Chapter 8: Cell Reproduction. Chromosome Structure Chromatin – made of DNA and protein Seen in a...
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Transcript of Chapter 8: Cell Reproduction. Chromosome Structure Chromatin – made of DNA and protein Seen in a...
![Page 1: Chapter 8: Cell Reproduction. Chromosome Structure Chromatin – made of DNA and protein Seen in a non-dividing cell Chromosomes – Chromatin that has coiled.](https://reader036.fdocuments.in/reader036/viewer/2022081419/5697bff01a28abf838cba7fb/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
Chapter 8:Cell Reproduction
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Chromosome Structure•Chromatin – made of DNA and protein
•Seen in a non-dividing cell•Chromosomes – Chromatin that has coiled tightly
•Seen in a dividing cell•Histones – proteins that help to coil the DNA and maintain the shape of chromosomes
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•After replication, there are 2 identical sister chromatids, held together by a centromere
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•Each species has a set number of chromosomes:
•Humans – 46•Crayfish – 200•Corn – 20•Adder’s tongue fern – 1262•Chimpanzee - 48•Sand dollar – 52•Dog – 78•Cat - 32
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Viewing the Chromosomes• Karyotype - a photograph of the
chromosomes in a dividing cell • Shows the gender of the child• Shows abnormalities in chromosome
number or structure.
• Humans have 23 pairs of homologous chromosomes (chromosomes with the same genes), or 46 chromosomes total.• You get 1 of each chromosome from
mom, and 1 from dad.
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•Of the 23 pairs of chromosomes:•1 pair are sex chromosomes – determine your gender; may determine other traits as well
•Females are XX•Males are XY
•22 pairs are autosomes – all other pairs of chromosomes; do NOT determine gender
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How is karyotyping done?
• Cells are taken from the fetus of a pregnant woman
• Chemicals added to the cells make them divide
• Another chemical stops division at the midpoint
• The stained cells are photographed and can be paired based on cross-bands, size, and shape.
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Human karyotype preparation
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Normal male karyotype
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Down syndrome karyotype
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•Body cells contain the diploid (2n) number of chromosomes – 2 chromosomes of each kind (1 from each parent)•Sex cells (eggs and sperm) contain only 1 chromosome of each kind – haploid (1n) number of chromosomes
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Why do cells divide – why can’t they just grow bigger?
• Surface area represents ability to take in/get rid of materials.
• Volume represents needs of the cell – food, oxygen, water, etc.
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•Small cube 1 mm tall
•Surface area = 6 mm2
•Volume = 1 mm3
•Surface area to volume ratio = 6:1
•Larger cube 2 mm tall•Surface area = 24 mm2
•Volume = 8 mm3
•Surface area to volume ratio = 3:1
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•As a cell grows, the volume of the inside grows faster than the cell membrane around the outside
•What happens when a cell gets too big?•It could starve – can’t take in enough food to support needs•It could poison itself – can’t get rid of waste fast enough•So cells stay small for exchange of materials
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•Rather than grow bigger, cells divide and increase in number
•Cell division occurs when:•Body growth•Maintenance and repair•Fighting infection•Replacing worn/dead cells
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The Cell Cycle
• An orderly sequence of events that occurs from the time a cell is first formed until it divides into two new cells.
http://www.cellsalive.com/cell_cycle.htm
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• Most of the cell cycle is spent in interphase (time between cell divisions):
• G1 stage – cell growth and activity
• S stage – DNA replication occurs (S stands for synthesis of DNA)
• G2 stage – cell prepares for cell division
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•Amount of time spent in interphase varies – average for adult mammals is 20 hours•Nerve cells and muscle cells exit the cell cycle G0 phase
•Body never makes more of them
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• Following interphase is the M stage, including mitosis and cytokinesis
• Mitosis:
• 2 daughter cells are produced that are identical to the
• Occurs in body cells
• Diploid cells produce other diploid cells
• Takes about 4 hourshttp://www.cellsalive.com/mitosis.htm
http://www.copernicusproject.ucr.edu/ssi/HighSchoolBioResources/Cell Division/Mitosis/Introduction_to_Mitosis.asf
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Mitosis overview
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1. Centriole2. Chromatin3. Nucleolus (in yellow)4. Nuclear membrane5. Spindle fibers6. Chromosome (replicated)7. Centromere8. Sister Chromatids (each half of replicated
chromosomes) – become daughter chromosomes9. Cell membrane10. Cell membrane pinches in
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Early Prophase
•Chromatin coils to become chromosomes•Centrioles move to opposite ends of the cell•Nuclear membrane and nucleolus disappear
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Late Prophase
•Spindle fibers form•Chromosomes become attached to spindle fibers – centromere attaches to spindle fibers
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Metaphase
•Chromosomes line up at equator (middle)
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Anaphase
•Sister chromatids separate, becoming daughter chromosomes, and move toward opposite ends of cell
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Telophase
•Spindle fibers disappear•Nuclear membrane and nucleolus reappear•Chromosomes uncoil and turn back into chromatin
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• Cytokinesis, or division of cytoplasm, accompanies mitosis.
• Division of the cytoplasm begins in anaphase, but is not completed until end of telophase.
• In animal cell, cell membrane is flexible and pinches in to divide cell.
• In plant cells, rigid cell wall does not bend, so a cell plate forms to divide the cell.
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Mitosis in Plant Cells•Same phases as in animal cells•No centrioles •Cell plate forms instead of cell membrane pinching in
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Cytokinesis in animal cells
http://www.copernicusproject.ucr.edu/ssi/HighSchoolBioResources/Cell Division/Mitosis/Mitosis_Video_Quiz.asf
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Cytokinesis in plant cells
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Cell Division in Prokaryotes
• The process of asexual reproduction in prokaryotes is called binary fission.
• The two daughter cells are identical to the original parent cell, each with a single chromosome.
• Following DNA replication, the two resulting chromosomes separate as the cell elongates.
• Cell divides without cell structures seen in plants & animals
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http://www.microbelibrary.org/images/MondoMedia/2bhirez.mov
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Meiosis
• Produces sex cells (gametes)
• Female gamete – egg
• Male gamete - sperm
• Reduces the chromosome number
• Egg or sperm cells each have only one of each kind of chromosome
• Diploid cells (2n) haploid cells (1n)
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Overview of meiosis
http://www.cellsalive.com/meiosis.htm
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• Meiosis involves two cell divisions (meiosis I and II)
• Produces four haploid cells.
• Fertilization (fusion of egg and sperm) -restores the diploid number of chromosomes
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Meiosis I•Original cell produces 2 new cells•Each new cell has 1 chromosome from each homologous pair•Each new cell is haploid (1n)
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Meiosis II•Each of the 2 cells made in meiosis I splits•Result is 4 haploid cells•Chromatids of chromosomes are separated•Errors in meiosis can result in missing or extra chromosomes
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Meiosis in males vs. females:•Males:
•Occurs in testes•Spermatogenesis•Makes 4 haploid sperm
•Females:•Occurs in ovaries•Oogenesis•Makes 1 large egg & 3 polar bodies (that die) – cells divide unevenly
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Spermatogenesis
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Oogenesis
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Meiosis vs. MitosisMitosis
•Body cells
•Diploid cells make diploid cells
•End result 2 cells
•No variation in cells produced
Meiosis
•Sex cells
•Diploid cells make haploid cells
•End result up to 4 cells
•Cells made are different from parent
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Meiosis compared to mitosis
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Sexual vs. Asexual Reproduction
Sexual:•2 parents•Offspring are genetically different from parent – mix of traits•Union of egg & sperm
Asexual:•1 parent•Offspring are identical to parent•Binary fission in bacteria•Regeneration in worms
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Cloning: Produces an organism that is genetically identical to the parent
• Steps:1. DNA is removed from a fertilized
egg2. Fertilized egg cell is fused with cell
of individual being cloned3. Egg with new DNA is implanted
into a woman
http://gslc.genetics.utah.edu/units/cloning/clickandclone/
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