Chapter II BUDDHIST LITERATURE -...
Transcript of Chapter II BUDDHIST LITERATURE -...
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Chapter II
BUDDHIST LITERATURE
II.1. Preliminary Remarks
This chapter offers a brief account of the nature and growth of early
Buddhist literature and in particular gives a sketch of early Buddhist
literature and Mahāyāna literature. There are six broad sections in this
chapter with a number of sub-sections in each section. The first section
offers an introduction to this chapter with few preliminary remarks. The
second section gives a synoptic review of the proceedings of the first
four Buddhist Councils. In the first three Buddhist Councils, the
Tipiṭaka memorized more presents as the authentic text of the Buddhist
savings and teachings during His wandering for the forty-five years of
his life after the Buddha became the Enlightened One. The third section
deals with the language or languages used for the Buddhist texts. The
fourth section offers a short survey of the early Buddhist literature
which consists of Nikāya and five Āgamas. The fifth section is devoted
to the discussion of Mahāyāna literature and briefly introduces
Mahāyāna Sūtras. The second sub-section of the fifth section offers a
brief outline of the eleven Mahāyāna Sūtras which are of significance in
the contextual framework of the present study. These four sections of
the second chapter have offered the necessary detailed information
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Buddhist literature relevant to the present study. The six section give a
synoptic summing up of the contents of the second chapter.
II.2. BUDDHIST COUNCILS
There are several assemblies convened in the past twenty-five centuries
after the death of the Buddha to recite the approved texts of the Buddhist
scriptures and to settle doctrinal disputes. There is a very little reliable
evidence of the historicity of the councils, and not all councils are
recognized by all the traditions.
After the Buddha's Nirvāṇa, all His teachings were recited fully
in the First Buddhist Council. Then there are the numbers of other
Buddhist Councils to confirm the integrity of the Buddha’s Teachings
and the expressed views in specific periods. The Buddhist Councils are
the basis for reserved teachings of the Buddha.
During the life of the Buddha, he taught directly to sentient
beings to practice and attain enlightenment. All measures of the
Teaching of the Buddha were remembered by Elder Ānanda, a trusted
attendant of the Buddha. The sermons preached but not heard by
monastic Ānanda, were fully recited by the Buddha to Ānanda for him
to memorise. Ānanda was the guardian of dharma.12 Therefore, Ānanda
preserved the treasure of the teachings of the Buddha in their fullness in
his memory.13 That is sūtra.
As for the Vinaya, Thera Upāli memorized all the rules devised
for the Saṃgha by the Buddha. Upāli is one of the ten chief disciples of
the Buddha. He was the foremost disciple on the account of his learning
the rules of the order (śīla). The whole sūtra were recited by Ānanda, all
of Vinaya was recited by Upāli in the First Buddhist Council. After that, 12 Nyanaponika & Hellmuth Hecker, Great Disciples of the Buddha, p. 137. 13 Nyanaponika & Hellmuth Hecker, Great Disciples of the Buddha, p. 138-179.
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the five hundred of Arhant Bhikkhus, who attended this Council,
memorized and recited them for others.
Thus, the Buddha’s Teachings were passed on from generations
to generations by word of mouth and memory. After a period of several
generations, around 500-600 years since the Buddha's Nirvāṇa, in the
fifth century BC to the first century BC in the Fourth Buddhist Council.
The Buddha’s Sūtra teachings were written down in script and are
preserved in the same format until now.
During this long period, erroneousness crept into the Teaching of
the Buddha. The original teaching was certainly not going to be
retained. That is why, from the First to the Second Buddhist Council, the
Saṃgha was divided and formations of new schools with different views
commenced. The original scriptures are no longer available; instead,
there are certain discrepancies in the school of Buddhism. In spite of all
the differences in the Buddhist Councils, the Buddhist scriptures is the
one way system through which the three treasures of Tipiṭaka are
preserved until today. Of the many Buddhist Councils, the most notable
are the Four Councils, which are mentioned below:
II.2.1. The First Buddhist Council
According to the scriptures of all Buddhist schools, the first Buddhist
Council was held soon after the Buddha’s Nirvāṇa, dated by the
majority of recent scholars around 400 BC, under the patronage of King
Ajātaśatru with the Elder Mahākāśyapa presiding, at Sattapanni caves
in Rājagaha (now called Rajgir - Bihar)
The First Buddhist Council (Saṅgīti) is said to have taken place
during the first rainy season three months after the Buddha’s Nirvāṇa.
Compilations were made of vinaya (monastic discipline), under the
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direction of the Elder Upāli, and of the sūtras, under the direction of the
disciple Ānanda. The entire assembly of 500 monks then recited the
approved texts. It is accepted by critical scholarship that the first council
settled the Dharma and the Vinaya and there is no ground for the view
that the Abhidhamma formed part of the canon adopted there.
The teachings that had been agreed upon at the First Buddhist
Council were carried away from Rājagaha in the memorized form to
various places, where the scattered Saṅgha had become established.
Then, the translation of these texts from the common language of
Rājagaha, which possibly was Māgadhi, into the various local
languages was done. Those who were absent at the Council, reserved the
preference to decline the parts of the canon they saw fit and present their
own versions of the Master's teachings. This liberal environment
allowed the development of various forms of discipline, religious
practice and philosophical interpretation indicating the Buddha as the
originator.
II.2.2. The Second Buddhist Council
The Second Buddhist Council (Mahāsaṅgīti) was held at Vaisali a
century after the passing of the Buddha. The time recorded should be
taken as a round number. It is recorded in the Cullavagga that the monks
of the Vajji country were in the habit of practicing the Ten Points (dasa
vatthuni)14 which were regarded as unorthodox by Elder Yasa, the son
of Kakandaka. Elder Yasa declared these practices to be illegal and
immoral in the extreme.15
14 Siṅgiloṇakappa, dvaṅgulakappa, gāmantarakappa, āvāsakappa, anumatikappa, āciṇṇakāppa,
amathikakappa, jalogiṃ-pātuṃ, adasakaṃ-nisidanaṃ, jātarūparajataṃ 15 These Ten Points were: (1) The practice of carrying salt in a horn for use when needed. (2) The
practice of taking food after midday. (3) The practice of going to a neighboring village and taking a second meal the same day (the offence of overeating). (4) The observance of Uposothas in different
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The Vajjian monks, however, pronounced the penalty of
paṭisāraṇīya-kamma upon him. This necessitated the offender's
apologizing to the laity who had been forbidden by Elder Yasa to carry
out the precepts of the Vajjian monks.
Elder Yasa defended his own view before the laity and by his
eloquent advocacy won them over to his side. This increased the fury of
the offending monks who pronounced the punishment of ukkhepanīya-
kamma upon him, which meant his virtual expulsion from the
Brotherhood. Elder Yasa openly declared these practices to be unlawful.
Wishing to settle the matter, he gathered support from monks of
other regions, mainly the west and south. Elder Revata suggested that
they would settle the dispute at the place of its origin. Thus, a group of
Bhikṣus consented to go to Vesāli to settle the matter. After considerable
manoeuvering, a meeting was held, attended by 700 monks. A council
of eight was appointed to consider the matter. This consisted of four
locals and four 'westerners'; but some of the locals had already been
secretly won over to the westerners' case. Each of the ten points was
referred to various canonical precedents. They presented this finding to
the assembly, who consented unanimously. The canonical accounts end
there.
Therefore, the Second Buddhist Council made the unanimous
decision not to relax any of the rules, and censured the behavior of the
monks, who were accused of violating the ten points. A majority of the
council voted against the Vaiśālī rules, whereupon the defeated minority
of monks withdrew and formed the Mahāsaṅghika School.
places within the same parish. (5) The practice of performing an ecclesiastical act and obtaining its sanction afterwards. (6) The practice of using customary practices as precedents. (7) The practice of drinking milk whey after meals. (8) The drinking of fermented palm juice that is not yet toddy. (9) The use of a borderless sheet for sitting. (10) The acceptance of gold or silver.
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II.2.3. The Third Buddhist Council
Third Buddhist council was convened in about 250 BC at Asokarama in
Pataliputra, supposedly under the patronage of Emperor Asoka. A grave
question mark hangs over this though as Asoka never mentioned it in his
edicts, which one might have expected if he had called the council.
The traditional reason for convening the Third Buddhist Council
is reported to have been to rid the Saṃgha of corruption and bogus
monks who held heretical views. It was presided over by the Elder
Moggaliputta-Tissa and one thousand monks participated in the
Council. The council is recognized and known to both the Theravāda
and Mahāyāna schools, though its importance is central only to the
Theravāda school.1 Tradition has it that Asoka had won his throne
through shedding the blood of his entire father's sons except his own
brother, Tissa Kumara, who eventually got ordained and achieved
Arahantship.
Thera Moggaliputta-Tissa headed the proceedings and chose one
thousand monks from the sixty thousand participants for the traditional
recitation of the Dharma and the Vinaya, which went on for nine
months. The Emperor, himself questioned monks from a number of
monasteries about the teachings of the Buddha. Those who held wrong
views were exposed and expelled from the Saṃgha immediately. In this
way the Bhikṣu Saṃgha was purged of heretics and bogus Bhikṣus.
In this Council, the discussion is not limited to Śīla alone, but
also concerned with Dhamma. Finally, the chairperson Moggaliputta-
Tissa compiled Kathāvatthu (book of these differences) to refute the
theory of wrong sect. The term Theravāda appeared for the first time,
Abhidhamma was also mentioned the first time in the meeting. There is
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a legend that the Tripiṭaka was written down,16 but this issue is
controversial to many scholars.
After the meeting, Asoka's son, Thero Mahinda, brought all
Tripiṭaka to Sri Lanka. The classic brought to Sri Lanka is preserved
until today without the loss of any page. Scriptures are written in Pāli,
which is based on Magadhi preached by the Buddha. After this meeting,
Asoka sent messengers who spread to Sri Lanka and some other
countries.
II.3.4. The Fourth Buddhist Council:
Buddhism had two fourth councils belonging to different schools.
II.3.4.1. The Fourth Buddhist Council in Sri Lanka
Theravāda had the Fourth Buddhist Council in Sri Lanka in the
first century BC during the time of King Vattagamani-Abaya (103-77
BC). The main reason for its convening was the realization that it was
now not possible for the majority of monks to retain the entire Tipiṭaka
in their memories as had been the case formerly, the case of Elder
Mahinda and those who followed him soon after. Therefore, the art of
writing had developed substantially it was thought expedient and
necessary to have the entire body of the Buddha's teaching written. King
Vattagamani supported the monk's idea and a council was held
specifically to commit the entire Tipiṭaka to writing, so that the genuine
Dhamma might be lastingly preserved. To this purpose, the Elder
Maharakkhita and five hundred monks recited the words of the Buddha
and then wrote them down on palm leaves. The Tipiṭaka was for the first
time in the history of Buddhism committed to writing at Aluvihara in Sri
Lanka. After the Council, palm leaves books appeared. 16 W.Rahula, History of Buddhism in Ceylon, p. 33f.
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II.3.4.2. The Fourth Buddhist Council in Kashmir
For Sarvāstivāda tradition, Buddhism has been convened by the
Kushan emperor Kanishka (127-151 CE) in the first century CE at
Kashmir. The Mahāyāna tradition based some of its scriptures on
(refutations of) the Sarvastivadin Abhidharma texts, which were
systematized at this council.
King Kanishka gathered 500 monks headed by Vasumitra,
partly, it seems, to compile extensive commentaries on the
Sarvastivadin Abhidharma, although it is possible that some editorial
work was carried out upon the existing canon itself. The main fruit of
this Council was the vast commentary known as the Mahā-Vibhāshā
(Great Exegesis), an extensive compendium and reference work on a
portion of the Sarvāstivādin Abhidharma which was translated from
earlier Prakrit vernacular languages (such as Gandhari in Kharosthi
script) into the classical language of Sanskrit.
Some scholars believe that it was also around this time that a
significant change was made in the language of the Sarvastivadin Canon
by converting an earlier Prakrit version into Sanskrit.
The Fourth Buddhist Council belonged to two Buddhist
traditions: Theravāda and Mahāyāna in particular. There are more
Buddhist Councils that were held, but they hold no significant value.
II.3. LANGUAGE OF BUDDHIST SCRIPTURE
After the Buddha’s passing away, the Buddhist literature has
been divided into several schools as Hīnayāna, Mahāyāna, and
Vajrachara. Those schools considered both the Buddha's discourses, as
well as those of the Buddha's disciples, to be Buddhavacana17. The
17Encyclopedia of Buddhism, Vol.1, Macmillan, p. 142.
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Buddhist literature was written into scripture and has been circulated to
now. The original Buddhist teachings and the original writings were in
the languages of the region of India that Siddhartha Gautama was from.
They are in Sanskrit and Pāli, and those languages are important to
studying the original texts. However, they have been translated several
times. Buddhism has spread around the world and Buddhists speak their
own languages as: Chinese, Japanese, Korean, Vietnamese, Burmese,
Thai, English, the languages of India and others. There is no official
Buddhist language, so Buddhists use their native language.
The classic Buddhist treasures currently have been stored in
multiple languages. Over the time, Buddhist scriptures were recorded in
different languages. According to Theravāda and Mahāyāna traditions,
after the Third Buddhist Council, the Buddhist literature was written
down.
II.3.1. Early Buddhist Texts
The time of Early Buddhism was the best as the Dharma was
pure and the Saṃgha was united, not divided into sects. The time of the
Buddha and about 200 years after the Buddha’s passing away is the
period that covers the most primitive forms of the Buddha’s Teaching.
This is the basis of the fundamental tenets of Mahāyāna, Theravāda
later.
At the end of the 19th century, Western scholars began to study
the Pāli scriptures and declared Theravāda is closest to the Buddha’s
sūtra teaching. Earlier, the Chinese scholars and Japanese were not
aware of the existence of the Pāli canon, so they did not understand that
these sacred scriptures are like the Āgama, and translated these ancient
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Chinese scriptures as the "Hīnayāna Theravāda.” Therefore, āgama as
the Hīnayāna Tipaṭaka scriptures means very low level.
There are many different opinions about the names of pure
Buddhism. Firstly, the English scholar Thomas William Rhys Davids
(1843-1922) called it as Early Buddhism. Then, a Japanese scholar
Kimura Taiken translated Early Buddhism as Theravāda Buddhism. In
English, normally Theravāda should have been Primitive Buddhism, but
because the word Primitive means the first, it also involves the
definition: Early-uncivilized. Therefore, it is considered to be a
susceptible word implying inferiority, so the Western scholars usually
avoid using Primitive, but use the term "Early Buddhism.”
The term “Early Buddhism” in English appeared towards the end
of the nineteenth century. The translators of the association of “The Pāli
Text Society” adopted the translation - the “Early Buddhism”, for
Theravāda Buddhism which means Buddhism in the first period, basic
Buddhism or original Buddhism. The Pāli Sūttas are translated into
“Early Buddhist Texts or Canon.”
According to Thera Wilegoda Ariyadeva, early Buddhism is
understood in his work, the Theory and Practice of Social Revolution in
Early Buddhism, as ‘the Buddhism of the five Nikāyas.’ In other words,
the teachings of the Buddha included in the five Nikāyas is called early
Buddhism.18 Therefore, the term ‘Early Buddhism’ is used for the
Buddhism of the five Nikāyas.19
In Theravāda Buddhism, the standard collection of
Buddhavacana is the Pāli Canon. These are mainly of Indian origin, and
18 Wilegoda Ariyadeva Thera, the Theory and Practice of Social Revolution in Early Buddhism, p. 8. 19 Loc. Cit.,
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were written during the Fourth Buddhist Council in Sri Lanka in 29 BC,
about four hundred and fifty four years after the death of the Buddha.
Some scholars believe that some portions of the Pāli Canon and
Āgamas could contain the actual substance of the historical teachings of
the Buddha. Although many versions of the texts of the Early Buddhist
Schools exist, the most complete canon to survive is the Pāli Canon of
the Theravadin School, which preserved the texts in the Pāli language.
In addition, large parts of the Sarvāstivāda and Dharmaguptaka texts
are extant.
Pāli is considered one of the dialects of Middle Indo-Aryan. It
appears that the Pāli used in early Buddhist Scriptures was the one that
followed in Theravāda Buddhism practiced in Sri Lanka, Myanmar,
Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia, and it has many features common to
other Indo-Aryan dialects as well.
After the Third Buddhist Council, King Aśoka has launched
efforts to spread Buddhism to other countries, the first and most
important was the delegation led by Thera Mahindra to Sri Lanka. Since
then, Buddhism has existed in Sri Lanka and developed with the spread
of the Pāli Tipaṭaka. Then complete Pāli Tipaṭaka was edited and it still
exists in the same form to this day. Buddhism in Sri Lanka is not
affected by the Buddhist sects in India. Besides, in Myanmar, Pāli
Tipaṭaka has a very significant value.
II.3.2. Mahāyāna Texts
About two centuries after the Buddha's passing away, the
literature of early Buddhism partly was written in Sanskrit and partly in
the dialect of Central India and then it was assimilated into Buddhist
Sanskrit which was dubbed as the “mixed Sanskrit.” It is mixed with
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Prakrit language and is not in pure Sanskrit. It can be found probably at
two academic centers at Nalanda University and Takkasila (Taxila), of
Northern and Northwestern India.
Around the beginning of the 2nd century BC, pure Buddhist
Sanskrit literature began to appear, most notably due to the schism in the
Saṃgha. Besides the 1st to 3rd Buddhist Council, the 4th Buddhist
Council was mentioned in the Mahavamsa of Ceylon, for Theravadins
did not attend the congress and did not accept this. Unfortunately, those
argument organs of the other schools were lost, except the text is still
maintained in Sri Lanka, China and Tibet as the Abhidhamma of
Theravāda and Sarvāstivāda.
Mahāyāna Buddhism arose and developed with Mahāyāna Texts
bearing the origin in India. Some scholars believe Mahāyāna arose in
the first century BC,20 but still not completely established.21
D.T. Suzuki has stated that it does not matter if the Mahāyāna
Sūtras can be historically linked to the Buddha or not, since Mahāyāna
is a living tradition and its teachings are followed by millions of
people.22
II.3.2.1. Sanskrit Buddhist Texts
In the olden times, Sanskrit was used to write Mahāyāna
literature. The archaeologists in India have found some pieces of
Mahāyāna Sūtras. The earliest Mahāyāna Sūtras are the very first
versions of the Prajñāpāramitā series system, which were composed in
the 1st century BC in the South of India.23 Some early Mahāyāna Sūtras
were translated by the Kuṣāṇa monk Lokakṣema (zh. 支婁迦讖), who 20 Skilton, A. T. Dating the Samadhiraja Sūtra, Journal of Indian Philosophy, vol.27, p. 635. 21 Akira, Hirakawa, tr.&ed. Groner, Paul, A History of Indian Buddhism, p. 260. 22 D. T. Suzuki, Outline of Mahāyāna Buddhism, p. 15. 23 Akira, Hirakawa, tr.&ed. Groner, Paul, A History of Indian Buddhism, pp. 263,253,268.
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came to China from the kingdom of Gandhāra. His first translations to
Chinese from Sanskrit in the Chinese capital of Luoyang are between
178 and 189 CE.24
Some earliest Mahāyāna Sūtra were written in Sanskrit as:
Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra, Larger Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra,
Akṣobhyatathāgatasyavyūha Sūtra, Ugraparipṛcchā Sūtra,
Mañjuśrīparipṛcchā Sūtra, Drumakinnararājaparipṛcchā Sūtra,
Śūraṅgama Samādhi Sūtra, Bhadrapāla Sūtra,
Ajātaśatrukaukṛtyavinodana Sūtra, Kāśyapaparivarta Sūtra,
Lokānuvartana Sūtra, Avataṃsaka Sūtra. These were translated to
Chinese during the 2nd century CE.25
Āgama is a collection of Early Buddhist scriptures. The five
Āgamas together comprise the Sūtra Piṭaka of the early Buddhist
schools. The various schools had different recensions of each Āgama.
Āgamas of various schools are preserved in Chinese translation, and
portions survive in Tibetan translation, and in Sanskrit.
During the process of formation and development, Sanskrit
literature underwent three periods, and the third period is the period of
Buddhist literature. In Buddhist literature, there are two main sections,
such as Pāli and Sanskrit. In the Buddhist literature, Sanskrit literature
appeared later. According to some scholars, it appeared possibly due to
schism from the period of Councils, along with the development of
Mahāyāna Buddhism.
Sanskrit literature of Mahāyāna Buddhism actually
foreshadowed the Second Buddhist Council. It was formulated and
developed by the time of the Fourth Buddhist Council. In addition, a
24 Encyclopedia of Buddhism, ed. Macmillan, p. 492. 25 Akira, Hirakawa, tr.&ed. Groner, Paul, A History of Indian Buddhism, pp. 248-251.
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number of Buddhist Sanskrit works had already appeared in the 2nd
century BC, by which time Pāli had become blurred and weak.
Nevertheless, in the Second and Third Buddhist Councils some
debate about Sūtra and Abhidharma, took but was not completed. Until
the 2nd century BC, Buddhist Sanskrit literature began to influence and
gain popularity, from then until the 4th century CE and it had started
growing influence in most parts of India until the 12th century. This
Council was marked by a historical landmark of the apprearence of
Mahāyāna Buddhism.
II.3.2.2. Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Texts
Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit language is Middle Indo-Aryan literary
language, a Prākrit dialect heavily infiltrated with Sanskrit, in which the
texts of the northern Buddhist scriptures were written. It was developed
before the Christian era. Its Sanskrit influence originated in the
Mahāyāna Buddhists’ use of Sanskrit in their writings.
Hybrid Sanskrit, Pāli, and Sanskrit, thus become the major
vehicles of the Buddhist thought. The prestige attached to Sanskrit and
the ever-growing numbers of Brahmins entering monasteries would
have contributed to acceptance and use of Sanskrit as an important
language of theological exposition among Buddhists, whose leaders
originally wanted them all to use the dialects, the language of common
people. It sometimes is called ‘Buddhist Sanskrit’ or ‘Mixed Sanskrit.’
Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit writings emerged after the codification
in the 4th century BC of Classical Sanskrit by the scholar Pāṇini. His
standardized version of the language that had evolved from the ancient
Vedic came to be known as Sanskrit (meaning ‘refined’, or ‘completely
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formed’). Prior to this, Buddhist teachings are not known to have
generally been recorded in the language of the Brahmanical elites.
The term Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit owes its usage and definition
largely to the scholarship of Franklin Edgerton. Buddhist Hybrid
Sanskrit is primarily studied in the modern world in order to study the
Buddhist teachings that it records, and to study the development of
Indo-Aryan languages. Edgerton reports:
"Thousands of words were used which are unknown in
Sanskrit, or not used there with the same meanings. To this
curious language, which became widespread in North India, I
have given the name Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit…there is no
reason to assume any single 'original language of
Buddhism'.”26
However, earlier works, mostly from the Mahāsāṃghika School, use a
form of ‘mixed Sanskrit’ in which the original Prakrit has been
incompletely Sanskritised, with the phonetic forms being changed to the
Sanskrit versions, but the grammar of Prakrit being retained.27
Not all Buddhist usage of Sanskrit was of the hybrid form: some
translated works (e.g. by the Sarvāstivādin school) were in classical
Sanskrit. There were also later works composed directly in Sanskrit and
written in a simpler style than the classical literature, as well as works of
kavya in the ornate classical style such as the Buddhacarita.28
II.3.2.3. Chinese Buddhist Texts
According to the legend, Emperor Ming of Han (58-75 CE)
dreamt of a Yellow God, who is the Buddha. Following Emperor Ming's
26 Edgerton, Franklin, Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Language and Literature, p. 56. 27 T. Burrow, The Sanskrit Language, p. 61. 28 Loc. Cit.,
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dream vision about the Buddha who established Buddhism in India, two
of Ming's emissaries departed to search for Buddhist scriptures. Two
Indian monks named Kasyapa Matanga and Dharmaratna came to the
capital Luo-Yang by invitation of mission of Emperor Ming of Han in
65 CE.
They translated the Buddhist classics at the White Horse Temple
(白馬寺) at LuoYang. They translated many scriptures; the first
translation from Sanskrit to Chinese is the Sūtra of Forty-two Chapters
(四十二章經), which was translated by Kasyapa Matanga. This was the
first Buddhist Sūtra in Chinese language and has the pride of place in
the history of Chinese Buddhism. Dharmaratna translated the 'Dasa
Bhūmi', apart from five others.
The famous monk Kumārajīva (334-413 CE) was a Kuchean
Buddhist monk, scholar, and translator. He came to China and carried
out his later life for translating Buddhist Texts from Sanskrit to Chinese.
Kumārajīva revolutionized Chinese Buddhism with his high quality
translations (from 402-413 CE), which are still praised for their flowing
smoothness, clarity of meaning, subtlety, and literary skill. The arrival
of Kumārajīva set a standard for Chinese translations of Buddhist texts.
The most significant of his translations are Diamond Sūtra, Amitābha
Sūtra, Lotus Sūtra, Vimalakīrti Nirdeśa Sūtra, Mūlamadhyamakakārikā,
and Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra.
Xuanzang (玄奘) (600-664 AD) is a Chinese Buddhist monk,
scholar, traveller, and translator who described the interaction between
China and India in the early Tang Dynasty. He became famous for his
seventeen-year overland journey to India, which is recorded in detail in
the classic Chinese text Great Tang Records on the Western Regions
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(大唐西域記). He returned to China in 645 AD, devoted his energy to
translating Buddhist texts from Sanskrit to Chinese until his death.
During the time of Buddhism spread and developed in China, the
classics were translated and which form a treasure of classic Buddhist
Chinese text known as Zhaocheng Jin Tipaṭaka (赵城金大藏经). China
is considered to be Paradise of Mahāyāna Buddhism. Mahāyāna
Buddhism (it means the headquarters) influenced in China, Vietnam,
Japan, South Korea and others. Particularly in Japan, Taishō Tipaṭaka is
very famous and edited carefully by a group of Buddhist scholars.
Taishō has a great significance for the study of Mahāyāna.
II.3.3. Vajrayāna Texts
It is the special school of Mahāyāna which refers to the use of
the mantra to prevent the mind from going astray into the world of its
fictions and their attendant verbiage and to remain aware of reality as
such.
In the Tantric view, enlightenment arises from the realization
that seemingly opposite principles are in truth one. The passive concepts
Śūnyatā (emptiness) and prajñā, for example, must be resolved with the
active karuṇā (compassion) and upayā (skillful-means). This
fundamental polarity and its resolution are often expressed through
symbols of sexuality.
The first tantric Buddhist texts appeared in India in the 3rd
century and continued to appear till the 12th century.29 Scholars such as
Hirakawa Akira assert that the Vajrayāna probably came into existence
in the 6th or 7th century,30 while the term Vajrayāna itself first appeared
29 Williams, Paul & Tribe, Anthony , Buddhist Thought: A complete introduction to the Indian
tradition, p. 194 30 Akira, Hirakawa, tr.&ed. Groner, Paul, A History of Indian Buddhism, p. 9.
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in the 8th century. The Vajrayāna was preceded by the Mantrayāna, and
then followed by the Sahajayāna and Kalacakrayāna.31
The period of Indian Vajrayāna Buddhism has been classified as
the fifth32 or final period of Indian Buddhism. The literature of
Vajrayāna is absent from the oldest Buddhist literature of the Pāli
Canon and the Āgamas.
The historical origin of Vajrayāna is unclear, except that it
coincided with the spread of the mentalistic schools of Buddhism. It
flourished from the 6th to the 11th century and exerted a lasting influence
on the neighbouring countries of India.
In 747 CE, Indian Master Padmasambhava travelled from
Afghanistan to bring Vajrayāna Buddhism to Tibet and Bhutan, at the
request of the King of Tibet. This was the original transmission which
anchors the lineage of the Nyingma School. During the 11th century and
early 12th century CE, a second important transmission occurred with
the lineages of Atisa, Marpa and Brogmi, giving rise to the other schools
of Tibetan Buddhism, namely Sakya, Kadam, Kagyu, Jonang, and
Geluk.
Subsequently, the transcriptions of Mahāyāna Sanskrit were
wholly transcribed only phonetically and stored in Tibetan, but not
translated into Tibetan. From these transcriptions, then, proceeded the
translations into Tibetan. Thus, these treasures of Tibetan Mahāyāna are
complete.
Vajrayāna texts exhibit a wide range of literary characteristics -
usually a mix of verse and prose, usually in Sanskrit that ‘transgresses
frequently against classical norms of grammar and usage,’ although
31 Schumann, Hans Wolfgang, Buddhism: an outline of its teachings and schools, p. 163. 32 Akira, Hirakawa, tr.&ed. Groner, Paul, A History of Indian Buddhism, p. 9.
48
occasionally in various Middle Indic dialects or elegant classical
Sanskrit.
Though we do not know precisely at present just how many
Indian tantric Buddhist texts survive today in the language in which they
were written, their number is certainly over one thousand five hundred;
perhaps over two thousand. A large part of this body of texts has been
translated into Tibetan, and a smaller part into Chinese. Apart from
these, there are perhaps another two thousand or more works that are
known today only from such translations. We can be certain as well that
many others are lost to us forever, in whatever form. Of the texts that
survive, a very small proportion has been published; an almost
insignificant percentage has been edited or translated reliably.
II.4. EARLY BUDDHIST LITERATURE
Early Buddhist Literature is those schools into which the
Buddhist monastic saṅgha initially split, due originally to differences in
vinaya, and later due to doctrinal differences and geographical
separation of groups of monks.
The voluminous Tipiṭaka, which contains the essence of the
Buddha’s Teaching, is estimated to be about eleven times the size of the
Bible. The word Tipiṭaka means three Baskets. They are the Baskets of
Discipline (Vinaya Piṭaka), the Basket of Discourses (Sūtta Piṭaka) and
the Basket of Ultimate Doctrines (Abhidhamma Piṭaka)
II.4.1. NIKĀYA
II.4.1.1. Sūtta Piṭaka
The Sūtta Piṭaka, one of the Tipiṭaka (three baskets) that are composed
in the Pāli language, is the standard collection of scriptures in the
49
Theravāda Buddhist tradition.33 It is the most complete extant early
Buddhist canon,34 mostly ascribed to the Buddha, but for some part to
His disciples.
The Sūtta Piṭaka consists chietly of instructive discourses
delivered by the Buddha to both the Saṃgha and the laity on various
occasions. Few courses are expended by disciples such the Venerable
Śāriputra and Ānanda. These discourses are incorporated and are
accorded as much veneration as the word of the Buddha Himself. Sūtta
Piṭaka may be compared to a book of prescriptions. The Buddha would
give a detailed reply when he knew the inquirer to be an earnest seeker
after the Truth.
II.3.1.1.1. Dīghanikāya (Long Discourses)
Digha Nikāya corresponds to the Dīrgha Āgama. There are 34 long
sūttas in this Nikāya.
II.3.1.1.2. Majjhima Nikāya (Middle Length Discourses)
There are 152 medium-length discourses attributed to the Buddha and
his chief disciples. Majjhima Nikāya corresponds to the Madhyama
Āgama
II.3.1.1.3. Saṃyutta Nikāya (Connected Discourses)
There are, according to one reckoning, 2,889,35 but according to the
commentary 7,762, shorter sūttas in this Nikāya. Saṃyutta Nikāya
corresponds to the Saṃyukta Āgama.
II.3.1.1.4. Aṅguttara Nikāya (Numerical Discourses)
These teachings are arranged numerically. It includes, according to the
commentary's reckoning, 9,565 short sūttas grouped by numbers from
ones to elevens. Anguttara Nikāya corresponds to the Ekottara Āgama. 33 Gombrich, Theravāda Buddhism, p. 3. 34 Harvey, Introduction to Buddhism, p. 3. 35 Following the editor of the PTS.
50
II.3.1.1.5. Khuddaka Nikāya (Minor Collection)
The fifth Nikāya is subdivided into following fifteen books. This is a
heterogeneous mix of sermons, doctrines, and poetry attributed to the
Buddha and his disciples:
II.3.1.1.5.1. Khudaka Pātha (Shorter Texts)
II.3.1.1.5.2. Dhammapada (Way of Truth)
II.3.1.1.5.3. Udāna (Peans of Joy)
II.3.1.1.5.4. Itivuttaka (Thus Said Discourses)
II.3.1.1.5.5. Sūtta Nipāta (Collected Discourses)
II.3.1.1.5.6. Vimāna Vatthu (Stories of Celestial Mansions)
II.3.1.1.5.7. Peta Vatthu (Stories of Petas)
II.3.1.1.5.8. Theragāthā (Psalms of the Brethren)
II.3.1.1.5.9. Therīgathā (Psalms of the Sisters)
II.3.1.1.5.10. Jātaka (Birth Stories of the Bodhisattva)
II.3.1.1.5.11. Niddesa (Expositions)
II.3.1.1.5.12. Patisambhidā (Book on Analytical Knowledge)
II.3.1.1.5.13. Apadāna (Lives of Arahants)
II.3.1.1.5.14. Budhavaṁsa (History of the Buddha)
II.3.1.1.5.15. Cariya Piṭaka (Modes of Conduct)
Khuddaka Piṭaka was the repository for materials that were left
out of the four Āgamas/Nikāyas and thus included both early and later
Texts.36
II.4.1.2. Vinaya Piṭaka
The Vinaya Piṭaka, which is regarded as the sheet anchor of the holy
order, deals with the rules and regulations of the order of Bhikkhus
(Monks) and Bhikkhunis (Nuns). For nearly twenty years after the
36 Hirakawa Akira, A History of Indian Buddhism, p. 128.
51
Enlightenment of the Buddha, no definite rules were laid down for
control and discipline of the Saṃgha (Order), subsequently as the
occasion arise, the Buddha promulgated rules for the future discipline of
the Saṃgha. Reasons for the promulgation of rules, their various
implication and specific Vinaya ceremonies of the Saṃgha are fully
described in the Vinaya Piṭaka.
Vinaya Piṭaka is mostly concerned with the rules of the saṃgha,
both of monks and nuns that was preceded by stories telling how the
Buddha came to lay them down, and followed by explanations and
analysis. This piṭaka can be divided into three parts:37
II.3.1.2.1 Sūttavibhaṅga: commentary in the Patimokkha with
Mahāvibhaṅga (Dealing with Monks) and Bhikkhunīvibhaṅga (Dealing
with Nuns).
II.3.1.2.2. Khandhaka: Mahavagga (Greater Section), Cullavagga
(Lesser Section), contais 22 chapters on various topics.
II.3.1.2.3. Parivāra: (Epitome of the Valley) analyses the rules from
various points of view.
II.4.1.3. Abhidhamma Piṭaka
Abhidhamma Piṭaka is the most important and most interesting of the
three containing as it does the profound philosophy of the Buddha’s
Teaching in contrast to the simpler Discourses in the Sūtta Piṭaka.
Abhidhamna the Higher doctrine of the Buddha, expands the
quintessence of this profound teachings. The Abhidhamma Piṭaka is
attributed to the Buddha Himself.
Abhidhamma Piṭaka is a collection of texts, which give a
systematic philosophical description of the nature of mind, matter and
37 The Book of the Discipline, Part I, tr. I.B. Horner, pp. 36-37.
52
time. It is a detailed scholastic reworking of material appearing in the
sūttas, according to schematic classifitions. There are seven books as:38
II.3.1.3.1. Dhammasaṅgaṇi (Sumary of Dharma) is a manual of ethics
for monks. It begins with a mātikā which lists classification of dharma.
Its content is in four parts.
II.3.1.3.2. Vibhaṅga (Division of Classification): consists of 18 chapters,
each dealing with a different topic.
II.3.1.3.3. Dhātukathā (Discussion of Elements): covers both the matika
and various topics, mostly from the Vibhaṅga, relating them to the 5
aggregates, 12 bases and 18 elements.
II.3.1.3.4. Paññatti (Designation of Person): This begins with some
standard lists but then continues with lists of persons grouped
numerically from ones to tens. This latter portion of the matika is then
explained in the main body of the work. It lists human characteristics
encountered in the stages of the Buddhist path.
II.3.1.3.5. Kathāvatthu (Points of Controversy): consists of more than
200 debates on questions of doctrine. The questions are initially put
from the wrong view point, and are then answered in such a way as to
refute them. It is the only portion attributed to a specific author,
Moggaliputta.
II.3.1.3.6. Yamaka (Pairs): consists of ten chapters, each dealing with a
different topic.
II.3.1.3.7. Paṭṭhāna (Activations or Causes): deals with 24 conditions in
relation to the matika.
38 Hoiberg, Dale H., ed."Abhidhamma Pitaka.” Encyclopedia Britannica. vol.1, pp. 30-31.
53
II.4.2. ĀGAMA
Āgama is a collection of discourses of Early Buddhist scriptures.
There are five agamas that together comprise the Sūtra Piṭaka of the
Early Buddhism. Āgamas of various schools are preserved in Chinsese
translations, and portions also survive in Tibetan translation and in
Sanskrit.
In the 4th century CE, Mahāyāna abhidharma work
Abhidharmasamuccaya, to which Asaṅga refers contains the Āgamas as
the Śrāvakapiṭaka, and associates it with the śrāvakas and
pratyekabuddhas. Asaṅga classifies the Mahāyāna Sūtras as belonging
to the Bodhisattvapiṭaka, which is designated as the collection of
teachings by Bodhisattvas.39
It is clear that, among the early schools, at a minimum the
Sarvāstivāda, Kāśyapīya, Mahāsāṃghika, and Dharmaguptaka had
recensions of four of the five Āgamas that differed a little. The Āgamas
have been compared to the Pāli Canon's Nikāyas by contemporary
scholars in an attempt to identify possible changes and root phrasings.
The existence of Āgamas and their similarity to the Sūtta Piṭaka are
sometimes used by scholars to assess to what degree these teachings are
historically authentic representations of the Canon of Early Buddhism.
II.3.2.1. Dīrgha Āgama (Long Discourses)
A complete version of the Dīrgha Āgama of the Dharmaguptaka
(法藏部) school was done by Buddhayaśas (佛陀耶舍) and Zhu Fonian
(竺佛念) in the Late Qin dynasty.
It contains 30 sūtras in contrast to the 34 sūttas of the
Theravadin Dīgha Nikāya. A "very substantial" portion of the
39 Walpola (tr). Asaṅga Abhidharma Samuccaya: The Compendium of Higher Teaching, pp. 199-200.
54
Sarvāstivādin Dīrgha Āgama survives in Sanskrit40 and some portions
survive in Tibetan translations.
II.3.2.2 .Madhyama Āgama (Middle Length Discourses)
A complete translation of the Madhyama Āgama of the
Sarvāstivāda School was done by Saṃghadeva (僧伽提婆) in the
Eastern Jin dynasty. The Madhyama Āgama of the Sarvāstivāda School
contains 222 sūtras. Portions of the Sarvāstivāda Madhyama Āgama
also survive in Tibetan translation.
II.3.2.3. Saṃyukta Āgama (Connected Discourses)
A Chinese translation of the complete Saṃyukta Āgama of the
Sarvāstivāda school was done by Guṇabhadra (求那跋陀羅) in the
Song state. Portions of the Sarvāstivāda Saṃyukta Āgama also survive
in Sanskrit and Tibetan translation.
II.3.2 .4. Ekottara Āgama (Numbered Discourses)
A complete version of the Ekottara Āgama was translated by
Dharmanandi (曇摩難提) of the Fu Qin state (苻秦), and was edited by
Gautama Saṃghadeva.
II.3.2.5. Kṣudraka Āgama (Minor Collection)
Kṣudraka Āgama corresponds to the Khuddaka Nikāya. In
addition, there is a substantial quantity of āgama-style texts outside of
the main collections. These are found in various sources as: (1) Partial
āgama collections and independent sūtras within the Chinese canon. (2)
Small groups of sūtras or independent sūtras within the Tibetan canon.
(3) Sūtras reconstructed from ancient manuscripts in Sanskrit,
Gandhari, or other ancient Indic languages. (4) Passages and quotes
from āgama preserved within Mahāyāna Sūtras, Abhidharma texts, later
40 Olivelle, Patrick, (ed.) Between the Empires: Society in India 300 BCE to 400 CE, p. 356.
55
commentaries, and so on. (5) Isolated phrases preserved in inscriptions,
like the Asoka pillars.
II.5. MAHĀYĀNA LITERATURE
II.5.1. Understanding of Mahāyāna Buddhism
Mahāyāna (Great Vehicle) is one of the two main branches of
Buddhism. Mahāyāna also refers to the path of seeking complete
enlightenment for the benefit of all sentient beings, also called
Bodhisattvayana.41 Among the earliest and most important references to
the term Mahāyāna are those that appear in the Saddharmapuṇḍarīka
Sūtra (about 1st BC to 1st CE).42 The earliest textual evidence of
Mahāyāna comes from sūtra original around the beginning of the
Common Era. Jan Nattier noted that in some of the earliest Mahāyāna
texts such as the Ugaparipṛccha Sūtra have used term Mahāyāna.43 So,
the term Mahāyāna appeared after the time of the Buddha, dating about
1st BC. Mahāyāna scriptures were already in existence by the 1st century
BC.44
The Mahāyāna arose from the Mahāsaṅgiti School and
Sarvāstivādin School. When the study and practice were sufficiently
ripe, the Sūtras of Mahāyāna began to appear. The first Mahāyāna Sūtra
to appear was the Prajñāpāramitā. Thus, we could say that formation of
Buddhism took plce in three stages: (i) Original Buddhism, (ii) Schools
of Buddhism and (iii) Mahāyāna Buddhism.
During the period of early Mahāyāna Buddhism, four major
types of thought developed:45 (1) Mādhyamaka, which arose after the
41 Warder, A.K., Indian Buddhism, p. 338. 42 W. Rahula, Gems of Buddhist Wisdom, p. 457. 43 Nattier, Jan, A few good men: the Bodhisattva path according to the Inquiry of Ugra: p. 193-194. 44 Akira, Hirakawa, A History of Indian Buddhism, p. 8. 45 Harvey, Peter, An Introduction to Buddhism, p. 95.
56
second century C.E, (2) Yogācāra, teaching of ideation-only, (3)
Tathāgatagarbha doctrine in parallel with Yogācāra thought; and (4)
Buddhist logic, which arose after the above three traditions. By the sixth
and seventh centuries, Esoteric Buddhism had arisen and attracted the
attention of some advocate of Mādhyamika and Yogācāra.46 The later
stage forms of Mahāyāna Buddhism in India are found largely in the
Schools of Esoteric Buddhism. In the East Asian traditions, there has
been a strong tendency in Tibetan Buddhism and the Himalayan
traditions to approach the sūtras indirectly through the medium of
exegetical treatises if at all.47
Although the tradition of ideas which contributed to the
emergence of Mahāyāna Buddhism dates back to the time of the Second
Buddhist Council, one hundred years after the Buddha’s Nirvāṇa, the
principal doctrine of the Mahāyāna are of much later origin.48 Later on,
Buddhism is divided to many schools, after that, that Mahāsaṅgiti
developed to the Mahāyāna Buddhism.
About the 2nd AD, Mahāyāna became clearly defined.
Nāgārjuna developed the Mahāyāna philosophy of Śūnyatā in a small
text called Mādhyamika-karika. In the 4th AD, Asaṅga and Vasubandhu
wrote enormous amount of works on Mahāyāna. Therefore, after 1st
AD, the Mahayanists took a definite stand and then the term of
Mahāyāna and Hīnayāna were introduced49.
Mahāyāna constitutes an inclusive tradition characterized by
plurality and the adoption of new Mahāyāna Sūtra in addition to the
earlier Āgama texts. There is a tendency in Mahāyāna Sūtra to regard
46 Akira, Hirakawa, A History of Indian Buddhism, pp. 8-9. 47 Shrimaladevi Sūtra, Hookham, Shenpen, tr., p. 27. 48 Encyclopadia of Buddhism, vol.7, (ed. in chief) W.G.Weerarate, p. 516. 49 W. Rahula, Gems Of Buddhist Wisdom, p. 457.
57
adherence to these sūtra as generating spiritual benefits greater than
those that arise from being a follower of the non-Mahāyāna approaches
to Dharma. Following the development of Mahāyāna, the term
Ekayāna, Buddhayāna and Bodhisattvayāna also appeared and became
the highlight for Mahāyāna. The Aṣtasāhasrikā-prajñāpāramitā Sūtra
says:
“For it is the same as space, and exceedingly great. As in
space, so in this vehicle there is room for immeasurable and
incalculable beings. So is this the great vehicle of the
Bodhisattvas, the great beings. One cannot see its coming, or
going, and its abiding does not exist. Thus one cannot get at
the beginning of this great vehicle, nor at its end, nor at its
middle. But it is self-identical everywhere. Therefore one
speaks of a 'great vehicle.'”50
In the rise and development of Mahāyāna, the contributions of Masters
of Mahāyāna school are very vast. The Masters of Mahāyāna school
are Nāgārjuna (2nd century CE), Āryadēva (3rd century CE), Asaṅga (4th
century CE), Vasubandhu (4th century CE), Dignāna (5th century CE),
Bhāvaviveka (6th century CE), Dharmakīrti (7th century CE), Śāntideva
(8th century CE) and Padmakara and others.
The highest spiritual ideal of Hīnayāna is the Arhant (Worthy
One) who through his own effort and practice attains liberation. But
Mahāyāna generally considers that attainment of the level of an Arhant
is not final. If in the Hīnayāna, the Bodhisattva is only the former birth
of Sakyamuni Buddha, in the Mahāyāna, an infinite number of
Bodhisattvas are found which believe in supernatural Bodhisattvas who
50 Aṣṭ.P tr., p. 91.
58
devote themselves to the perfection (parāmitā), all-knowledge
(sarvajñāna), and the liberation of all sentient beings.
The heart of the Mahāyāna lies in the Trikāya (three bodies of
the Buddha)51 and the Bodhisattva idea. The most important ideal man
is Bodhisattva.52 Traditionally, a Bodhisattva is anyone who, motivated
by great compassion, has generated bodhicitta, which is a spontaneous
wish to attain Buddhahood for the benefit of all sentient beings.53 The
great insight of Mahāyāna that every one can became a Buddha. We all
have the capacity of becoming a fully enlightened Buddha through the
way of Bodhisattvas.54
What is the difference between Mahāyāna and Hīnayāna is the
question that Dr. W. Rahula had studied as he made an extensive study
of the Buddhist studies for many years and pointed out clearly the
difference between Hīnayāna and Mahāyāna with regard to the
fundamental teaching.
Both accept Sakyamuni Buddha as the Master. The Catvāri
Āryasatyāni (Four Noble Truths), Āryāṣṭāṅgamārga (Noble Eightfold
Path) and Pratītyasamutpāda (Dependent Origination) are exactly the
same in both schools. Both accept Anitya, Duḥkham, Anātman, Śīla,
Sāmadhi and Prajñā without any difference.55 Both have rejected the
idea of a supreme being who created and governed this world.
B. L. Suzuki gave the points of view which are the same in
Hīnayāna and Mahāyāna as the following: (1) The object of Buddhism
51 Hattori, Sho-on, A Raft from the Other Shore : Honen and the Way of Pure Land Buddhism. Jodo
Shu Press. pp. 25–27. The Buddha has three bodies (kāyas): (1) Nirmānakāya (activity body), (2) Saṃbhogakāya (body of mutual enjoyment), (3) Dharmakāya (Truth body).
52 See more: Thich Nhat Hanh, Opening the Heart of Cosmos: Insights on the Lotus Sūtra, p. 9; Coomaraswamy, Ananda, Buddha and the Gospel of Buddhism, p. 225.
53 Geshe Kelsang Gyatso, The Bodhisattva Vow : A Practical Guide to Helping Others, p. 1. 54 Thich Nhat Hanh, Opening the Heart of Cosmos: Insights on the Lotus Sūtra, p. 11. 55 W. Rahula, Gems Of Buddhist Wisdom, p. 457.
59
is to get rid of delusion, obtain enlightenment, and enter the world of the
Infinite and the Absolute. (2) The world has no beginning and no end.
All is explained by causation, but there is no first cause. (3) All things
change, all is impermanent, all is transient. This is true not only of men
but of all life, even that which seems most enduring. (4) There is no
substantial entity known as the ‘Ego’. As all is impermanent and
transient, so there is no self or ego such as is popularly regarded as
persisting behind consciousness. (5) The law of causation is universally
valid in the moral world as well as in the physical world. Every cause
has an effect. (6) Transmigration explains causation, and is due to
karma, and karma is produced by the deeds in the life of birth and death.
Transmigration leads to suffering, as the Four Noble Truths set out. (7)
Delusion is the cause of suffering which is universal. (8) Moral
practices, such as the Eightfold Noble Path and the Parāmitās, are
prescribed in order to remove delusion.56
The main differences between the Hīnayāna and Mahāyāna
are:57 (1) For Buddhahood, Hīnayāna is historical and ethical;
Mahāyāna is meta-physical and religious. (2) For conception of non-
ego, in Hīnayāna it is analytical and scholastic; in Mahāyāna it is
experiential and intuitive. (3) The altruistic point of view of salvation of
the Mahayanists compares with the individualistic view of the
Hinayanists. (4) The lessening of distinction between monk and layman
in the Mahāyāna. (5) The comparative conception of Nirvāṇa. (6) In the
Mahāyāna all may attain to Buddhahood, for all have the Buddha-nature
and the desire for Bodhi. (7) Bodhisattva and Arhat ideals.
56 Suzuki, B. L., Mahayana Buddhism, p. 34. 57 Ibid., p. 33.
60
Mahāyāna developed step by step from 1st century to later times
in ancient India with treasure of Mahāyāna Sūtras.
II.5.2. Mahāyāna Sūtras
Around one hundred Mahāyāna Sūtras survive in Sanskrit
version as well as in Chinese and Tibetan translations.58 These sūtras
are a broad genre of Buddhist scriptures in various traditions of
Mahāyāna Buddhism. Some of the most important Mahāyāna Sūtras are
briefly described.
II.5.2.1. Prajñāpāramitā literature
Issues of the origins of the Prajñāpāramitā and those of the
Mahāyāna are closely connected, since at the present stage of our
knowledge the earliest Mahāyāna Sūtras are probably Prajñāpāramitā
Sūtras. The Prajñā-pāramitā or ‘Perfection of Wisdom’, which
represents the Dharma-Jewel, is not so much a sūtra as a family of
sūtras or even a dynasty. Edward Conze59 has said that the time of the
composition of the Prajñāpāramitā texts can be roughly stretched over
more than a thousand years from 100 BC - 1200 AD and he
distinguished four phases in the development of the Prajñāpāramitā
literature as under. There were a large number of versions of Prajñā
Pāramitā, such as the , Hṛdaya Sūtra, Vajrachedikā-prajñā-pāramitā
Sūtra, Pañcaśatikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra, Sārdhadvisāhasrikā
Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra, Aṣṭasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra,
Aṣṭadaśasāhasrikā Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra, Pañcaviṃśatisāhasrikā
Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra, Mahāprajñāpāramitā Sūtra, Śatasāhasrikā
Prajñāpāramitā Sūtra.
58 Skilton, Andrew, A Concise History of Buddhism, p. 101. 59 Loc. Cit.,
61
These sūtras are the most primitive and fundamental of all those
dealing with the idea of Emptiness which developed out of the causation
theory from Primitive Buddhism. These deal with prajñā. Wisdom in
this context means the ability to see reality as it truly is. They do not
contain an elaborate philosophical argument, but simply try to point to
the true nature of reality, especially with paradox. The basic premise is a
radical non-dualism, in which every and any dichotomist way of seeing
things is denied: so phenomena are neither existent, nor non-existent,
but are marked by śūnyatā, emptiness, and an absence of any essential
unchanging nature.
II.5.2.2. Avataṃsaka Sūtra
The Sūtra called Mahāvaipulya Buddhāvataṃsaka Sūtra is one
of the most influential Mahāyāna Sūtras of East Asian Buddhism. The
title is rendered in English as Flower Garland Sūtra, Flower Adornment
Sūtra, or Flower Ornament Scripture.
The Avataṃsaka Sūtra describes a cosmos of infinite realms
upon realms, mutually containing one another. It is the most important
doctrine which is the interpenetration of all phenomena. The Sūtra
presents the progression of the Buddhist path to full Enlightenment, or
Buddhahood.
This is a large composite text consisting of several parts, most
notably the Daśabhūmika Sūtra and the Gandavyuha Sūtra. The vision
expressed in this work was the foundation for the creation of the Huayan
school of Chinese Buddhism, which was characterized by a philosophy
of interpenetration.
II.5.2.3. Vimalakīrti Nirdeśa Sūtra
Bodhisattva Vimalakīrti appears in the guise of a layman in order
to teach the Dharma. The sūtra is strong assertion of the values of lay
62
practice. The sūtra mentions the Buddhafield (Buddha-kshetra) as its
major theme, which was highly influential on Pure Land schools. The
sūtra expounds the doctrine of śūnyatā, or emptiness. The sūtra lays
stress upon the idea that is not necessary to be a bhikṣu or a bhikṣuṇī in
order to be a Bodhisattava and live the Bodhisattva life.60
II.4.3.4. Śūraṅgama Samādhi Sūtra
Śūraṅgama Samādhi Sūtra contains teachings from Yogācāra,
Tathāgatagarbha, and Esoteric Buddhism practices leading to their
Verification of the Ultimate Truth. The sūtra expresses the fact that the
worthlessness of the Dharma when unaccompanied by samādhi power,
and the importance of moral precepts as a foundation for the Buddhist
practice. The theme of how one effectively combats delusions that may
arise during meditation is emphasized.
II.5.2.5. Saddharmapuṇḍarīka Sūtra
The Good Dharma Lotus Flower Sūtra, Lotus Sūtra, Sūtra of the
White Lotus or Sūtra on the White Lotus of the Sublime Dharma is
probably written in the period 100 BC - 100 CE. The sūtra is one of the
most popular and influential Mahāyāna Sūtras, and the basis on which
the Tiantai and Nichiren schools of Buddhism were established. The
sūtra proposes that the three yānas61 are not in fact three different paths
leading to three goals, but one path, with one goal. The earlier teachings
are said to be skilful means to help beings of limited capacities.
II.5.2.6. Śrīmālādevī Siṃhanāda Sūtra
The Sūtra is one of the main early Mahāyāna Buddhist texts that
teaches the doctrines of Tathāgatagarbha and the One Vehicle
(ekayāna), through the words of the Indian queen Śrīmālā. After its
60 Suzuki, B. T., Mahayana Buddhism, p. 92. 61 Śravakayāna, Pratyekabuddhayāna and Bodhisattvayāna.
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composition, this text became the primary scriptural advocate in India
for the universal potentiality of Buddhahood.62
II.5.2.7. Brahmajāla Sūtra
It is not related to the Brahmajāla Sūtta of the Theravāda
Buddhist Pāli Canon. This sūtra introduces Vairocana Buddha and his
relation to Sakyamuni Buddha and states the 10 major precepts for
Bodhisattvas and the 48 minor precepts one should follow to advance
along the path. II.5.2.8. Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtras
The Pure Land Sūtras are principally the Shorter Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra (Smaller Pure Land Sūtra),63 Longer Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtra (Greater Pure Land Sūtra),64 and the Amitāyurdhyāna Sūtra (Amitāyus Buddha-mindfulness Sūtra).65 These texts describe the origins and
nature of the Western Pure Land in which the Buddha Amitābha resides.
They list the forty-eight vows made by Amitābha as a Bodhisattva by
which he undertook to build a Pure Land where beings are able to
practice the Dharma without difficulty or distraction. The sūtras state
that beings can be reborn there by pure conduct and by practices such as
thinking continuously of Amitābha, praising him, recounting his virtues,
and chanting his name. These Pure Land sūtras and the practices they
recommend became the foundations of Pure Land Buddhism, which
focus on the salvific power of faith in the vows of Amitābha.
II.5.2.9. Amitābha Sūtra The sūtra recounts a teaching primarily between the Buddha and
a Bodhisattva named Mahāmati (Great Wisdom). The sūtra is set in
Laṅkā, the island fortress capital of Rāvaṇa, the king of Rākṣasas.
62 Brown, B. E., The Buddha Nature: A Study of the Tathāgatagarbha and Ālayavijñāna, p. 3. 63 Taishō Volume 12, N.366. 64 Taishō Volume 12, N.360. 65 Taishō Volume 12, N.365.
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The Amitābha Sūtra draws upon the concepts and doctrines of
Yogācāra and Tathāgatagarbha. The most important doctrine issuing
from the Amitābha Sūtra is that of the primacy of consciousness
(vijñāna) and the teaching of consciousness as the only reality. The
sūtra asserts that all the objects of the world, and the names and forms
of experience, are merely manifestations of the mind. The Amitābha
sūtra describes the various tiers of consciousness in the individual,
culminating in the Ālayavijñāna (storehouse consciousness) which is the
base of the individual's deepest awareness and his tie to the cosmic
exsitence.
II.5.2.10. Vajrasekhara Sūtra
The sūtra is an important Buddhist tantra used in Vajrayāna
School. The sūtra starts with Mahavairocana Buddha preaching the
Dharma to the Mahabodhisattvas in the Buddhist heaven of Akanishta.
This sūtra introduces the Diamond Realm Mandala as a focus for
meditative practices, and its use in the abhiseka ritual of initiation. As
the prince has now experienced Enlightenment, he ascends to Mount
Sumeru and constructs the Diamond Realm Mandala and initiates and
converts the Bodhisattvas gathered there, one by one, into esoteric
deities who constitute the Mandala.
II.5.2.11. Three Turnings of the Wheel of Dharma Sūtra
These sūtras primarily teach the doctrine of vijnapti-matra or
'consciousness-only', associated with the Yogācāra School. The
Saṃdhinirmocana Sūtra (2nd century CE) is the earliest surviving sūtra
in this class. This sūtra divides the teachings of the Buddha into three
classes, which it calls the "Three Turnings of the Wheel of the Dharma."
To the first turning, it ascribes the Agamas of the Śrāvaka, to the second
turning the lower Mahāyāna Sūtras including the Prajñāpāramitā
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Sūtras, and finally sūtras like itself are deemed to comprise the third
turning.
II.6. Summing Up
The Fourth Buddhist Council held in Sri Lanka is of significance as the
affects of writing down the text of the Buddhist scriptures began in this
council but the first three Buddhist councils have their own significance
of preserving the authentic text of the sermons and teachings of the
Buddha through memorization and the oval transfer from generation to
generation for a period of about five centuries after Buddha’s Nirvāṇa.
The textual authenticity through oral recitation and in the written from is
retained from the very beginning of early Buddhist literature for which
the first four councils contributed so handsomely. The use of language
and the nature of early Buddhist literature are presented in the third and
fourth sub-sections. In the context of the present study the topic is
theorized in the texts of Mahāyāna Buddhism. These are reviewed in a
brief outline of each in the fifth sub-section. Out of more than hundred
prominent Mahāyāna Sūtras, to outline of eleven Mahāyāna Sūtras is
given though in brief but in a manner which suits to the purposes of the
present research study. The first Mahāyāna Sūtra outlined is
Prajñāpāramitā which is of major significance as the entire seventh
chapter of the present study revolves around this Sūtra. The next chapter
deals with the understanding of the key concept of the present research
study - prajñā - after this.