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CHAPTER 8
Philosophical Positions of the Body and the Development of Physical Education: Contributions of the Germans, Swedes, and Danes in
Nineteenth-Century Europe
Mechikoff, R.A., A History and Philosophy of Sport and Physical Education, Fifth Edition © 2009, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
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Introduction
Discuss parameters of idealismShow impact of idealism on body and physical
educationHistorical role of education during 18th
century, including rise of physical education
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Idealism
Traced back to work of Socrates and PlatoHas “competed” with naturalism since
antiquityNaturalism—all events share same character
Can be explained as a process inherent in nature
Idealism and its view of the body are very significant to physical education
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Idealism
Idealists focus on three specific topics: The existence of God The self Knowledge
Three components of idealism make up the fabric of metaphysical inquiry God, self, and the question, “how do I come to
know?”Components are not limited to idealism, but
form the basis for all philosophy
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Idealism
Idealists believe that entire universe is that which can be conceived or imagined by the mind
What the mind or spirit experiences and perceives as real is essential and authentic The world of material objects is secondary
to the “reality” conceived by the mind The actual world is imperfect Our mind is able to conceive of a perfect
world, which also must exist and is real
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Idealism
Use of logic is essential to make idealism work Example: Reality is mind All ideas are conceived by the mind Anything conceived by mind in all probability exists Therefore, any idea conceived by mind exists
The mind is composed of a spiritual quality Ultimate reality is beyond sensory and material
worldTwo different philosophical views in idealism:
Metaphysical and epistemological
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Metaphysical Idealism
Analyzes universe as a psychic or mental reality
All “things” that exist in the universe are linked by an ideal element (logically deduced)
Plato, St. Augustine, and even Aristotle believed in metaphysical idealism
Facts or evidence are obtained through deductive and subjective logic
Skeptics of metaphysical idealism will argue against this subjective logic later
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Epistemological Idealism
Approaches the study and actual “identification” of reality with mentally knowable data which are perceptible truths
Despite what might be “out there” beyond our mind, all we can know is what is in our minds
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Idealism and the Self
Refer back to Descartes to prove “self” Descartes argued that the ability to doubt
is a direct route to discovering the self “I think, therefore I am” Descartes arrived at self through process of
doubtDescartes’ “self” was mindful activity
Confirming the logic of idealism that reality is mind
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Idealism and Knowledge
Understanding nature of knowledge will clarify reality
Ideals must be derived from logical evidence
Sensory experiences must be interpreted and validated as authentic or unreliable
Truth is orderly and systematicTest for truth: its coherence with knowledge
that has been previously establishedIndividual attains truth by examining the
wisdom of the past through his own mind
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Idealism and Knowledge
Everything that exists has a relationship to something else that exists
Reality is a system of logic and order established by the universal mind
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German Idealists
Idealist believes that world and universe are primarily spiritual Part of the “perfect world” Humans are composed of more than the corporeal They have a soul that is a link to spiritual reality Ultimate reality to an idealist is spiritual
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German Idealists
George BerkeleyWorld has meaning because our minds are
able to discern itExperience allows us, through the mind, to
extract meaning from our existence, Something must exist that actually provides
the elements of quality and meaning This Something is the Universal Mind, or God
German idealists did not always base their belief in ultimate ideals with a traditional belief in God
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German Idealists
Immanuel KantComplex philosophy Published first major book at age 57—
Critique of Pure ReasonTheory of knowledge: Conscious reason
is the catalyst for all of our experienceIt is our conscious experience (mind)
that provides unity and order
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German Idealists: Kant
The world is represented to us by our physical senses and sensory input
Sensations are chaotic and, therefore, unrelated
These sensations we perceive are caused by “something out there”
Mind and conscious thought describes and orders sensations into perceptible components of space and time
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German Idealists: Kant
Driving question: Can metaphysics exist as a science?
Seems we come to know science and metaphysics in similar ways
We link and unify sensory input by categorizing them through mindful activity (consciousness)
We catalog these as reliable or unreliable
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German Idealists: Kant
Knowledge and reason are interactive process Originate in mind and are directed towards the
world Must “reason” through issues and questions“Thing in Itself”: defies our knowledge
Can never be known (infinite) Humans are finite Not able to comprehend or understand the
infinite
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German Idealists: Kant
Kant bases his belief in God on moral grounds, not supernatural existence
Kant’s five beliefsCategorical imperative of Kant and physical
education-sportSportsmanship and moral conduct in sportTeach humanistic qualities espoused by
Kant
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Johan Fichte
Concentrated on ethical writings that challenged humans
Believed that the phenomenal world we live in was designed to nurture and develop the “will” and develop character
Believed, unlike Kant, that the “thing in itself” was knowable
Evil is necessary: Catalyst for awakening the human spirit and spurring it to achievement
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Johan Fichte
Human spirit would never achieve without the presence of evil
Human spirit and physical education: “Health of the body is essential to vigor of the mind and spirit development of the ‘self’”
Idealism—big association between mind, body, and spirit
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Georg Hegel
Consummate idealist Reason can fathom all aspects of human experience
Epistemology = Thesis antithesis synthesis Profound influence on Karl Marx
Places corporeal world as a limited or finite ideaUltimate realities are within the realm of man’s
reasonBody is inferior to mind and spiritAssigned greater value to the ability to “know things”
than Kant and other Idealists
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Georg Hegel
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Idealism, Sport, and Physical Education
Idealism demands healthy and fit body for each person to reach full potential Mind would be at a disadvantage without a
healthy and fit bodyTo develop the self includes development
of the body Idealism supports the inclusion of physical
education
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Idealism, Sport, and Physical Education
Idealism allows answer to “what is good” “What is good” in education involves training
toward moral ideals, not necessarily subject content
Physical education should include moral training as well as physical
The “moral imperative” applies to all aspects of sport and physical education
Moral imperative opposes Exploitation of athletes Low graduation rates
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Idealism, Sport, and Physical Education
Achieving a superior life is the objectivePhysical, intellectual, spiritual, and moral
growth are desiredStudents are to be evaluated not just by
objectives tests but also subjectively—in terms of their “behavior, citizenship, and sociomoral conduct”
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The Educators
Johann Pestalozzi (1746-1827)Theory of education: intellectual, moral, and
practicalPractical education involved gymnastics and
games as well as physical laborGave an important impetus to physical
education as a school subject Educational reforms would further physical
education
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Freidrich Froebel (1782-1852)
Learned under a student of Pestalozzi’sBelieved in play as fundamental to growth
and developmentTheory of play supported physical education
“Play is the highest form of child development” Observation, discovery, and creativity were
necessary for developing skills
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Friedrich Jahn
German nationalist who sought freedom from Napoleonic rule
Established secret society (German League) Devoted to “spiritual renovation of Germany” Called for nationwide physical education in all
universitiesGymnastics teacher
Established turnen exercises and turnverein movement
Physical exercises as training to liberate Germany
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Friedrich Jahn
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Jahn and Gymnastics
Gymnastic events to spread nationalismJahn and Turners served in the wars of
liberation from 1813-1815Became underground movement after
Germany won independence from FranceGovernment suppressed movement Three of Jahn’s students left for America
Provided basis for American physical education
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Charles Follen
Lawyer, political subversive in GermanyFled to the U.S. in 1824Hired at Harvard to teach GermanDeveloped turnplatz at Harvard and at the
Boston GymnasiumFrancis Lieber (also Jahn follower) replaced
him in 1827
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Charles Beck
Classics scholar and theologian, followed JahnSailed to U.S., taught at the Round Hill SchoolRound Hill: founded by Germans
First school to require mandatory physical education in the form of German gymnastics
Beck is credited with being first physical education teacher in America
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Charles Beck’s Work
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Franz Nachtegall
Father of physical education in DenmarkRead GutsMuths and began to tutor students Promoted gymnastics in all Danish schoolsAchieved some success training teachersProgram was largely taken over by military
teachers and military gymnastics
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Per Henrik Ling
Originator of “Swedish” gymnasticsFundamental principles
Harmonious development of the body Biological, physiological exercises
Exercises were developmental, corrective, and aesthetic
Progressive difficulty and rigor
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Ling’s Gymnastics
Grounded exercise in medical and scientific knowledge of the day
Never caught on like Jahn’s systemSome success in Northeast United States