at an effi%ient
rate of s#eed to suit the #ur#ose.
-. Re%ogni5e a %ore of words and
inter#ret word order #atterns their signifi%an%e.
0. Re%ogni5e grammati%al word
%lasses (noun er$s et%) s!stems (e.g. tense agreement #luralisation)
#atterns rules and elli#ti%al forms.
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9. Re%ogni5e the %ommuni%atie
fun%tions of written texts a%%ording to form and #ur#ose.1'. Infer %ontext that is not ex#li%it
$! using $a%kground knowledge.
11. @rom eents ideas et%
des%ri$es infer links and %onne%tion $etween eents dedu%e %auses and
effe%ts and dete%t su%h relations as main idea su##orting idea new
information gien information generali5ation and exem#lifi%ation.
12. Distinguish $etween literal and
im#lied meanings.
1. Dete%t %ulturall! s#e%ifi% referen%es and inter#ret them in a %ontext of
the a##ro#riate %ultural s%hemata.
1-. Deelo# and use a $atter! of reading strategies su%h as #reiewing as
#re>reading a%tiit! dete%t dis%ourse markers guessing the meaning
of words from %ontext and a%tiating s%hemata for the inter#retation
of texts.
&a%ro skills :
1. Re%ogni5e the rhetori%al form of written dis%ourse and their signifi%an%e
for inter#retation.
2. Re%ogni5e the %ommuni%atie fun%tions of written texts a%%ording to
form and #ur#ose.
. Infer %ontext that is not ex#li%it $! using $a%kground knowledge.
-. @rom des%ri$ed eents ideas et%. infer links and %onne%tions $etween
eents dedu%e %auses and effe%ts and dete%t su%h relations as main idea
new information gien information generali5ation exem#lifi%ation.
. om#onent of Reading om#rehension
4ing and ,tanle! in 3ermawi as 7uated Aanita (2'': 2) states that
there are fie %om#onents that hel# the students to read %arefull! :
a. @inding a%tual information
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@a%tual information re7uires readers to s%an s#e%ifi% details. @a%tual
information 7uestion $egin with +>/ 7uestion words.$. &ain idea
Reading is %on%erned with the meaning to grater extent than is with
form. "n effi%ient reader understands not onl! that the idea $ut also the
relatie signifi%ant as ex#ress $! the outdoors. In other words. ,ome of
the ideas are su#er ordinate while other is su$ordinate.
%. Referen%e
Re%ogni5ing referen%e words and $eing a$le to identif! the words or
#hrase whi%h the! refer to will hel# the reader understand the #assage.
d. Inferen%e
Bnderstanding is the most im#ortant as#e%t in reading. +riters how
eer do not write out eer!thing the! ex#e%ted the reader to understand
to do. ,o it is often not ne%essar! and sometimes not desira$les from
the writer6s #oint of iew. +riter use language effi%ientl! and
re%ogni5e what %an $e inferred from their senten%es. In order words an
effi%ient reader is a$le to understand those im#li%ations.
e. Restatement
he last few 7uestions of reading %om#rehension are to ask the reader
to re%ogni5e whi%h of the four #ossi$ilities $est restated the meaning
of a gien senten%es.
-. "ims of Reading om#rehension" #erson ma! read for en*o!ment or to im#roe hisCher knowledge.
"%%ording to Daies ( 1990 : 1>1-) as 7outed Nurul (2'12:2') reading
#ur#oses are :
a. @or #leasure: to follow a narratie and en*o! the sound6 and rh!thm or
rh!me of a literar! text
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$. @or a general im#ression: to gain a idea of the writer6s iew#oint gain
an oerall im#ression of the tone6 of a text and to de%ide whether or
not to read the text.
%. @or organi5ing reading and stud!: to identif! the im#ortant %ontent a
text to answer a s#e%ifi% 7uestion(s) and to de%ide whi%h se%tion of a
text to start stud!ing.
d. @or learning %ontent or #ro%edures: to gain an understanding of new
%on%e#ts learn %ertain fa%ts from text and to follow instru%tionE
e. @or language learning: it is for translating6 the text literall! or
meta#hori%all! and then to learn new o%a$ular! to identif! useful6
stru%tures or %ollo%ations to use the text as a model for writing and to
#ra%ti%e #ronun%iation.
0. Reading "ssessment
"%%ording to ohen (199-:220) the items should $e assessed in
reading %om#rehension a$ilit! are:
a. he re%ognition of words and #hrase of similar and o##osing
meaning.
$. he identif!ing or lo%ating of information.
%. he dis%riminating of elements or features within %ontextE the anal!sis
of elements within a stru%ture and of the relationshi# among them>
e.g. %ausal se7uential %hronologi%al hierar%hi%ald. he inter#reting of %om#lex ideas a%tion eents and relationshi#s
e. Inferring> the deriing of %on%lusions and #redi%ting the %ontinuation
f. ,!nthesis
g. =aluation.
he assessment in the reading %lass en%om#ass a ariet! of
measures from the most informal alternatie deelo#mental learning
$ased student %entered t!#es to the most formal tea%her %ontrolled
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alua$le %on%e#tion that knowledge resides within the learning
%ommunit! not *ust with the Gauthorit!>figureG instru%tor.
-) o reinfor%es a sense of $elonging among the grou# mem$ers
If eer!one is inoled in the same a%tiit! then we are all in it
together6. ,u%h ex#erien%e gies us #oints of %ommon referen%e to talk
a$out and %an $e used as reason to $ond with ea%h other. It is mu%h
easier for student to share an emotion su%h as ha##iness or amusement
in a whole %lass setting.
0) o students more a%tie and enthusiasti% in learning #ro%ess.
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students and ea%h mem$er must $e a heterogeneous grou# of students
$ased on a%ademi% a%hieement and interest.2. ea%her #resentations
Deliered at this stage the tea%her learning indi%ators identif! and
ex#lain the material in a%%ordan%e with lesson #lans that hae $een
made.
. ;rou# a%tiities
In this learning a%tiit! using the a%tiit! sheet that %ontains the
tasks that must $e learned $! ea%h student in one grou#. "fter re%eiing
an a%tiit! sheet that %ontains issues related to the %on%e#t of matter and
its %lassifi%ation the students learn it in small grou#s (- students) are
dis%ussing the #ro$lem together mem$ers of the grou#. =a%h grou# is
finishing his or sole a gien #ro$lem in their own wa!. hen two of
the four mem$ers of ea%h grou# left the grou# and a isit to another
grou# while two mem$ers liing in the grou# in %harge of the work and
delier their information to the guests. "fter o$taining information from
two mem$ers who lie guest ex%used himself and returned to their
res#e%tie grou#s and re#ort its findings and %orre%t and dis%uss the
results of their work.
-. @ormali5ation
"fter stud!ing in grou#s and sole #ro$lems that are gien one of
the grou#s #resented the results of grou# dis%ussion to $e
%ommuni%ated or dis%ussed with other grou#s. hen the tea%her dire%ts
the students to dis%uss and formal sha#e.
0. =aluation and "wards ;rou#
he ealuation #hase is to determine how mu%h students
skills in understanding the material has $een o$tained using the model
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of %oo#eratie learning model ,,. =a%h student was gien a 7ui5
that %ontains 7uestions of learning out%omes with ,, model whi%h
in turn followed $! the awards to the grou# who re%eied the highest
aerage s%ore.
a$le 2.1: ?ro%edures of wo ,ta! wo ,tra! (,,) e%hni7ue in ea%hing
Reading
,te#s ?ro%edures
1. ?re#aration ea%her #re#aring tools and media. Diided
the student into some the grou#.
2.ea%her #resentations ea%her ex#lains a$out the to#i% lesson.
.;rou# a%tiit! "fter re%eiing an a%tiit! sheet that %ontains
issues related to the %on%e#t of matter and its
%lassifi%ation. he student work a##ro#riate
the #ro%edures of ,, te%hni7ue.
-. @ormali5ation he students #resented the results of grou#
dis%ussion.
0. =aluation and "wards
grou#s
=a%h student was gien a 7ui5 that %ontains
7uestions of learning out%omes with ,,
model whi%h in turn followed $! the
awards to the grou# who re%eied the
highest aerage s%ore.
D. Releant ,tudies
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his resear%h is su##orted $! others resear%her whi%h deal with this
resear%h. @irstl! done $ut there are some #reious resear%hes that had #ro$ed the
%ontri$ution of wo ,ta! wo ,tra! (,,) in learning #ro%ess to hold the fixed
aims and goals of tea%hing and learning.
Fewaherilla (2'11) HIm#roing ,tudent6s Reading om#eten%e hrough
wo ,ta! wo ,tra! e%hni7ueG this resear%h fo%us on identif!ing to#i% finding
main idea re%ogni5ing details know t!#e of the text %ommuni%atie #ur#ose of
the text generi% stru%ture and the language feature of the text. /e finds that there
is signifi%ant im#roement in the student6s reading %om#eten%e. "nd ,ta! wo
,tra! e%hni7ue $e%omes an a##ro#riate wa! to oer%ome the #ro$lems o%%urring
in #assie %lass.
Nafsitah (2''9) examined that the result of resear%h showed on dis%ussion
a%tiit! the use of %oo#eratie learning t!#e ,, led #ro%ess of thinking
intera%tion multi dire%tl! $etween resear%h su$*e%ts when the! had %om#leted
grou# a%tiit! #a#er and when the! did a *o$ as guests and house mans. hen
,tudents who had high a$ilit! gae knowledge to the dis%ussion math. ,tudents
that were in middle a$ilit! sta!ed $alan%e $oth in giing and a%%e#ting knowledge
from the dis%ussion mate. ,tudent that had low a$ilit! had a%%e#ted knowledge
from the dis%ussion mate. ,tudent that had middle a$ilit! grade two was more
a%tie to intera%t with the dis%ussion mate in dis%ussion a%tiit! than student that
had middle a$ilit! grade one.
Nurul &uflihah (2'12) %on%luded that tea%hing reading $! using wo ,ta! wo
,tra! (,,) te%hni7ue towards students reading %om#rehension $etter than
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