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CHAPTER II CHARACTERISTICS OF SCIENTIFIC...
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CHAPTER II
CHARACTERISTICS OF SCIENTIFIC ENGLISH
We have seen that English for science is an important
branch of ESP which covers the areas of English for Academic
Purposes (EAP} and English for Occupational Purposes (EOP}.
We have also distinguished ESP from General Purpose English
(GPE} especially in the way their purpose is defined, and the
manner of their implementation. The English needed by a
particular group of learners could, therefore, be identified
by analysing the linguistic characteristics of English
employed in their specialist area of study. This is exactly
what we are going to do in this chapter. However, we are not
only going to specify the formal features of ESP but also see
how sentences are combined in discourse to produce meaning
and how statements are related to each other in the text.
Also, we will make use of empirical methodology and analyse
students' biological texts in order to identify the
vocabulary and structures more frequently used in English for
biological science.
This chapter, therefore,
scientific English used in the
attempts to characterize
English biological science
texts. Vocabulary of biological science, sentence patterns,
types of sentences and clauses within the sentence are
analysed on the basis of their frequency of occurrence in
the biological text. The reasons for using these linguistic
categories in biological science are identified. We also
discuss the utility of register analysis in language teaching
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and underline some of the features of English for biological
science so that ES teachers and biology students can
concentrate on the most relevant and most frequently used
features. The description of the language used in biological
science contains information on vocabulary and grammar used
in the biological text analysed. This description can be
applied to the particular needs of biology students. These
students are taught science in their mother tongue (Arabic),
but they need access to works reported in English used for
biological science.
"Learning a language is not merely a matter of learning
sentence patterns and vocabulary but must also involve
understanding of how people use these linguistic forms in
order to communicate" (Mountford: 1977). These forms are
helpful in making different kinds of statements and producing
continuous pieces of discourse. This can be applied in
language teaching to activate students discourse competence
and develop an understanding of how this subject matter is
expressed through English, that is, to combine language and
subject matter in meaningful communication.
The science students' problems with regard to English
is not so much one of specialist terminology as of the kind
of vocabulary, grammar, syntax and idiomatic devices that are
generally used in scientific English. "The chief difficulty
becomes obvious when they know the specialist terms but
cannot understand or formulate statements in English in which
those terms occur" (Close: 1966: 3)
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We proceed now to discuss the nature of scientific
style which is concerned with clear logical thinking. It
prefers brevity and exactness. The function of scientific
prose is to "convey logical ordered ideas, exactly,
concisely, and clearly" (Peter: 1963: 36). Precision is a
special quality in scientific writing. A scientist usually
makes sure of the meaning of every word due to his accuracy
of thought. "Consciseness requires not that the writer makes
all his sentences short, or that he avoids all details and
treats his subjects only as outline, but that every word
tells" (Peter: 1968: 41).
Simplicity eradicates most of the grammatical faults.
Simple scientific language enforces accurate thinking. A
scientific style is usually formal. It may .cause difficulty
at first to any one who is not accustomed to it but greatly
assists effective communication between scientists and
engineers; no ambiguity is allowed for. Moreover, "facts
will not be questionable and are not capable of more than one
interpretation" (Mehdi: 1987: 119). In addition, we shall
have three things to distinguish in every physical science:
the series of facts that constitute the science; the ideas
that call the facts to mind; and the words that express them.
A scientist accepts as facts only impersonal, objective
statements. This impersonal attitude is reflected in the way
scientists express themselves and particularly in the kinds
of grammatical
prefer. The
structures and sentence patterns which
use of impersonal statements is one of
they
the
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linguistic consequences of the methodology of science which
demands objectivity, systematic investigation, and exact
measurement. one of the grammatical features is the use of
the passive construction, e.g.,
The mixture was poured ... instead of
We poured the mixture .. .
emphasises what happens to things. What I, The passive
personally,
description
expressed.
do is not regarded as important. It enables a
to be made impersonal without an agent being
In ES, a noun is also used in preference to a verb and
this avoids an expression of personal activity;
e.g. '
On completion of the experiment ... instead of
When we had completed the experiment.
2.1 Features of scientific Discourse
All scientific discourse is carefully structured to
ensure effective communication. It generally has a title,
abstract, introduction, materials and methods, results,
discussion, summary, and reference sections. The purpose of
writing the title at an early stage is to clarify the
author's aim and intentions. It accurately reflects the
content of the article. The title is the reader's first
encounter with the paper and so it
The abstract appears at the head of
should be informative.
the article. It is
valuable for the reader. It gives an idea about the whole
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article. The abstract, being brief and accurate, saves the
readers time and effort. Then, the scientist introduces what
he is going to do, how and why, the materials he is going to
use in his experiments and the methods applied to arrive at
his results. Finally, he discusses his results and arrives
at his findings and conclusions. This logical organization
in scientific writing is part of the scientific way of
thinking which is concise, accurate, factual, logical and
well-organised. This logical way of thinking is reflected in
the use of language.
Scientific discourse also employs non-verbal items like
charts, graphs, tables, signs, diagrams, and symbols to serve
several communicative functions:
a. These devices support the scientist's conclusions and
clarify his own thinking and communicate information.
A table or a figure is a unit of communication
completely informative by itself. It carries messages
clearly and shows data meaningfully. It also reveals
comparisons or changes.
b. Tables and figures describe an experiment and its
purpose in a highly abbreviated way.
c. Figures reveal trends arid relationships. Graphs can
present precise values. Tables and figures reveal
purpose and results at a glance. Each table has a
title. The title announces the purpose of the table.
It is indicative of the experimental design. Using
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non-verbal items, the scientist can economize on space by
eliminating repetition of words.
These i terns are dictated by the need for extreme
brevity, condensation and universality of the scientific way
of thinking which is reflected through the use of tables,
lines, curves, histograms, figures and symbols. Therefore,
it must be part of the language teacher's job to explain the
function of symbols and formulate in the text or give
practice in-transferring from the written to the spoken form
or vice versa. A student can also learn abbreviations
without much trouble. He has to translate them and should be
given opportunities to practice this skill during note-taking
exercises.
Linguistic Features of Discourse in Biological Sciences
We have carried out an analysis of vocabulary and
sentence patterns, types of sentences and clauses within the
sentence in English for biological science, with the help of
a corpus of 1659 words forming 19 paragraphs, one paragraph
from each section in the textbook, selected from one of the
biology texts written in English and studied in Arabic by
first- year biology students 1 namely "Biology Today" 1 by David
Kirk. The paragraphs were carefully selected on the basis of
content. They were taken mostly from the methodology section
of each chapter. We have not taken any paragraph from the
introductions because their content is not the characteristic
style of ES which we are analysing.
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Selected paragraphs from the translated version are
also analysed later to identify some of the issues and
problems in the translation of scientific texts into Arabic
(see Chapter Three). The main motive behind text analysis is
to make the ES course more relevant to biology students'
learning needs. The aim is to produce a syllabus which gives
high priority to the language forms biology students at a
given level meet in their science studies and, thereby, give
low priority to forms they do not come across. The English
version of the biological text (BT) studied by biology
students in Arabic will be analysed in an attempt to
establish the characteristics of English used in this text
and to see how it matches with the character is tics of ES.
The frequencies of occurrences and percentages of the
analysed lexical and syntactic categories are given in
tabular forms. This analysis can help us understand why
certain lexical and syntactic categories are most frequently
used in English for biological science.
2.2 Lexical Analysis
2.2.1 Content versus Function Words 1
The number of content words in the BT corpus 2 is 1127
{68%) and function words 532 (32%). The high frequency of
1. Content words include adjectives, nouns, verbs and adverbs. Function words include prepositions, articles, pronouns, conjunctions, and negative particles.
2. The text analysed is Biology Today by O.L. Kirk {1980).
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content words in BT is due to the fact that biologists
usually deal with concrete objects and substances.
2.2.2 Technical Terms:
The vocabulary of scientific English may include words
which are never used outside the subject or field in
question. In science, new terms are invented to define new
phenomena and to explain new things and processes. Each
scientific subject has its store of terms with precise,
narrow meanings. Examples of terms related to the field of
biology are, photosynthesis, phylum, chlorophyta, agents,
species, fertility, algae, vegetation, gametes, zygote,
vesicle, host, cyanobacteria. chlamedomonas.
The number of nouns in our BT is 600 (36%) of the total
number of words in the corpus. Only 143 ( 24%) of nouns,
specific to the subject matter of biology, are part of the
learning of the biology discipline itself. A biology student
studying let's say the circulation of blood will be
confronted with items such as atrium, ventricle, arteriole,
and venule. The students of biology already have the
knowledge of these terms in their native language (Arabic).
Therefore it is helpful if the ES teacher gives their meaning
in Arabic. The ES teacher has to cooperate with subject
teachers and to be prepared to familiarize himself with the
rudiments of the subject concerned.
2.2.3 Sub-Technical Terms
Sub-technical terms consist of those words which are
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/
not specific to a subject speciality but which occur
regularly in scientific and technical texts, e.g.,
reflection, tendency, isolation, and density. They form
about 457 (76%) of the total number of nouns in the BT
analysed. These will have priority in the language
programme. They are commonly met in general English but they
take a specialized meaning within a scientific and technical
context, e.g., cycle (its use in blood cycle).
2.2.4 Compounding
A biologist also uses compound nouns. This is related
to the way of scientific thinking because a scientist usually
tends to express his ideas accurately and in a brief
condensed way. So, instead of saying: transmission of virus
by seed; he will say virus seed transmission. Similarly, a
disease which is caused by a fungus is a fungus disease and a
tube used for performing tests is a test-tube.
In the biological text analysed, noun compounds formed
by combination with other parts of speech are 106 (18%) of
the total number of nouns in the corpus. The following types
of noun modification are found in the BT corpus:
i) Adj + N = 61 (57%), e.g.
Protective shell, productive system, cellular level.
organizational ladder, green algae, endocytic vesicle,
contractible cells, parastic fungi.
10% of these are adjectivals formed
addition of ing form (verbal Noun) + N, e.g.,
cells, living cells, living things, dividing
staining prooerties.
by the
resting
lines.
iii)
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ii) N + ING + N = 2 (2%), e.g.,
life-saving antibiotics, disease-causing bacteria.
N + N = 30 (28%), e.g.,
life-cycle, cell wall, cell shape, kingdom plantae,
carbon cycle, iron pipes, body plan, host organism,
host species, mantle cavity, Hydrogen atoms, energy
level, sodium-ions, salt crystal, plasma memberance,
electron-pair.
iv) Adj. + N + N = 2 (2%), e.g.,
fresh-water environment, exposed sodium ions.
v) Adj. +Adj. + N = 2 (2%), e.g.,
microscopic unicellular forms, characteristic molliscan
features.
vi) Adj. +Adj. (- ed form) + N = 2 (2%), e.g.,
negatively charged ends, highly organized organelles.
vii) N + N + N = 4 (4%), e.g.,
sodium Chlorine ions, energy-level needs, life support
system, electron-configuration model.
2.2.5 Adjectives:
Adjectives constitute 237 (14%) of vocabulary in the
biological text analysed. A biologist, like any other
scientist, usually uses adjectives for describing things to
indicate their shapes, measurements, properties, qualities or
conditions, e.g., round, sguare, long, short, heavy, light,
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rough, smooth, dry and wet. In science adjectives are not
used for decoration and ornament because a scientist is
usually objective and not subjective in his thinking. This
is reflected through the use of his words which are largely
influenced by his main concern to give a clear, accurate and
a precise description of his subject matter. He uses his
words as tools for exact and logical communication. A
scientist is not influenced by literary sophistication,
figurative language, or his feelings and emotions at the
moment. He prefers to describe a colour by stating its
wavelengths and intensities. He accepts as facts only
impersonal, objective statements about things which can be
seen by any observer, e.g.,
green vain, yellow spots, red algae, flexible
particles, heal thy plants, obvious effect,
cylindrical and curved shapes.
The past participle of the verb may function as an
adjectival to qualify a noun and add more information to it
in a descriptive manner, e.g.,
mottled seeds, inflected plants, exposed cloride
ions, charged ends.
Adjectives usually contribute to the clarity of subject
matter. They modify and add information to the noun that
follows, e.g., parastic nitro-organism, organic material.
This condensed way of modification is used for the purpose of
brevity, accuracy and consciseness. Sciences, including
biological science, usually deal with names of different
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elements and substances. They are usually concerned with
matter, objects and names of scientific concepts like
intensity and processes like germination and transmission.
Proper nouns are also used in scientific texts to refer to
previous works done by researchers and scientists, e.g.,
(Smith, 1972), and (Ross, 1980}. Some of the nouns in
scientific English are derived from Greek, Latin or Arabic,
e.g. '
Oxygen, Hydrogen (Greek)
Carbon, Molecule (Latin)
Alkali (Arabic)
and since science is in a continual process of development,
new expressions are constantly being invented from the
available words for the purpose of communication, e.g., test
tube from test and tube.
2.2.6 Verbs
The total number of verbs in the biological text
analysed is 211 ( 13%) of the total number of vocabulary in
the corpus. In the biological text analysed, the present
tense forms 78% (165) of the verb tenses in the corpus. 71%
(85) of the main verbs and 88% (80) of the auxiliary verbs in
the biological text are in the present tense. This shows
that most of the verbs used in biological discourse are in
the present tense because biologists, like other scientists,
usually deal with universal statements which are believed to
be true at all times and in all places, e.g.,
Root hairs absorb water and minerals from the soil.
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The verbs react, spoil, corrode, produce, occur, form, takes
place are used in the ES and biological science in particular
statements of function, process, and course of action to
express facts and habitual actions. The verb to be forms are
81% (74) of the auxiliary verbs in the biological text
analysed. The present form of the verb to be (is, are) is
found in sentences that state the laws of science, e.g.,
"stress is proportional to strain". Only 19% (17) of the
verbs in BT are modal auxiliaries. The total number of verbs
in the past tense is 11% (22) of the tenses in the BT corpus.
9% (11) of the main verbs and 12% (11) of the auxiliary verbs
are in the past. They are used when the BT text reviews
previous works experimented in the past, or to report events
and processes. 6% ( 13) of the verbs in . BT may emphasize
activity in progress which is expressed in the continuous
form of the verb. The following table summarizes the
frequencies of verb tenses in the BT analysed.
Table 1 : Verb Tenses in the Text Analysed (BT)
Verb Tenses
Present
Past
Continuous
Perfect
Future
Imperative (instruction)
Ma1n Verbs No. %
85 71
11 9
13 11
5 4
4 3
2 2
100 100
Aux. Verbs Total No. % No. %
80 88 165 78
11 12 22 11
13 6
5 2
4 2
2 1
91 100 21 100
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We find greater precision in ES because the proper use
of a verb forces the writer to specify the subject and the
object unequivocally. Verbs can be classified into stative
and dynamic. A stative verb is a verb showing state of being
rather than an action, while a dynamic verb is a verb
denoting doing or action rather than state or being. Dynamic
verbs are more frequently used in biological texts because a
biologist, as a scientist, is usually concerned with actions
and processes in his work.
Verbs also can be either transitive or intransitive.
Intransitive verbs are used more frequently than transitive
verbs in the text (BT} analysed. It is often expected that
transitive verbs are more frequent in ES because science
usually deals with actions. Yet, the level of writing in BT
comes to influence the occurrence of these verbs. This is
also due to the high frequency of linking verbs in BT which
do not need the use of objects but complements. Linking
verbs usually indicate a change from one quality to another,
and show the biologist's concern with existence. Table-2
shows the frequency of stativejdynamic and
transitive/intransitive verbs in BT.
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Table - 2: Stative/Dynamic and Transitive/ Intransitive Verbs in BT
Verbs No. ~ 0
Transitive 72 34
Intransitive 139 66
-------------------------------------------------------------Dynamic 120 57
Stative 91 43
-------------------------------------------------------------2.2.7 Adverbs:
Adverbs of Times form 32% (25) of the total number of
adverbs in the BT corpus. They are first in rank among other
adverbs in a BT because biologists, like other scientists,
usually do their work within the limitation of time. So,
time is very important for them, e.g. "After the seed is
provided with water, warmth, and air, it starts to
germinate". Frequently used adverbs of time in BT corpus
are: always, whenever, sometimes, later, as soon as, while,
shortly and spontaneously. This is unlike social sciences
which are more concerned with events, actions, days, months,
years and centuries. However, variation in frequency of
adverbs among scientific disciplines is expected and it may
be due to the type of language used a product of the
content.
Adverbs of Manner are second in rank among adverbs in
the BT analysed. They form 27% (21) of the total percentage
of adverbs. A biologist uses manner adverbs because he is
usually concerned with how things happen and in what form
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they exist. Moreover, in scientific enquiry one must be able
to observe and describe accurately. "Oeser iption here
entails: (a} sensory perception; ( b} experiments,
activities, events; (c) characteristics, habits, behaviour,
(d) processes" (Cooper: 1974}. Examples are:
Agents enter the vascular system directly.
These variations would clearly seem to form
genuine causes.
Most frequently used manner adverbs in the BT corpus are:
effectively, normally, efficiently, negatively, positively,
quickly and carefully.
Adverbs of Degree form 15% (12} of the total percentage
of adverbs in BT. Their use in scientific English is to
provide accurate measurements of matter and its properties in
quantitative terms according to length, width, volume,
density and temperature. This requires the use of degree
adverbs, e.g.,
These processes generally operate extremely slowly.
The cavity may be greatly enhanced by agents.
Almost all the drug is excreted in the urine.
The following table summarizes the frequency of adverbs in
the given BT. (Table-3}.
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Table 3: Frequency of Adverbs in the BT
Adverbs No. % -------------------------------------------------------------Time 25 32
Manner 21 27
Degree 12 15
Place 9 11
Restrictive 8 10
Certainty 3 4
Attitude 1 1
Total 79 100 -------------------------------------------------------------2.2.8 Pronouns:
The total number of pronouns is 6% (95) of the total
number of words in the BT corpus. The most frequently used
among them are the personal pronouns (30%). The pronoun X is
not used because in scientific writing the personality of the
writer is not shown. The use of the pronoun we also shows
that the scientist is objective and impersonal in his
writing. In ES, the pronoun it can be repeated for the
purpose of emphasis. It may, however, be also used to avoid
repetition, e.g.,
The plant begins to grow to its full size.
When it is rna ture enough, it flowers.
Personal pronouns most frequently used in the BT corpus
are: they ( 6) , he ( 1) , we ( 12) , them ( 2) , and it ( 6) .
Demonstrative Pronouns form 18% (17) of the pronouns used in
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the BT analysed to refer to something already mentioned and
so serve to relate one statement to another, e.g.,
Sometimes seeds are dried at a temperature which is too
high. This has two effects:
The word this is a discourse marker which refers to "too high
temperature". It is used to avoid repetition. The total
number of possessive pronouns is 14% (13). Most frequently
used possessive pronouns are: his ( 4) , their ( 6) , and our
(3). Relative pronouns form 38% (36) of the total number of
pronouns. The frequencies and percentages of pronouns used
in the BT corpus are as follows:
Personal Possessie Demonstrative Relatives
30% (29) 14% (13) 18% (17) 38% (36)
2.2.9 Linking Items
The total number of linking devices in the BT corpus is
6% (91). Relatives (36) were counted with pronouns. If they
are counted with the connectives the percentage of linking
words will be 7%. Connectives are used in biological science
materials to express the logical sequence of actions and
processes. "They are useful in more complex scientific and
technical writing, and play an important role in the
organization of scientific discussions in written English"
(Swales:
according
1971: 125). They
to the notions or
can be grouped into classes
functions they convey in ES.
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Such classes are ·explicit indicators of the communicative
function of sentences. Besides, "conjunctions act as style
markers. Some individual conjuncts seem to be restricted to
particular varieties of lanuage or occur more commonly in
these varieties" (Greenbaum: 1970: 80}. Conjuncts are
required to connect ideas, processes and actions in a logical
way in every good piece of writing. In science the
organization of writing is very carefuly guided. The
previous statement is logically related to the following one.
The relations between statements in scientific discourse can
be that of summation, contrast, result, cause, similarity,
exemplification and addition, e.g.,
Most plants are antotrophic but the fungi are
heterotrophic. (contrast)
Most species of Euglena are photosynthetic. However,
all species in the genus need to take in at least an
organic substance (contrast).
After describing the complex nutritional possibilities in the
genus Euglena, we can summarize the fact by saying:
Thus, Euglena shows both plant and animal
nutritional characteristics.
The floor of the mouth is lowered and therefore the
volume of the bucca-pharyngeal cavity increases
(result).
Plants can photosynthesize because they possess
chlorophyll. (cause, explanation)
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Like many insects, mosquitos are liquid feeders.
(similarity)
If dry seeds are planted in a dry soil, for example,
they will not germinate until it rains. (exemplification).
Table 4: Frequency of Linking Devices
Concepts No. %
Result 5 5.50
Contrast 15 16.48
Cause 8 8.80
Comparison 7 7.69
Addition 5 5.50
Exemplification 5 5.50
condition 3 3.29
Similarity 3 3.29
Coordination (and) 40 43.95
Total 91 100.00
2.2.10 Prepositions:
Prepositions form 10% ( 162) of the words in the BT .
corpus. They do not acquire specific meaning in biological
English. However, in ES they are used to express clearly
defined relationships in space between one object and
another, or direction of movement in space or time, e.g. ,
from (5), between (4), at (3}, in (36}, into (12}, on (2},
through ( 1) , outside ( 1) , for ( 5) , towards ( 2) , by ( 9) , to
(14), with (4), of (66}.
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v 2.3.11 Definite Vs. Indefinite Article:
The definite article is more frequently used in BT than
the indefinite. This may be due to the fact that a
biologist, as a scientist, usually tends to define his terms
for the sake of clarity and certainty. The occurrence of the
definite article is 70% (122) compared to 30% (51) of the
indefinite article. 25% (43) are indefinite articles 'a' and
only 5% (8) are 'an' occurrences.
Table 5 summarizes the frequency of vocabulary in the
BT analysed with their percentages and rank order.
Table 5: Frequency of Vocabulary in BT
Types of Vocabulary No. % Rank
Nouns 600 36 1
Adjectives 237 14 2
Verbs 211 13 3
Articles 173 10 4
Prepositions 162 10 5
Pronouns 95 6 6
Conjuncts 91 5 7
Adverbs 79 5 8
Negative Particles 11 1 9
Total 1659 100
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2.3 Word Formation:
Affixation:
Suffixes are more frequently used in BT than prefixes.
Suffixes form 92% (406) while prefixes form a merely 8% (37).
Some technical terms in the BT are formed by adding a
prefix to a word root, e.g.,
form - deform, organic - inorganic, plastic -
thermoplastic
The prefixes are useful in making new technical
vocabulary and in the extension of existing ones. In ES,
they are mostly added to words of Greek and Latin origin,
e.g. '
mono-single
poly-many
dermat-skin
monolayer, monochrome
2Qlyvalent, QQlycycle
dermatitis (inflamation of the skin)
The following prefixes are most frequently used in the BT
text with their occurrences. They are used to form nouns:
endo (2}, photo (7), macro (1}, re (1}, non (4), chloro
(1), micro (2}, pino (1), eco (1), cyano (1}, para (1},
di (3), Total 26.
Some prefixes are used to form adjectives:
non ( 1) , auto ( 1) 1 in (1), un (3} 1 rilis (1) 1 di (1),
endo (1}. Total 9.
Others are used to form verbs:
re ( 1}
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Suffixes are used in the BT to form nouns, adjectives,
and verbs: The total number of noun forming - suffixes is 44%
( 180) . The following are the most frequently used nouns
forming suffixes with their frequencies:
-s (pl.) (110), -ia 1 a (9) 1 -urn (2) 1 -tion (19);
-ness (1) 1 -sion (3) 1 -ity (8), -ist (1},
-ship (1) 1 -ary (1) 1 -th (1), -ient (1),
-ance (4). Total 180.
Adjectives Forming Suffixes form 29% (119} of the total
number of suffixes. Most frequently used suffixes to form
adjectives in BT analysed are:
-ous (6} 1 -ing (13} 1 -ible (2} 1 -ed (22},
-ant (7) 1 -ent (1), -ar (8) 1 -al (22),
-less (1); -ic (12} 1 -cal (2), -er (6),
-ful (2) 1 -able (5} 1 -ian (2}, -ive (5),
-ior (i) 1 -ry (2}. Total 119.
Adverb Forming suffixes are:
-ly (33}, -wards (2). Total 35.
Verbs Forming Suffixes form 72 (18%) of the total number of
suffixes, e.g.,
-ed (past passive) 39; -ing 13, -s 17,
-ize 3. Total 72.
It can be useful, therefore, for a biology student to
guess the meaning of a word by using his knowledge of the
meaning of a prefix or a suffix. There is, however, the
problem of overgeneralization. Having learnt that pre-means
before, the student may apply the rule to inappropriate
examples.
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2.4 syntax
2.4.1 Sentence Patterns:
Grammar may be used in specific ways in scientific
texts. We must look beyond the grammatical level to see the
function of structure in the text. A Sentence could be
performing an act of definition, classification,
generalization, drawing results and conclusions,. and
hypothesising. The biology student, therefore, has to be
taught how to produce the appropriate form to express a
particular function, and how different functions are linked
together in a text to form larger units (see linking devices,
p.54). It is also important to analyse the sentence patterns
most frequently used in the BT analysed (see Table 6 below).
Table 6: Dominant Sentence Patterns in BT
Sentence Patterns
s v
s v c
s v 0
s v 0 c
Total
No.
5
134
48
24
211
2.4.2 Sentences Classified by Clauses:
%
2
64
23
11
100
Sentences can be classified into simple, compound,
complex and complex compound. Simple sentences form 40% (42)
in the BT corpus, e.g.,
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A few red algae and an even smaller number of brown
algae have been moderately successful in fresh water.
(Para. 5. s. 1)
A few green algae have succeeded in the sea.
(Para 5.S.3)
Compound sentences in the BT corpus are 10% (11). For
example,
Movement must be ensured by contractile cells, and some
sort of mechanism must exist for coordinating the
activities of the tentacles, mouth, and column. (Para
10.S.2).
Complex sentences in the BT corpus are 40% (42) of the
total number of sentences. However, if we follow Leech's
(1983) classification of the sentences into simple, compound
and complex; and consider the compound-com~lex sentences as
complex sentences only, the total number of complex sentences
in our corpus is 49.52% (52). In this case, complex
sentences are the most frequently used, e.g.,
It is easiest to visualize the common organizational
plan of the diverse mollusc group if we start with a
hypothetical mollusc. (Para 11.S.1).
Compound-complex· sentences are 9. 52% ( 10) .
for example,
consider
Solar energy flows into the cycle continuously to keep
it running, and part of the trapped solar energy is
released at each stage of the cycle in a form that can
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be used to do cellular work. (Para 17.8.3).
2.4.3 Loose, Periodic and Balanced Sentences:
In a loose sentence the main clause comes first and is
followed by its dependent clauses. Loose sentences in the BT
corpus are 54% (28} of the total number of complex sentences,
e.g. '
Each hydrogen atom acts as though its energy-level
needs were satisfied. (Para 13.8.6).
Periodic sentences, that is, sentences in which the main
clause occurs at the end are 46% (24), e.g.,
If a diverse condition persists, the zygote becomes an
inactive, resting cell that waits for better times.
(Para 6. S. 5) .
A balanced sentence is one which consists of sentences of
similar construction and meaning placed side by side,
balancing each other. Our corpus does not have any balanced
sentences.
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Table 7: Frequency of Sentence Types
Sentences No. ~ 0
Simple 42 40
Compound 11 10.48
Complex 42 40
Compound-Complex 1.0 9.52
Loose 28 54
Periodic 24 46
Balanced
2.4.4. Kinds of Sentences:
Sentences may be divided into statements (or
declarative sentences), questions (or interrogative
Table 8: Frequency of Declarative, Interrogative, Imperative and Exclamatory Sentences in the Corpus
Sentences No. %
1. Declarative
a. Affirmative 92 87
b. Negative 9 9
2 • Interrogative
a. Yes, No 1 1
b. WH
3. Imperative 3 3
4. Exclamatory
Total 105 100
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sentences), commands (or imperative), or (exclamatory
sentences) . The above table shows the frequency of these
sentences in the corpus.
The high frequency of affirmative sentences can be
attributed to the fact that a biologist tends to declare
positively the truth of his statements and makes the
scientific facts clearly known. However, a scientist
sometimes needs to negate his statements, and sometimes to
give instructions using the imperative construction. Though,
this construction is not used for command or request but for
drawing the readers attention to consider, note, and think
about particular scientific processes and phenomenon, e.g.,
Consider what happens when you drop a crystal of table
salt into water. (Para 15.5.1)
Note that particulars absorbed by endocytosis never
actually pass through the memberance at all. (Para 16.5.2
2.4.5 Subordinate/Dependent Clauses
Subordinate clauses can be classified into nominal,
adjectival, and adverbial clauses. The following table shows
that adverbial clauses are the most frequently used among
other types of clauses:
65
Table 9: Frequency of Subordinate Clauses in the BT Corpus
Clauses No. ~ 0
1. Nominal 14 21
2 . Adjectival 16 24
3 . Adverbial 37 55
3.1 Manner 6 16
3.2 Comparison 3 8
3.3 Time 10 27
3.4 Reason 7 19
3.5 Condition 5 14
3.6 Contrast 4 11
3.7 Result 2 5
Total 67 100
The above table shows that adverbial clauses of time,
reason, and manner are most frequently used in the text
analysed because the biologist is usually concerned with what
happend to things, why, how, and at what time.
2.4.6 Shifted (Deviant) Order:
The SPO I CIA 1 order is the unmarked order, i.e. the
natural order that is used when there is no reason to use
some other order. Whereas the 0/C/ASP order is marked, the
marked or derived order is often the less frequent one, and
1. s Subject A Adverb
P Predicate 0 Object C Complement
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one which is stylistically more noticeable.
found in the text analysed are:
Ellipsis:
Marked forms
Ellipsis is used to avoid repetition of words and
structure used elsewhere in the context. It includes the
omission of the relative pronoun which. This kind of
ommission forms 13% (14) of the total number of shifted
orders, e.g.,
The wall covering the visceral mass is called the
mantle. (Para 11.8.4)
The mantle produces the protective shell found in many
molluscs. (Para 11.8.5)
and the omission of the verb "are": 2 examples ( 2%) of this
kind of omission were found in the text analysed, e.g.,
Some bacteria are spherical (cocci), some cylindrical
(rods), and some curved (spirilla). (Para 4.S.3).
Parentheses, dashes, brackets, and commas are used in the BT
analysed to show discontinuity of discourse and to set off
independent clauses from the rest of the sentence. The total
occurrence of sentences used between brackets and commas is
18% (20), 6% (6) of the sentences were used inside brackets,
4% (4) were conjuncts between commas, and 9% (10) were
examples of reference to tables, figures and diagrams, e.g.,
But by and large, the 7, 000 species of green algae
(phylum chlorophyta) have been most successful in, and are
67
the dominant vegetation of, fresh-water environment. (Para
5.8.4)
The use of sentences between brackets and commas in the
above examples is due to the condensation, accuracy and
precision of scientific ideas.
Adverbs used before the verb form 21% (23) of the total
number of deviant orders, e.g.,
The parasitic fungi effectively use the life-support
systems of the host organisms to obtain water and
nutrients. (Para 8.S.1)
Adverbs used before the adjectives form 2% (2) of the total
number of deviant orders in the biological text analysed,
e.g. '
... the mycelia have few adaptations for survival under
truly dry conditions. (Para 7.S.3).
The use of nouns before the adjectives is 1% (1), e.g.,
Surely that was proof enough. (Para 1.8.4).
The use of "even" for restriction is 4% (4), e.g.,
A few red algae and an even smaller number of brown
algae have been moderately successful in fresh-water.
(Para 5.8.1)
Besides, 2 examples (2%) of non-restrictive embedded clauses
were used in the text analysed, e.g.,
Development of ascorcarps and basidiocarps, which
68
represent the most complex forms of structural
organization in fungi, was probably favoured by natural
selection ... (Para 7.P.136)
Phrases at the beginning of the sentences are used for
emphasis. Adverbial phrases of time are most frequently used
among other types of phrases (see Table 10).
Table 10:
Phrases
Time
Place
Degree
Means
Result
Addition
Frequency of the Phrases used Initially in the Text Analysed
No. %
7 33
5 23
3 14
1 5
2 10
2 10
Exemplification 1 5
Total 21 100
Negative adjunct is used to open the sentence, e.g.,
Not all combinations of atoms will form ions of ionic
compound.
Clauses are used at the beginning of the sentence for
emphasis. Table 11 shows that adverbial clauses of time are
most frequently used in this position.
69
Table 11: Frequency of Clauses Used Initially
Clauses No. %
Time 7 35
Condition 2 10
Cause 2 10
Manner 4 20
Contrast 4 20
Comparison 1 5
Total 20 100
Table 12 summarizes the frequency of shifted orders in ,
the biological text analysed.
Deviant Order No. %
1.0 Omission
1.1 Omission of the relative 14 13 pronoun "which"
1.2 Omission of the verb "are" 2 2
2.0 Discontinuity
2.1 The use of parenthesis, dashes, brackets and 20 18 commas
2.2 Adverb before the main 23 18 verb
2.3 Adverb before the adjective 2 2
2.4 Noun before the adjective 1 1
2.5 Even for restriction 4 3
70
Deviant Order
2.6
3.0
4.0
5.0
2.4.7
Non-restrictive embedded clauses
The use of prepositional phrases at the beginning of the sentences
Negative adjunct opens the sentence
The use of adverbial clauses initially in the sentence
Passive vs. Active Construction
No. %
2 2
21 19
1 1
20 18
It is often said that the passive is more frequently
used in ES than the active form. This is because science is
constantly concerned with impersonal activity seen
objectively. However, the biology text, uses the active
(71%) more frequently than the passive. Only 29% (50) of the
verbs in the BT are in the passive form. Apparently, the use
of the active vis-a-vis the passive depends on the level of
writing. In our case the corpus is taken from a textbook
intended for first year biology students. Examples of the
passive construction are:
The fertility of the soil seeds were produced only infection.
is improved. as a result
Mottled of virus
In our BT, sometimes the agent is mentioned {10%). The most
common agents which occur in scientific English writing are
those which tell about the means, methods, and ways of doing
things; e.g.
71
The fertilizer can be distributed by hand. The reaction is helped by using a catalyst.
The occurrence of the passive construction is 25% (53)
compared to 75% (158) of the active construcition.
Scholars and researchers have believed that the passive
is more frequently used than the active. The intention
behind this usage is to make a description impersonal without
an agent being expressed. However, the over use of complex
passive sentences in scientific writing has attracted
considerable critic ism in recent years, and there is now a
marked tendency to avoid them" (Crystal: 1987: 380).
Therefore, it seems that the weight of traditional usage of
the passive is easy to reduce. The abstract, introduction
and results sections prefer the use of active constructions
while in the methods section more passive constructions are
used. This shows that the active is used for clarity and
simplicity as we find in the students textbooks, or as in the
introduction and discussion of results, while the passive is
used in more complex, condensed and specific scientific
writing.
There is no grammatical or discourse structure that can
be identified specifically with biology. There are only two
areas in which the subject influences the language content
viz. , technical vocabulary and a higher proportion of
particular grammatical or structural forms, such as a high
percentage of nominal compounds. When the students enter the
department of biology they find difficulty in the
72
comprehension of the English language text. Besides, this
text is not related to their subject of specialization.
Register analysis, therefore, is important in language
teaching because many people do have an occupational purpose
in learning a foreign language. The older a learner is the
more likely it is that he knows why he is learning and that
the language is needed to help him in his job. The teaching
of English has often been explicitly given for making
scientific information more accessible.
The description of language used by scientists in all
aspects of their work would contain information on the
vocabulary and grammar used in popular and learned articles,
in research proposals, abstracts and even in actual conduct
of research. We can apply this description to the particular
needs of any group of scientific learners. In case of our
group, it consists of students being taught science in their
mother-tongue, but needing access to work reported in English
used for scientific writing. They have to listen to lectures
in English, take notes, and participate in class discussion.
Besides, they need to develop the ability to comprehend the
language of learned articles and abstracts.
is not only restricted to the written
Their knowledge
language. The
vocabulary content may not always need to be technical since
some lexical items might be identifiable with cognate words
in the mother tongue. They would, however, need to be taught
the "operational" (non-technical i terns) vocabulary (Wilkins:
1975: 138). Their major source of information is textbooks.
They will be required to conduct practical work in English
73
and write reports. Their ability has to be productive and
receptive, written and to a lesser extent spoken. Technical
vocabulary may be acquired through the learning of the
subject itself and vocabulary teaching has to concentrate on
non-technical vocabulary.
In teaching non-technical vocabulary, exercises may be
devised to try to exploit the relationships between words.
Students, therefore, need to build up their vocabulary in the
area of their specialism (biology) to enable them to benefit
from their training. It is dangerous to assume that
vocabulary will take care of itself. Moreover, "any analysis
of needs should have as its central point the type of English
which it will be necessary to teach if the learner is to
achieve his purpose. The learner may need to be taught a
certain vocabulary, specific forms and functions, and how
these functions interrelate to produce coherent texts"
(Kennedy and Bolitho: 1984: 18).
English for Science (ES) uses the same structures as
any other kind of English but with a different distributional
pattern. There is, for example, a tendency to use more
complex nominal groups. Also there are no occurrences of
question tag-forms. Vocabulary should be developed along with
other skills that biology students need. The ES teacher may
be unable to understand the vocabulary required by his
students. Biology students, however, believe that language
equals words and that the acquisition of a specialist
vocabulary alone will suffice to gain access to the knowledge
they require.
74
In this chapter we have underlined some of the
features of ES so that ES teacher and biology students can
concentrate on the most relevant ones. ES has certain
distinct characteristics with regard to vocabulary and
syntax; and morphology plays an important part in it. (see
R.A. Close: 1966: 5). But to characterize ES in this way is
to treat scientific discourse merely as exemplification of
the language system, and does little or nothing to indicate
what kind of communication it is (C.J. Brumfit and K.
Johnson: 1981: 125). Thus, language should be presented in
such a way as to reveal its character as communication.
However, we should not deny the utility of register analysis
which has been accepted by researchers since long. The most
frequently used grammatical items in the text analysed are:
Content words vs. function words; sub-technical terms
vs. technical terms, present simple tense vs. other tenses,
dynamic vs. stative verbs; intransitive vs. transitive verbs;
adverbs of time, manner and degree vs. other types of
adverbs; relative pronouns vs. personal, possessive and
demonstrative pronouns; coordinators vs. other liking
devices; definite vs. idefinite articles; nouns, adjectives
and verbs vs. other parts of speech; svc vs. other sentence
patterns; simple and complex vs. compound and compound
complex sentences; affirmative vs. imperative, interrogative
and exclamatory sentences, adverbial clauses vs. nominal and
adjectival clauses. The use of adverbs before the main verbs
is more frequent among shifted orders.