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Chapter 7 Anatomy and Physiology. Introduction Anatomy is the study of the structure and makeup of...
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![Page 1: Chapter 7 Anatomy and Physiology. Introduction Anatomy is the study of the structure and makeup of the organism. Gross anatomy: organs and locations.](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022081512/5a4d1b8b7f8b9ab0599bf059/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
Chapter 7
Anatomy and Physiology
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Introduction
• Anatomy is the study of the structure and makeup of the organism.− Gross anatomy: organs and locations in the
body− Microscopic anatomy: visible through
microscope
• Physiology examines the processes and functions of the body.
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The Planes of the Body
• Anatomic planes− Imaginary lines
dividing the body− Coronal plane− Transverse plane− Sagittal plane
• Midsagittal plane− Cross section− Longitudinal
section
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Directional Terms
• Needed to discuss:−Where an injury is
located−How pain radiates
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Movement and Positional Terms
• Range of motion− Full distance a joint
can be moved
• Flexion− Brings distal point
of extremity toward trunk
• Extension− Returns flexion to
anatomic position
• Abduction− Moves extremity
away from midline
• Adduction− Moves extremity
toward midline
• Hyperflexion− Flexed to or
beyond normal range of motion
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Movement and Positional Terms
• Hyperextension− Extended to or
beyond normal range of motion
• Supination− Turning palms
upward
• Pronation− Turning palms
downward
• Internal rotation− Turning extremity
toward midline
• External rotation− Turning extremity
away from midline
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Other Directional Terms
• Abdomen is divided into:− Right upper
quadrant− Left upper
quadrant− Right lower
quadrant− Left lower
quadrant
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Anatomic Positions
• Prone− Lying face down
• Supine− Lying face up
• Trendelenburg position− Supine with feet
higher than head
• Shock position− Head and torso
supine, lower extremities elevated
• Fowler position− Sitting up with
knees bent
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Anatomic Positions
• Recovery position− Lying on side, bottom arm
extended straight with head lying on it
− Top knee is bent, angling body slightly toward floor
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The Skeletal System: Physiology
• Bones protect internal organs.• With muscles, bones enable movement.• Bone stores minerals.
− Particularly calcium• Plays role in forming blood cells, platelets
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The Musculoskeletal System: Anatomy
• Musculoskeletal system− Provides body’s form, upright posture, movement− Musculoskeletal refers to bones and voluntary
muscles of the body.− Protects vital internal organs
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The Circulatory System: Anatomy
• Also called cardiovascular system− Completely closed
• Two circuits:− Systemic circulation in body− Pulmonary circulation in lungs
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The Heart
• Four chambers:− Two atria − Two ventricles− Each side of the heart contains one atrium and
one ventricle.
• Atria receive blood returned to heart.• Ventricles pump blood out of heart.
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Blood Flow Within the Heart
• Deoxygenated blood returns to the right atrium via superior vena cava and inferior vena cava.
• Freshly oxygenated blood returns to the left atrium through pulmonary veins.
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Blood Flow Within the Heart
• Blood flows through mitral valve into the left ventricle.
• Left ventricle pumps oxygenated blood into aorta, and then to entire body
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The Cardiac Cycle
• Process that creates the pumping of the heart
• Systole− Contraction of ventricular mass− Pumping of blood into systemic circulation
• Diastole− Relaxation phase of cycle
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The Vascular System
• Arteries carry blood away from the heart.• Veins carry blood back to the heart.• Arteries branch into arterioles.• Arterioles divide into capillaries.• Capillaries enlarge to form venules.• Venules merge to form veins.
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The Nervous System: Anatomy and Physiology
• Perhaps most complex organ system • Includes brain, spinal cord, and nerves• Responsible for fundamental functions
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The Nervous System: Anatomy and Physiology
• Divided into: − Central nervous system− Peripheral nervous system
• Somatic nervous system regulates voluntary activities.
• Autonomic nervous system (ANS) controls involuntary activities.
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The Central Nervous System
• Brain− Controlling organ
of body− Main components
• Cerebrum• Cerebellum• Brainstem
(midbrain, pons, medulla oblongata)
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The Central Nervous System
• Spinal cord − Extension of
brainstem− Carries
information to and from brain
− Contains connections between sensory and motor nerves
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The Peripheral Nervous System
• Divisions:− Somatic nervous system
• Controls voluntary muscles− Autonomic nervous system
• Sympathetic nervous system• Parasympathetic nervous system
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The Peripheral Nervous System
• Sensory nerves carry information from body to CNS
• Motor nerves carry information from CNS to muscles
• Cranial nerves (12 pairs) arise from the base of the brain.
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The Peripheral Nervous System
• Spinal nerves (31 pairs) carry information to and from the CNS from a portion of the body.
• Nerve plexuses form when nerves exit the spinal cord and follow similar tracts.
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Physiology of Sensation
• Ability to gather and process information about the body and the external environment is important− Generated and transmitted by sensory
receptors− Message is processed and:
• Brought to conscious thought• Generates an automatic response (reflex)• Discarded as unimportant
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General Senses
• Monitored by receptors in different tissues− Nociceptors monitor pain.− Mechanoreceptors monitor physical properties.− Proprioceptors track position in space.− Baroreceptors measure changes in pressure.− Chemoreceptors measure chemicals in the
body.
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Special Senses
• Sense of taste− Taste receptors respond to sweet, salty, sour,
and bitter
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Special Senses
• Sense of smell− Upper
nasal cavity contains olfactory receptors
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Special Senses
• Sense of sight− Eyeball is the source of information the brain
processes into pictures− Image is brought into focus by altering shape
and thickness of the lens• Distortion of the lens causes difficulty focusing on
an object.
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Special Senses
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Special Senses
• Sense of hearing− External ear
collects sounds into the ear canal
− Sound waves travel through the ear canal to the tympanic membrane or eardrum.
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Special Senses
• Sense of balance− Vestibular system is contained within the inner
ear.• Composed of fluid-filled sacs (otoliths) and fluid-
filled passageways (semicircular canals)• Structures are used by the CNS to collect
information about movement and orientation.
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The Digestive System: Anatomy
• Digestion: breakdown of foods and the absorption of nutrients
• Alimentary canal includes:− Mouth − Pharynx− Esophagus− Stomach− Small intestine− Large intestine− Rectum− Anus
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The Digestive System: Anatomy
• Walls of alimentary canal consists of:− Mucosa (carries out secretion and absorption)− Submucosa (carries away absorbed materials)− Muscular layer (provides movement of tube)− Serosa (protects underlying tissues)
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The Digestive System: Anatomy
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The Digestive System: Anatomy
• Accessory organs of alimentary canal include:− Teeth− Tongue− Salivary glands− Liver− Gallbladder− Pancreas
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The Abdomen
• Right upper quadrant (RUQ): liver, gallbladder, some of colon and small intestine
• Left upper quadrant (LUQ): stomach, spleen, some of colon and small intestine
• Right lower quadrant (RLQ): cecum, ascending colon, appendix
• Left lower quadrant (LLQ): descending and sigmoid parts of colon
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The Abdomen
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The Digestive System: Physiology
• Functions of the digestive system:− Ingestion− Mechanical processing− Digestion− Secretion− Absorption− Excretion
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The Digestive System: Physiology
• In succession, different secretions (primarily enzymes) are added to food by:− Salivary glands− Stomach− Liver− Pancreas− Small intestine
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The Digestive System: Physiology
• Converts food into basic sugars, fatty acids, amino acids− These products cross wall of intestine and travel
through portal vein to liver− Liver further processes and stores or transports
to heart − Circulatory system then nourishes all cells
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The Endocrine System: Anatomy and Physiology
• Made up of glands located throughout body− Remove,
concentrate, or alter materials from blood
− Secrete them back into body
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The Endocrine System: Anatomy and Physiology
• Glands secrete proteins called hormones.− Regulate mood, growth and development,
tissue function, metabolism, sexual development
− Steroid hormone diffuses through cell membrane
− Nonsteroidal hormone binds to receptors in cell membrane
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The Urinary System: Anatomy and Physiology
• Controls discharge of waste filtered from blood by kidneys
• Functions− Controls fluid balance in body− Filters and eliminates wastes− Controls pH balance
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The Urinary System: Anatomy and Physiology
• Components− Kidneys− Ureters− Urinary bladder− Urethra
• Waste products are constantly filtered from the blood to form urine.
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The Urinary System: Anatomy and Physiology
• Functions of the kidneys:− Reabsorb water as it passes through the
system− Secrete erythropoietin− Help activate vitamin D− Help maintain blood volume and pressure