CHAPTER II -...
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CHAPTER II
AUGMENTATION OF VAISHNAVISM IN INDIA
2.1 Vaishnavism in Ancient India
The Bhakti (devotion) movement which was epitomized by a personal
relationship between the deity and the devotee bloomed in the 7th Century. This
devotional movement had two parallel strands- one centered on Lord Vishnu and the
other on Lord Shiva. For the Vaishnavas (followers of Lord Vishnu), Alwars were
their prominent leaders and for the Saivas (followers of Lord Shiva), their leader was
Nayanmars. Alwars were considered as incarnations of Lord Vishnu himself. The
great Vaishnava renaissance was started by Ramanuja in the 11th
Century on the basis
of the older devotional cult of the Alwars of Tamil Nadu. The movement was
nurtured through the tireless efforts of some other Saints like Nimbarka (11th
Century), Madhavacharya (13th
Century), Ramananda (14th
Century), Kabir (15th
Century), Chaitanya (15th
-16th
Century) and Shri Shri Sankaradeva (15th
-16th
Century).
The fundamental basics of these Schools were not very much different from each
other. Disparity can be observed in values and overt religious observances. The brunt
of Islam gave an uncouth shock to the age-old Hinduism which provoked the
scholars and reformers of Hindu society to develop an uncomplicated and
judicious faith that would be acceptable to all equally. The Bhakti cult that was
restricted mainly to South India played the role of the imperative religion of the time.
It was accepted with certain modifications by reformers of different regions and
within a considerable span of time it over-flooded the whole of India.
Neog (2011:295-96) has stated, “The seed of Vaishnavism in South India was
sown by the Alwars, who were the earliest Brahmin messengers to the South. They
gave prominence to the emotional side of Vaishnavism and used the language of the
people in their songs and hymns. From the 9th
century down to the end of the 15th
century an unbroken line of Vaishnavite reformers existed in Southern India. This cult
flourished there from the early years of the Christian era under the impetus given by
the Alwars, who preached Bhakti and devotion to Krishna in the local Tamil, and
songs composed in that language were very well understood by the masses. Vishnu
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with all his Avatars, and particularly the Krishna Avatar, was the object of their deep
veneration. They used to adore idols of Vishnu of different forms, although the mode
of worship was mainly confined to recitation of his names and contemplation of his
forms. The Alwars did not denounce Brahmins or the caste system. Their
denunciations of the Buddhists and the Jains clearly show that their fight was with
them, and they were contemporaries. It is evident that the earlier Alwars owed their
origin to Northern Vaishnavites or sects. Their teachings and works were based on
Bhagavadgita and Bhagavata. They represented the devotional and emotional side of
the Vaishnavite faith, unlike the Brahmin Acharyas who came after them representing
the intellectual and philosophical side”.
“In Vaishnavite tradition, Vishnu is the Supreme God, worshipped either
directly or in one of his ten avatars, principally--Rama, Krishna, Narayana, or
Vasudeva. His followers are called Vaishnava(s) or Vaishnavites, while the word
Vaishnavism entered the English language in the nineteenth century” (Phukan,
2010:21).
In Northern India, Ramananda, Vallabhacharya and Nimbaditya, were the
Vaishnava reformers of great repute. It is generally said that there are four main
sampradayas or sects of Vaishnavism-viz-Ramanuja, Vishnuswami, Madhavacharya
and Nimbaditya. All the existing minor sects are said to have been incorporated in
these four main sampradayas. Ramananda, fifth in apostolic succession from
Ramanuja, worshipped Rama (incarnation of Lord Vishnu) and asserted the supreme
effectiveness of the singing and meditating of Rama-nama (chanting of Lord’s name)
and practically discarded social distinctions. This is the first sampradaya known as
Sri-sampradaya and Brahma-sampradaya is the second. Madhavacharya was the
founder of the second sect and the sampradaya is called Madhvi after his name. The
third main sampradaya is the Rudra-sampradaya of which Vallabhacharya was the
founder. The sampradayas of Vallabhacharya traces its origin from Vishnuswami, the
commentator of Vedas (scriptures of the Hindus). The followers of this sect worship
Gopala Krishna with Radha and images of His different incarnations. The founder of
the fourth main sampradaya was Nimbaditya and the followers of this sect are called
Nimat. Lord Krishna and his consort Radha are worshipped and Srimad Bhagavata is
their main scripture.
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In several parts of India, particularly in Gujarat and Malwa many people are
followers of Vallabhacharya Vaishnavism. A small sect of Vaishnavism originated
with Mira Bai. She was married to the Rana of Udaipur, but as she was an ardent
follower of Vaishnavism, she could not agree with her husband and his relatives, who
were all hard followers of Saktaism. She devoted her life meditating and chanting the
name of Lord Krishna.
In Maharashtra there is a sect called Vithal-bhaktas. In Gujarat, Karnataka and
Central India also disciples of this sect are seen. Their name is Vaishnava-vir. Their
god of worship is Pandurang, Vithal or Vithoba. They consider him as the ninth
incarnation of Vishnu i.e. Buddhadeva. They are therefore called Buddha-Vaishnavas.
This sect gives prominence to the celestial tie of love between the upasya and
upasaka i.e. the object of worship and the worshipper.
In Bengal the seed of Vaishnavism was rooted by Chaitanya, the founder of
the Chaitanya sampradaya. Chaitanya adopted the worship of Radha Krishna and the
approach of the soul to God was embodied in this cult by the attitude of the beloved
towards her counterpart. The passionate longing of the gopis (gopi- daughter of a
cowherd) for Lord Krishna was considered typical representative of the soul’s
yearning for the God.
Though Assam remained politically detached from the rest of India from early
times till occupation by the British, yet in no period of her history was completely cut
off from cultural activities along with religion in India. The great Vaishnava
renaissance movement supplied necessary ethics and momentum, which as a
movement spread to Assam (ancient Pragjyotishspur) under the great reformer
Shrimanta Sankaradeva. The Vaishnavism preached by Saint Sankaradeva is called
Ekasarana-nama-Dharma- the religion of supreme devotional surrender to One i.e.
Lord Krishna/Vishnu who has a thousand name. It is popularly called Mahapurusiya
Dharma as Saint Sankaradeva is perceived by his followers as the Mahapurusa (the
great being elevated by virtue of his faith in God and not by birth ). It needs mention
here that Shrimanta Sankaradeva is also addressed as Saint Sankaradeva, Mahapurush
Sankaradeva, Shri Shri Sankaradeva, Jagat-Guru and these are accepted
terminologies.
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2.2 Shrimanta Sankaradeva and the Vaishnava Renaissance in Assam
“The great neo-Vaisnava movement of Assam of the sixteenth century brought
about a new and comprehensive outlook on life, a distinctly healthy tone to social
behavior with an all-pervasive organizational set up, and accelerated the pace of
literature and the fine arts like music and painting. The dignity of individual
endeavour of man as a distinct religious being and not as ‘the thrall of theological
despotism’ was declared. Assam discovered herself as an integral part of the holy land
of the Bharatavarsa, and glorified in that discovery. The holy books in Sanskrit, the
litterae humanories of India, could no longer be sealed to the view of the common
man by a rigid oligarchy. The use of the local language in expositions of theology
was in itself a challenge to the erstwhile guardians of secret doctrines; they
understood the significance of the challenge and ‘protested very much’. The new
humanism also looked askance at the many blood sacrifices, including the immolation
of men, and the nice sacerdotalism that was the order of the day” (Neog, 2004:117).
The leader of the Vaishnava renaissance in Assam was Shrimanta
Sankaradeva. He was born in the middle of the 15th
century (1449) at Alipukhuri, a
small village near Bardowa in Nowgong district in Central Assam. His father
Kusumvara Kayastha belonged to the family of the Bhuyan chiefs, who held their
small principalities on both the banks of the River Brahmaputra in the middle of the
present day Assam. His mother was Satyasandha. It is said that he was named Sankara
or Sankaravara because he was born as a boon of Lord Shiva to Kusumavara who
worshipped him for such a boon.
Bhuyan are Kayasthas by caste and at that time Brahmins and Kayasthas were
considered as upper castes. Landadeva was the Zamindar (landlord) of Kanauj when it
was attacked by the Sultan of Afghanistan. As a result, twelve Kayastha families and
seven Brahmin families left Kanauj and settled in Gaur-desh (Bengal), adjacent to
Kamatapur. The Gaur King, Dharma Narayan and the Kamata King, Durlabh Narayan
shared a very cordial relation and taking advantage of the same, the twelve Kayastha
families and seven Brahmin families shifted to Kamatapur in 1220 A.D. Landadeva’s
son, Candivara was very shrewd and so he was bestowed the title ‘Siromani Bhuyan’
(Siromani meaning ‘the best’ or the ‘greatest’; the head of the Bhuyans) by King
Durlabh Narayan. The King also made him the Governor of the eastern province of
Kamatapur. Later, he shifted to Upper Assam side, but due to frequent attacks by the
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Bhutiyas (Citizens of present day Royal Kingdom of Bhutan); the families from
Kanauj proceeded to different directions. Candivara settled at a place called Rowta,
on the border of Bhutan. After few years he again shifted to a place called Tembuani
or Bardowa.
Verma writes (2005:16-17), “The genealogy of Sankaradeva’s family is
traced up to six generations. Following lineage has been traced.
LANDADEVA
CANDIVARA
RAJADHARA
SURYAVARA = KHERSUTI
KUSUMAVARA = SATYASANDHA
SANKARAVARA
Sankara lost his mother on the 15th
day of his birth and his father at the age of
seven. He was raised by his grandmother Khersuti. Sankara enjoyed a gay and wild
childhood; he spend his time grazing cattle, hunting birds and deer, swimming across
the burly currents of the River Brahmaputra and wrestling with his playmates.
At the age of twelve Sankara’s idyllic existence ended as his grandmother sent
him to a village tol (a pan Indian educational institution) maintained by a Brahmin
scholar, Mahendra Kandali. It is said that about this time Sankara came to be called
Sankaradeva (with the addition of the epithet ‘deva’ to his name) at the wish of his
teacher, Mahendra Kandali, who saw extra ordinary qualities in the person of his
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pupil. During his schooling, he laboured hard and within a short span of time of six or
seven years he came out of the school as an acknowledged scholar in various branches
of learning i.e. the Vedas(the principal holy scriptures of the Hindus namely, Rig,
Yajur, Sama and Atharva), the Upanishads(the argumentative part of the Vedas), the
Puranas(sacred and poetical works relating to religion, morality and historical
episodes of ancient India; eighteen in number composed by Sage Vyasa, who later
wrote the Shrimad Bhagavata), the Ramayana, the Mahabharata and other Kvayas
(poetical compositions), Grammar, Philosophy and the Tantras(a religious treatise),
which formed the usual course of studies then. Even in his school days he showed
signs of his poetic genius.
On completion of his study Shrimanta Sankaradeva wanted to lead a scholastic
and religious life keeping himself away from the administrative duties of the
Siromoni Bhuyan, but on the persuasions of his kith and kin he assumed the
responsibilities at a very young age and came to be known as Deka-Giri (Young
Master). He married at the age of twenty one, a beautiful 14-yrs old Kayastha girl,
Suryavati. She was the daughter of Harivaragiri, a wealthy Bhuyan. Suryavati died
after giving birth to a girl child, Manu or Haripriya. This event which he faced at the
age of twenty four, made him insensitive to worldly ways. He controlled himself and
his feelings till his daughter turned nine and gave her in marriage to Hari, a Kayastha
youth.
In 1481 A.D., at the age of 32, after handing over the responsibilities of his
residence to Hari, his son-in-law, and all the administrative affairs to his uncles,
Jayanta Doloi and Madhava Doloi, he set out on a pilgrimage, accompanied by
seventeen persons including Mahendra Kandali, his teacher. This group of pious
people meandered all over northern India, seeing key centres of religious importance,
especially those sacred to Lord Vishnu. The pilgrims visited Puri (a place in Orissa)
and the 12th
Century temple of Lord Jagannatha (another name of Lord Vishnu)
attracted him the most and he stayed there for a considerable time. The holy
Jagannatha Ksetra (the holy place of Lord Jagannatha) was the seat of convergence
where religious scholars gathered to exchange ideas, promulgate new thoughts and
engage in debates and discussions. It was in this place of Orissa that he surrendered
to the concept of Bhakti after holding discourses with Vaishnava scholars all over the
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Bharatavarsa. The experiences and impressions of his long pilgrimage helped a great
deal in widening his religious outlook and inspired him to undertake the task of
reorienting the religious set-up. After 12-years of his sojourn he returned home with
a new energy and spirit, much learned and well equipped in Vaishnavite theology
and literature.
Shri Shri Sankaradeva, soon after his return from pilgrimage was pressed by
his grandmother to marry for the second time and also by the Bhuyans to resume the
duties of Siromoni Bhuyan. And thus he was persuaded to marry Kalindi, daughter of
Kalika Bhuyan in 1497 A.D. and recommence his duties as Siromani Bhuyan, but he
kept his mind always primed and engaged in religious scriptures. He also shifted his
residence from Alipukhuri to Bardowa. Thinking that it would be little difficult for
him to carry both household and administrative responsibilities together, he declined
the administrative duties and permanently transferred the office of Siromani Bhuyan
to a son of one of his uncles so that he could devote himself wholeheartedly to the
service of religion. He had decided on the mission of his life and requested his
brother, Ramaraya, to build a small temple and engrossed himself in the study of
scriptures and religious discussions. This became the embryo of a great institution
called the Sattra. Ramaraya alias Jagatananda and Ramarama Sarma, the son of his
family priest were the outstanding companions who helped the Saint with the
available means at their command to create a proper religious atmosphere at the
initial stage of the movement. He then organized a drama, the Cinha-yatra, a
‘dramatic representation with paintings’ of the seven Celestial Abodes or Vaikunthas
of Lord Vishnu. Saint Sankaradeva made the paintings on tulapat or cotton-made
paper and musical instruments like mridangas (a kind of drum) and taals (cymbals)
were made as per his design. The show was a tremendous success and attracted
people to his fold at large.
But the faith and movement gained an acme with tremendous momentum after
receipt of the Bhagavata Purana through Jagadisa Misra of Trihut, who being
directed, as the story goes, by Lord Jagannath in a dream to recite the Bhagavata
Purana before Shrimanta Sankaradeva. Jagadisa Misra recited the entire Bhagavata,
containing the commentaries of Sridhara Swami, the famous Mahant (a religious
instructor) of Govardhanapitha of Puri (a place in Orissa). He (Jagadisa Misra) did
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not return and stayed with Shrimanta Sankaradeva and died after a few months of the
completion of his exposition of the Bhagavata. The Saint was enormously profited
by this recitation and exposition, and was firmly convinced that the message of the
Purana with the message of the Ekasarana cult of the Vishnu-Krishna was supreme.
The commentaries of Sridhara Swami greatly influenced him and he made a
resolution to translate the Bhagavata Purana into Assamese. Taking the Bhagavata
Purana as base, he composed five stories which later he made parts of his famous
Kirttana Ghosa. They are- Ajamilopakhyana (The Story of Ajamila), Prahrada-
caritra (The Life of Prahrada), Haramohana (The Enchantment of Hara), Bali-
calana (The Trickery on Bali) and Gajendropakhyana (The Story of Gajendra). He
also produced another literary masterpiece, the Gunamala (The Garland of
Attributes), regarded as the quintessence of the Bhagavata. Another chapter of the
Kirttana Ghosa, Unresa-varana (The Description of Orissa), on the basis of the
Brahma Purana was also created by him.
“He combined three elements to form the main tenets of his creed: satsanga
(the association of the good, that is, bhaktas); taken from the Bhagavata, nama (the
chanting of the Lord) taken from the Padma-purana, Uttara-khanda and ekasarana
(the undivided devotion to one and the same God) as enunciated by the Bhagavad-
gita. He took upon himself the task of propounding the doctrines of bhakti or the
religion of Love in simple verses of various metres in the language of the people and
of propagating them through congregations. He found that people were attracted
almost readily towards this new creed, and he took to regular proselytizing” (Neog,
1967:12). His religion was open to all irrespective of caste and creed.
But very soon his campaign received a temporary set back from a clash
between the Bhuyans and the neighbouring Kacharis. Since there was no possibility
of settlement and peace, he advised the Bhuyans to shift to the north of the
Brahmaputra. This happened in 1516-17 A.D. Thus he had to leave his ancestral
village Bardowa and settled at a place called Gangmukh or Ganmau, near modern
Biswanathghat (Sonitpur district). But here too they could not lead a secured life with
peace. This place was within easy reaches of the Koches and Daflas (a hill tribe)
inhabiting the northern mountains. Finding this to be a fix they moved further east to
the River Island on the Brahmaputra known as Majuli with the hope that water would
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give them protection from all possible raids from the said communities. They settled
at a place called Dhuwahata-Belaguri, which was under the Ahoms. The Ahom
monarch settled them with land and estates. At Dhuwahata-Belaguri, he wrote Vipra-
patni-prasada (The Propitousness of Wife), Pashanda mardana (The Suppression of
Heretics), Namapardha (The Faults in Disobeying the Name of God) and other
poems.
His stay at Dhuwahata-Belaguri marked a momentous achievement. It made
him to bring an extraordinarily talented young Kayastha, previously a staunch Sakta
(follower of Saktaism) as his disciple, who later became known as Shri Shri
Madhavadeva and could occupy the position as his chief apostle. This union took
place in 1522, when the latter was only 32-yrs old. He came to the Saint with all fury
of opponent, as the Saint had initiated his brother-in-law, Gajapani into Bhakti (Saint
Sankaradeva gave him the name Ramdas) so much so that Gajapani refused to bring
him a goat, for sacrifice to the Goddess. A bitter verbal duel ensured between Shri
Shri Sankaradeva, proponent of Bhakti and Shri Shri Madhavdeva, a staunch Sakta
who too was well versed in the Sastras (Holy Scriptures). The latter quoted versus
from scriptures to defend Saktaism and the path of attachment (pravritti-marga) while
Saint Sankaradeva exploded his views with arguments and sought to ascertain the
supreme glory of the Vishnu-Krishna sect and the path of detachment (nivriti-marga).
Saint Madhavadeva was finally convinced that Saint Sankaradeva’s stand was right,
that only Lord Krishna is worthy of worship and he promptly fell at the latter’s feet,
accepting him as his master (Guru). His life became absolutely dedicated to
Vaishnavism, its votaries and the master. He skillfully managed to break up his
betrothal to a Kayastha girl and devoted all his time to the services of the creed. The
Saint was greatly strengthened and he looked upon Shri Shri Madhavadeva, who was
a scholar, a poet and a fine singer, as his appropriate co-worker and an associate, in
fact, a friend of the soul (prana bandhava). This acquisition of Shrimanta
Madhavadeva to the fold by the Saint is also known as ‘Manikanchan Sanjog’ (Gem
and Gold Union). With Shri Shri Madhavadeva joining the company of Shrimanta
Sankaradeva’s followers, religious discourses had their scope widened, and the music
of mass prayers (Kirttana) increased in volume. But the more popularity the Eksarana
faith of Gurujona (the Saint was addressed as Gurujona by his followers) started
gaining, the more hostility of the Brahminical sacerdotalisom he had to face. When
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the hostility became unbearable, the Saint arranged for a religious discourse and after
a full length debate he was able to win over the traditional Brahmin priests and as a
result his esteem and popularity spread far and wide. He also defeated the aggressive
Brahmin scholars in a squabble in the court of King Suhungmung and was awarded
enormously with honour and respect. By then an unhappy incident took place. In an
elephant catching operation by the order of the Ahom King, the elephant escaped
from the enclosure under the vigilance of the Bhuyans. For this fault Saint
Madhavadeva and Hari (the Gurujona’s son-in-law) were arrested. After a summary
trial, Hari was beheaded but Saint Madhavadeva being a celibate was released after
six months. This event embittered the sentiment of Shri Shri Sankaradeva and he
migrated from Dhuwahata-Belaguri to Patbausi (a place near Barpeta in lower Assam)
in 1546 A.D. and finally settled there. There he engrossed himself in writing dramas
and lyrics and finally completed his work on the Bhagavata Purana. On the basis of
the Bhagavata Purana, he created three other independent works: Anadi-patana (The
Descent of the Eternal), Nimi-navasiddha-samvada (The Conversation between Nimi
and the Sages) and Kuruksetra (The Journey to Kuruksetra).
At Patbausi, he lived comparatively in peace. Saint Sankaradeva’s best
acquisition at this place was Bhavananda, who later came to be known as Thakur Ata
(Ata- an address to the spiritual tutor by the disciples). All his major literacy works
including four dramas, Rukmini-Harana (The Abduction of Rukmini), Parijat-
Harana (The Theft of Parijata flower), Kaliya-Damana (The Suppression of Kali,
the Snake) and Keli-Gopala (The Sports of Gopala); the adaptations of several
sections of Bhagavata-Purana and the Uttarkanda of Ramayana were done in this
place. His most popular work Kirttana-Ghosa was also completed at Patbausi. His
doctrinal treatise in Sanskrit, Bhakti-Ratnakara was also written here. Brahmin
disciplies like Shri Shri Damodardeva, Shri Shri Harideva and Ananta Kandali also
joined his fold here.
Having permanently establishing himself at Patbausi, he set out for a second
pilgrimage with more than one hundred followers near about 1550A.D. and returned
back within six months. Returning from the pilgrimage he resumed his regular
customary works. But the growing popularity of his faith invited a fresh resentment
from the Brahmin priests. They complained against him to Ahom King Naranarayana
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who summoned the Saint to his court. The Saint expounded before the King the main
principles of Ekasarana-nama-Dharma. The King was deeply impressed by his
radiating personality and expressed his desire that the Saint should visit his court
everyday to attend the religious discourses with the priestly class over there. His
scholarly elucidation and poetic genius earned him the status of being a very close
friend and associate of the King. The King was so highly impressed by his persona
that he sought initiation from the Saint but the latter kept on postponing the date of
initiation. He knew that it would be impossible for the King to follow the life of a
Vaishnava and so avided the task by putting off the ceremony to an indefinite time.
With the support of King Naranarayana and his brother Chilaraya, Shrimanta
Sankaradeva enjoyed a better position in the society. Chilaraya also built a Sattra at a
place called Bheladanga for his stay while he had to visit Koch-Behar, the then
capital of the Ahoms. At the request of the King, he designed a sixty-yard long cloth
depicting Lord Krishna’s early life in Vrindavan. For weaving the tapestry, he
engaged the workers of a place called Tantikuchi or today’s Barpeta. It took about a
year to complete this piece of textile with exuberant colours and inwoven captions
which came to be known as Vrindavani Vastra, as per the theme it depicted.
In his last journey from Patbausi to the capital (or seat of royalty), he stayed
for a night at Ganakkuchi (a place in Barpeta) with Saint Madhavadeva and
nominated his disciple as his successor to the apostolic seat. At Bheladanga,
Shrimanta Sankaradeva lived for about six months. There he wrote Rama-Bijoy nat,
his last work at the request of Chilaraya. His long and eventful life came to an end in
the month of Bhadra (August-September), 1568 A.D, just before the appointed day
of initiation of the King. His last rites were performed on the banks of a small river,
the Torocha.
In the words of Chaliha (1978:167-168) “Sankaradeva is the most celebrated
name in Assam. He was the most worthy son of God who is also regarded as an
incarnation by the Assamese people. He had not only a robust physique with a
handsome personality but also an unparalleled mind. He was a versatile genius, a
good administrator, religious teacher and a social reformer. He was a preacher,
devotee, saint, poet, dramatist, actor, painter, musician and an erudite scholar who
shaped the modern Assam five centuries ago. He propagated a liberal form of bhakti,
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the Eka-sarana-dharma, which means complete self-surrender to the supreme One
and that One is formless and without attributes, Vishnu-Krishna. For his devotion
caste and other qualifications are not needed. Rituals and scholarship are
unnecessary. Singing and chanting of His holy name is enough. Nam-Kirtana is the
key that opens all doors to salvation”.
Kakati (1978:16) has rightly remarked, “Sankaradeva had given Assam a new
life, letters, and a state. Rulers have come and gone and their kingdom perished in
the dust, but Sankaradeva’s state endures and broad in the general heart of men and
his power survives”.
Phukan (2010:150-51) states, “Sankaradeva embodied creativity; and above
all, he was a man of religion. His literary and artistic activities are not ends in
themselves; they are consciously oriented towards the sharing of his creed. His work-
-- be it a hymn, a verse for chanting, dramas for the stage, dance forms, or even a
drum for accompaniment---was only to draw his audience to the word of God. That
he performed each task with consummate excellence is a measure of his greatness”.
2.3 Development of Sattra Institution and the Formation of Sub-sects
“The Vaisnavism of Sankaradeva, which the modern writers love to call Neo-
Vaisnavism, was in reality a local incarnation of the Vaisnava Bhakti Movement in
the country. It was devised to suit the local social conditions prevailing in Assam.
Although Sankaradeva’s Vaisnavism was a strong current of Indian Bhakti
Movement, it should be taken as the local Assamese version of the main
stream.”(Verma, 2005:21)
The Neo Vaishnavite movement drew a large number of followers on account
of two reasons. Firstly, the religion propagated by the Saint was based on the
principle of equality as he did not make any slightest distinction of caste and creed.
His religion embraced all and sundry. Secondly, the simplicity of the religion against
the elaborate and appalling ritualistic processes made it a popular cult.
The movement popularized the congregation form of religious practice,
institutionalized by the establishment of the Sattra (Vaishnava monastery) and
Namghar (prayer hall cum socio-religious and cultural centre in a village). It is
through this institution that the faith was preached and practiced. “In Sanskrit
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literature the word sattra has been used in two senses, firstly, in the sense of an alms
house and secondly, in the sense of a sacrifice lasting from a few days to a year or
more. The latter sense is responsible for lending nomenclature to the Vaisnavite
institution of Assam. In the opening chapter of the Bhagavata- purana the word
sattra has been used to denote a long session of sacrifice of a thousand year’s
duration performed by sages in the forest of Nimisa. In course of the sacrificial
session Suta-Ugrasrava recited and explained the entire Bhagavata-purana to the
assembled sages. This process of reciting and listening to the exposition of the
Bhagavata most probably gave currency to the word sattra in Assam. Sankaradeva
probably initiated his movement by reciting and expounding stories from the
Bhagavata-purana, to a band of followers who clustered around him to listen to his
religious discourses. The part played by Sankaradeva reminded listeners of the part
played by Suta-Ugrasrava in the assembly of holy sages in the forest of Nimisa. The
fact that a sacrificial session known as sattra proceeded concurrently with the act of
expounding the Bhagavata, easily led people to believe that a sattra and a holy
association where the Bhagavata used to be discussed were identical. Under this
impression devotees began to term an assembly where the Bhagavata used to be
recited as a sattra. The etymological meaning of the word which means an
association or a sitting (√ sad +tra) or an instrument which helps to liberate the noble
(sat +√ trai) must have supplied additional weight to form the above notion about
sattra. The word sattra naturally became satra in Assamese” (Sarma, 1999: 143-
144).
Mahanta (cited in Rajkhowa, 2003:117) states that the word ‘Sattra’ is
derieved from the word ‘Sat+Tra’, meaning one’s elevation from the mundane to the
holy sphere or providing salvation to the noble souls. She quotes the noted Baikuntha
Nath Bhattadev, who gives the definition of Sattra, in his ‘Saran Mallika, which is
transcripted as under.
“Sattra is the place where devotional prayers are offered to the supreme God
by the gods and the Vaishnavas. It is the place where the devoted bhaktas offer
various kinds of service for the satisfaction of God and the nine kinds of a Bhakti are
pursued everyday. It is the place where reside the Vaishnavas engaged in the ‘nam-
kirtan’ of Hari or Krishna. This holy place is called Sattra”.
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According to Mahanta (2005:166-67), “The definion of a satra is ‘sat’ means
honest and ‘tra’means to assemble, that means in a satra the the honest people
assemble and discuss or worship God”.
Dr. Richard a. Engelhardt (former UNESCO Regional Advisor for Culture in
Asia and the Pacific, UNESCO Regional Office, Bangkok), currently working as the
Professor of UNESCO used the word Sattra in its present spelling (that I have used in
my thesis) in his report that he submitted to the UNESCO headquarters at Paris after
his visit to Majuli in 2000 with Professor Dilip K. Medhi (UNESCO Report, 2007).
In the recently submitted Nomination Dossier to UNESCO for its nomination for
WHS (World Heritage Site), the same spelling has been used.
The Sattras played a great role in the socio-religious life of the people. The
Sattra institution with its religious cum cultural centre in a village i.e. the Namghar
carried the torch of Vaishnavism to every household.
The Saint nominated Shri Shri Madhavadeva as his successor to take charges
of the order. Gurujona also delegated his Brahmin follower Shri Shri Damodardeva,
the power of administering ordination as this was quite necessary particularly in the
case of Brahmin neophytes. Saint Madhavadeva set up his Sattra at Sundardiya
(Barpeta) and carried on the proselytising activities as well as the cultural tradition
initiated by his Guru. In course of time he also established the Barpeta Sattra. Shri
Shri Damodardeva, one of the principal followers of Shrimanta Sankaradeva found
difficult to regard Saint Madhavadeva, an erstwhile colleague, as his superior. So, he
along with a section of Vaishnavas headed by him seceded from the order, disowning
Saint Madhavadeva’s leadership. He formed the Damodari sub-sect. Shri Shri
Harideva, another Brahmin admirer of Shri Shri Sankaradeva also started a new sect
distinct from that of the Saint. When again Saint Madhavadeva died further
fissiparous tendencies made themselves felt. He did not nominate anybody to succeed
him as the supreme religious head. There was none among his principal devotees who
could command unwavering faithfulness from all sections of devotees. Narayana
Thakur, the friend and colleague of Saint Madhavadeva was too old to shoulder the
responsibility of wielding together the different sections of devotees. As such, the
disciples found themselves in three sections under the leadership of Gopala Ata,
Purusottama Thakur Ata and Mathuradasa Ata respectively. Gopala Ata and
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Mathuradasa Ata alias Buddha Ata, are two of the important dharmachayas
(preacher/apostles) appointed by Saint Madhavadeva and both claim to be his real
successor. Purusottam Thakur Ata, the eldest grandson of Gurujona stood as the third
claimant for the leadership being the direct descendent of the originator of the sect.
Mathuradasa Ata aspired to the leadership on the strength of his superiorship of the
Barpeta Sattra, established and organised by Saint Madhavadeva. Thus, with the
formation of three rival groups, germs of difference began to develop. Narayan
Thakur considered Shrimanta Sankaradeva as the Guru of the sect, whereas
Mathuradasa Ata contended that Saint Madhavadeva was the real Guru of the sect and
considered Saint Sankaradeva to be an incarnation. Similarly, Purusottama Thakur
Ata did not acknowledge Saint Madhavadeva as the successor of Saint Sankaradeva
and this attitude of his was not at all approved by Mathuradasa Ata and Gopala Ata.
The gulf of difference gradually widened and ultimately resulted in the formation of
three more sub-sects within the order. These three sub-sects with the other two
seceding sub-sects are known as ‘samhati’. The term samhati is a synonym of the
term sangha which means an association. The term is also used as sanghati (joining,
cohesion). The sub-sect organised by Shri Shri Damodaradeva and Shri Shri Harideva
are considered as one samhati and it is called Brahma samhati. The sub-sects founded
by Gopala Ata and Purusottama Thakur Ata are known as Kala and Purusa samhati
respectively. The sub-sect organised by Mathuradasa Ata, Kesava Ata and Padma Ata
is called Nika samhati.
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Fig.1. THE FOUR SAMHATIS
SANKARADEVA
The Brahma samhati comprising two sub-sects is the most influential of the
samhati as it covers under its shade the affluent Sattras of Assam viz. Auniati,
Dakhinpat, Garmur and Kuruwavahi popularly known as Chari-Sattras (four
Sattras). The most important Sattra of the Haridevi sect is Maneri established by the
founder himself. The so called Haridevi sect is taken as a branch of the Brahma
samhati because of the existence of the Brahminical rituals alongside the devotional
practices. Excepting the manner and procedure of conducting devotional services, the
Haridevi sect is practically identical in fundamental teachings and practices with the
sub-sect of Damodaradeva. Most of the Sattras affiliated to this samhati are headed
by Brahmins, though non-Brahmin heads are not altogether negligible. Some Sattras
affiliated to this samhati developed fully the monastic characteristics. The
compromising approach of the Brahma samhati considerably removed the
misapprehension of a section of orthodox people who considered the new Vaishnava
SHRI SHRI
DAMODARADEVA
SHRI SHRI
HARIDEVA
SHRI SHRI
MADHAVADEVA
PURUSOTTAMA
THAKUR ATA
BRAHMA
SAMHATI
GOPAL A
ATA
MATHURA
DASA ATA
KESAVA
ATA
PADMA ATA
PURUSA
SAMHATI
NIKA
SAMHATI
KALA
SAMHATI
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faith un-Vedic and as such contrary to traditional Hindu religion. The leaders of the
Brahma samhati explained that Vedic and Puranic rituals and devotional rituals and
devotional practices are not mutually exclusive. One can be a good Vaishnava even
after performing the daily and occasional rites instructed by the Dharmasastras
(religious scriptures).
Kala samhati owes its origin to Gopala Ata of Bhawanipur who was one of the
twelve apostles (dharmachayas) nominated by Saint Madhavadeva. The followers of
this branch claim Gopala Ata as the supreme religious head after Shri Shri
Madhavadeva. Some notable branches of this samhati are Dihing Sattra, Mayamara
Sattra, Gajala Sattra and Ahatguri Sattra. To the followers of this sub-sect, the Guru
is God in human form. Another most striking point to be noted here is that no
distinction was made between one disciple and another on grounds of caste. The next
point to be noted here is that this samhati is primarily responsible for bringing to the
fold of Vaishnavism, the tribals and socially backward communities and thus giving
them an opportunity for spiritual upliftment. The practice of initiating women is
absent in this sect. Lastly, the sub-sect is characterized by the absence of image
worship and rosary beads.
Purusa samhati derives its name from its originator Purusottama Thakur Ata,
the eldest grandson of Shrimanta Sankaradeva. The followers of this samhati regard
Thakur Ata as the real successor of the Saint. He proclaimed Shri Shri Sankaradeva
as the only Guru of the sect and called the other proselytizers or religious heads as
mere representatives of the Saint. The principal Sattras affiliated to the Purusa
samhati are grouped under three categories
(i) Bar-barajaniya Sattras i.e. the Sattras established by the twelve principal
disciples of Purusottama Thakur Ata. It is so named because the founders of
these Sattras received initiation and inspiration from Thakur Ata who was the
senior of the two grandson of Shrimanta Sankaradeva.
(ii) Saru-barajaniya Sattras i.e. the Sattras established by twenty four disciples of
Caturbhuja Thakur and his wife Kanaklata. It is so named because of its
affiliation to Caturbhuja Thakur, the junior grandson of Saint Sankaradeva.
(iii) Nati Sattras i.e. the Sattras founded by great grandsons of Shri Shri
Sankaradeva.
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Examples of Bar-barajaniya Sattra are Alengi Sattra, Ratanpur Sattra,
Bengennati Sattra and Cupaha Sattra and so on. Bargaon Sattra, Kawaimari Sattra,
Bihampur Sattra, Cungapara Sattra are categorised as Saru-barajaniya Sattra. Under
Nati Sattra mention may be made of Bardowa Sattra, Narowa Sattra and Samuguri
Sattra.
The Vaishnavas are of the view that Nika Samhati had taken its shape after the
foundation of three sub-sects. The word Nika (pure, clean) points to the conclusion
that it originated immediately after the formation of other three sub-sects. The
necessity of organizing a cleaner sect arose when other sub-sects appeared to have
gone astray from the original path, chalked out by the first two Gurus. Therefore,
Saint Madhavadeva’s chief disciple Padma Ata thought it necessary to develop a
suitable code of conduct for the Vaishnavas. He got immediate response from
Mathuradasa Ata of Barpeta Sattra who also wanted to purify the sect by laying rigid
rules and conduct of life. Kesava Ata, a close companion of Padma Ata also aided
him. Padma Ata, Mathuradasa Ata and Kesava Ata may be considered the trio of the
Nika samhati. The most influential Sattra affiliated to this samhati are Sundardiya
Sattra, Samariya Sattra, Khatara Sattra and Kamalabari Sattra. The followers of this
sub-sect lay special emphasis on serving holy association (satsanga). The followers
consider Shri Shri Madhavadeva as Guru of the sect, while Shrimanta Sankaradeva is
regarded as the Guru of their Guru and as such their relation with Saint Madhavadeva
is immediate and that with Saint Sankaradeva is indirect. The worship of the Holy
Scriptures instead of idols is a marked feature of this sect.
The Uttar Kamalabari Sattra of Majuli belongs to the Nika samhati. As such
the disciples are required to observe strict discipline in respect of food, dress and
manners and also in religious activities. Stringent rules are noticed in other spheres
also. The details of its nature and contribution have been discussed in the succeeding
Chapters.
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PL.1.SHRIMANTA SANKARADEVA AND HIS CHIEF DISCIPLE
SHRI SHRI MADHAVADEVA