Chapter 7

Crisis and Crisis and ConflictConflict

Chapter 7: Chapter 7: War in the Asia-Pacific War in the Asia-Pacific

RegionRegion

An Enquiry Approach to Modern World An Enquiry Approach to Modern World

HistoryHistory

Secondary 3Secondary 3

2

Crisis and Conflict: War in the Asia-Pacific Region Copyright 2006

Why was peace in the Asia-Pacific region

threatened?

Why did World War II break out in the Asia-Pacific region?

The reasons that made war in the Asia-Pacific likely.

The reasons that caused the war tostart in the Asia-Pacific region.

Could war in the Asia-Pacific Could war in the Asia-Pacific region have been avoided?region have been avoided?

3


In a NutshellIn a Nutshell By 1930s, Japan was actively pursuing an expansionist policy. By 1930s, Japan was actively pursuing an expansionist policy.

The reasons it gave were lack of land for its growing population The reasons it gave were lack of land for its growing population and a lack of resources.and a lack of resources.

In 1931, Japanese troops moved into Manchuria.In 1931, Japanese troops moved into Manchuria.

In 1937, Japan moved further into China starting what was In 1937, Japan moved further into China starting what was known as the Sino-Japanese War.known as the Sino-Japanese War.

To finance its war efforts in China, Japan turned to Southeast To finance its war efforts in China, Japan turned to Southeast Asia for resources.Asia for resources.

That however brought Japan into conflict with the USA. The US That however brought Japan into conflict with the USA. The US Pacific fleet was stationed at Pearl Harbour, Hawaii.Pacific fleet was stationed at Pearl Harbour, Hawaii.

To prevent the USA from hindering Japan’s campaign in To prevent the USA from hindering Japan’s campaign in Southeast Asia, Japan bombed Pearl Harbour on 2 December Southeast Asia, Japan bombed Pearl Harbour on 2 December 1941. This sparked off the war in the Asia-Pacific. 1941. This sparked off the war in the Asia-Pacific.

4


Japan’s foreign policyJapan’s foreign policyaims between aims between 1931 and 19411931 and 1941

Japan’s military Japan’s military aggressionaggression

Poor relations Poor relations between Japanbetween Japanand the Westand the West

The League The League of Nationsof Nations

The military started The military started acting withoutacting withoutgovernment government permissionpermission

Why was Why was peace in the peace in the Asia-Pacific Asia-Pacific

region region threatened?threatened?

5


Japan was the leading power in Asia.Japan was the leading power in Asia. It wanted to expand into areas that belonged to Russia It wanted to expand into areas that belonged to Russia

and China to build up its own empire.and China to build up its own empire. The Navy, like the Army, called for expansion into The Navy, like the Army, called for expansion into

British Malaya, French Indochina and the Dutch East British Malaya, French Indochina and the Dutch East Indies.Indies.

By the 1930s, Japan had expanded to include By the 1930s, Japan had expanded to include Formosa, Korea, Manchuria and the Pacific Isles.Formosa, Korea, Manchuria and the Pacific Isles.

To build an empire in the Asia-To build an empire in the Asia-Pacific regionPacific region

6


Japan felt that Asia should be freed from Western Japan felt that Asia should be freed from Western control.control.

As Japan was the strongest military power in Asia, the As Japan was the strongest military power in Asia, the Japanese felt they would have to lead the fight to end Japanese felt they would have to lead the fight to end Western imperialism. The Japanese took it upon Western imperialism. The Japanese took it upon themselves to be the leaders of Asia.themselves to be the leaders of Asia.

This made war in the Asia-Pacific likely because Japan This made war in the Asia-Pacific likely because Japan would have to wage war against colonial powers to would have to wage war against colonial powers to create a ‘Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere’.create a ‘Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere’.

To free Asians from Western To free Asians from Western controlcontrol

7


What was the ‘Greater East Asia What was the ‘Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere?Co-Prosperity Sphere?

This included countries such as Australia, New Zealand, This included countries such as Australia, New Zealand, Malaya, Burma, Thailand, French Indochina, the Dutch Malaya, Burma, Thailand, French Indochina, the Dutch East Indies, China and India. East Indies, China and India.

Japan wanted these countries to be part of its empire.Japan wanted these countries to be part of its empire. These countries had oil, tin and rubber which were These countries had oil, tin and rubber which were

important resources for Japan to be self-sufficient.important resources for Japan to be self-sufficient. These countries would also serve as markets for These countries would also serve as markets for

Japanese goods.Japanese goods. Japan used the term ‘Co-Prosperity’, to get Asians to Japan used the term ‘Co-Prosperity’, to get Asians to

believe that all the countries in the sphere would benefit believe that all the countries in the sphere would benefit economically through this arrangement.economically through this arrangement.

8


To find room for Japan’s growing To find room for Japan’s growing populationpopulation

Japan’s population grew from 30 million in 1870 to 70 Japan’s population grew from 30 million in 1870 to 70 million by 1937.million by 1937.

Rapid increase in population created the problem of food Rapid increase in population created the problem of food shortage. Hence Japan had to import food.shortage. Hence Japan had to import food.

The growing population also needed space. The growing population also needed space. Japan is a mountainous country and hence lacked living Japan is a mountainous country and hence lacked living

space for the increase in population.space for the increase in population. The military proposed overseas expansion promising The military proposed overseas expansion promising

that it will provide more land for housing and to grow that it will provide more land for housing and to grow crops. crops.

9


To control resourcesTo control resources

The Great Depression affected Japan’s economy badly.The Great Depression affected Japan’s economy badly.

Its industries needed cheap suppliers of natural Its industries needed cheap suppliers of natural resources and markets to sell their goods.resources and markets to sell their goods.

Furthermore, Japan could not sell its goods to other Furthermore, Japan could not sell its goods to other countries because of protectionism.countries because of protectionism.

Japan’s leaders looked to Manchuria as a solution for Japan’s leaders looked to Manchuria as a solution for the country’s economic problems.the country’s economic problems.

10


What Manchuria could provide:What Manchuria could provide:

• • cheap manpowercheap manpower

• • raw materials like coal, timber, iron, raw materials like coal, timber, iron,

soya beans, grain and goldsoya beans, grain and gold

• • an overseas market for Japanese goodsan overseas market for Japanese goods

To control To control resourcesresources

11


Japan’s foreign policy aims between 1931 and 1941 To build an empire

To find room for growing population

To control resources

To free Asiansfrom Western control

To create a ‘Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere’

BackBack

12


Growing influence in Manchuria Growing influence in Manchuria and mainland Chinaand mainland China

Japan’s influence in Manchuria began with the control of Japan’s influence in Manchuria began with the control of Port Arthur after it defeated Russia in 1905 in the Russo-Port Arthur after it defeated Russia in 1905 in the Russo-Japanese War.Japanese War.

Japan also acquired the South Manchurian Railway from Japan also acquired the South Manchurian Railway from the Russians and had special economic privileges in the the Russians and had special economic privileges in the region.region.

By 1919, Japan had gained control over the German By 1919, Japan had gained control over the German colony in Liaodong Peninsula.colony in Liaodong Peninsula.

Japan’s presence in China proved to be uneasy for the Japan’s presence in China proved to be uneasy for the Allied Powers.Allied Powers.

13


Strength of Japan’s Army in Strength of Japan’s Army in ManchuriaManchuria

YearYear ManpowerManpower Infantry DivisionsInfantry Divisions Aircraft Aircraft TanksTanks

19301930 10,00010,000 -------- -------- --------

19321932 94,10094,100 44 100100 5050

19341934 144,100144,100 33 130130 120120

19361936 194,000194,000 33 230230 150150

19381938 220,000220,000 77 340340 170170

19391939 270,000270,000 99 560560 200200

14


Japan’s territorial gains in China1905

Port Arthur

South Manchurian Railway

1919Liaodong Peninsula

BackBack

15


The Mukden IncidentThe Mukden Incident

In 1928, some officers from the Japanese Army bombed In 1928, some officers from the Japanese Army bombed a train, which was on its way to Mukden, killing the a train, which was on its way to Mukden, killing the Manchurian warlord, Zhang Zuo-Lin.Manchurian warlord, Zhang Zuo-Lin.

They had hoped that his death would pave the way for They had hoped that his death would pave the way for the government in Tokyo to take control of Manchuria.the government in Tokyo to take control of Manchuria.

Although the government made no move to take over Although the government made no move to take over Manchuria, the independent actions of the Army had Manchuria, the independent actions of the Army had long-term consequences.long-term consequences.

16



This incident proved that the armed forces in Japan had This incident proved that the armed forces in Japan had enough influence to be able to carry out invasions without enough influence to be able to carry out invasions without permission from the central government.permission from the central government.

It had the unintended effect of worsening Japan’s position It had the unintended effect of worsening Japan’s position in Manchuria. in Manchuria.

Zhang’s son, Zhang Xue-liang who took over control of his Zhang’s son, Zhang Xue-liang who took over control of his father’s army was strongly against Japan’s ambitions in father’s army was strongly against Japan’s ambitions in Manchuria.Manchuria.

In December 1928, he even forged an alliance with Chiang In December 1928, he even forged an alliance with Chiang Kai-Shek against the Japanese.Kai-Shek against the Japanese.

17


As a result of Zhang Xue-liang’s actions, the Japanese As a result of Zhang Xue-liang’s actions, the Japanese army leaders felt the need to seize control of Manchuria.army leaders felt the need to seize control of Manchuria.

On 18 September 1931, a train carrying Japanese On 18 September 1931, a train carrying Japanese passengers outside Mukden, exploded.passengers outside Mukden, exploded.

Blaming it on the Chinese, Japanese soldiers occupied Blaming it on the Chinese, Japanese soldiers occupied South Manchuria.South Manchuria.

Six months later, the government in Tokyo recognised Six months later, the government in Tokyo recognised that the Japanese Army had set up a new state called that the Japanese Army had set up a new state called Manchukuo installing the last Manchu emperor of the Manchukuo installing the last Manchu emperor of the Qing Dynasty, Pu-Yi as the head of the new state.Qing Dynasty, Pu-Yi as the head of the new state.

Although PM Inukai criticised the Army, he was unable to Although PM Inukai criticised the Army, he was unable to change the situation.change the situation.


18


Who or What should be blamed for Who or What should be blamed for the Marco Polo Bridge Incident?the Marco Polo Bridge Incident?

On 7 July 1937, a full-scale war broke out between On 7 July 1937, a full-scale war broke out between China and Japan.China and Japan.

It started at the Marco Polo Bridge (just north of Beijing) It started at the Marco Polo Bridge (just north of Beijing) when a Japanese soldier went missing during a patrol when a Japanese soldier went missing during a patrol and the Japanese Army demanded to search the and the Japanese Army demanded to search the Chinese section.Chinese section.

When the Chinese refused, both sides opened fire.When the Chinese refused, both sides opened fire.

19


Possible factors thatcaused the Marco Polo

Bridge Incident

The Japanese militaryThe Japanese militaryBy 1936, the Japanese Army By 1936, the Japanese Army felt that China had notfelt that China had notdefended Northern China defended Northern China strongly. The Japanese thus had strongly. The Japanese thus had not expected the Chinese to fight not expected the Chinese to fight over the Incident.over the Incident.

The international situationThe international situationJapan feared a war on two fronts Japan feared a war on two fronts with China and the USSR.with China and the USSR.However, with the rise of GermanHowever, with the rise of Germanthreat, Japan felt it was the rightthreat, Japan felt it was the righttime to concentrate its resources time to concentrate its resources on defeating China quickly.on defeating China quickly.

The Japanese zaibatsusThe Japanese zaibatsusThe zaibatsus were also guilty of The zaibatsus were also guilty of war mongering.They saw war war mongering.They saw war with China as a chance to gain with China as a chance to gain China’s markets, industries and China’s markets, industries and natural resources.natural resources.

Japanese political control Japanese political control of the Japanese Army was of the Japanese Army was weakweakFurthermore, the Tokyo governmentFurthermore, the Tokyo governmentconsidered withdrawal as humiliating.considered withdrawal as humiliating.It also feared political instability in It also feared political instability in Japan if it did not support the Army.Japan if it did not support the Army.

20


Japanese military expansion in the Pacific

1. 1910Japan invaded Korea. Itbecame a Japanese colony.

2. 1919Japan gained control of theLiaodong Peninsula as areward for supporting Britainand France in World War I.

3. 1931Japan invaded China, startingThe First Sino-Japanese War. It took over Manchuria.

4. 1933The Chinese Northern Province ofJehol was invaded and the Hopei region was demilitarised.

5. 1937Marco Polo Bridge Incident. Second Sino-Japanese War started.

6. 1938Most of Northeast and Eastern China underJapanese control.

7. 1941Japan attacked US navalbase at Pearl Harbour.

BackBack

21


The League was too weak to stop The League was too weak to stop Japan’s invasion of ManchuriaJapan’s invasion of Manchuria

League’s slow response to the crisis

Sep 1931: Japan invaded Manchuria

Dec 1931: League appointed the Lytton Commission to investigate

Jan-Oct 1932: Investigation continued

Oct 1932: Report of investigation given to League

The Great Depression weakened theeconomies of the leading membersand so they were unwilling to sendtroops to China.

Members were weak

Britain and France were moreconcerned with rebuilding theireconomies.

1932 • Japan ignored recommendations of report• Withdrew from League after it was criticised• League did nothing and Manchuria was

occupied

Result?

22


The League was too weak to stop The League was too weak to stop Japan’s invasion of ManchuriaJapan’s invasion of Manchuria

The Lytton Commission criticised Japan’s annexation of The Lytton Commission criticised Japan’s annexation of Manchuria.Manchuria.

Manchukuo was declared a puppet state.Manchukuo was declared a puppet state. However it also recognised Japan’s heavy investments in the However it also recognised Japan’s heavy investments in the

region.region. It recommended that Manchuria remain part of China but to be It recommended that Manchuria remain part of China but to be

allowed to have its own government.allowed to have its own government. Japan would be allowed to keep its special economic privileges Japan would be allowed to keep its special economic privileges

and investments there.and investments there. Japan rejected the proposal, withdrew from the League and its Japan rejected the proposal, withdrew from the League and its

troops remained in Manchuria.troops remained in Manchuria. The failure of the League in taking no other action convinced The failure of the League in taking no other action convinced

Japanese military leaders that the Western powers were too Japanese military leaders that the Western powers were too weak to prevent their expansion.weak to prevent their expansion.

BackBack

23


Western bias made Japan feel Western bias made Japan feel more hostile toward the Westmore hostile toward the West

Japan’s relations with the USA were poor because many Japan’s relations with the USA were poor because many Japanese felt that the West was biased against Japan.Japanese felt that the West was biased against Japan.

The terms of the Washington Naval Conference The terms of the Washington Naval Conference contributed partly to this.contributed partly to this.

Japanese nationalists felt that the West wanted to prevent Japanese nationalists felt that the West wanted to prevent Japan from expanding into the Asia-Pacific region.Japan from expanding into the Asia-Pacific region.

On December 1934, Japan announced it would no longer On December 1934, Japan announced it would no longer follow the terms of the Treaty.follow the terms of the Treaty.

This made war likely because this gave Japan the leeway This made war likely because this gave Japan the leeway to increase the size of its armed forces, in turn threatening to increase the size of its armed forces, in turn threatening the peace in the Asia-Pacific region.the peace in the Asia-Pacific region.

BackBack

24


Japan’s war against

China

Why did World War II break out in Why did World War II break out in the Asia-Pacific region?the Asia-Pacific region?

The international situation

Worsening relations between the USA and Japan

Hideki Tojo becamePrime Minister

25


Japan’s war against China The Marco Polo Bridge Incident marked the start of a full-The Marco Polo Bridge Incident marked the start of a full-

scale war with China.scale war with China. Japan had expected the war to end quickly but it dragged Japan had expected the war to end quickly but it dragged

on for years.on for years. The war used up nearly all of Japan’s resources.The war used up nearly all of Japan’s resources. Furthermore, China did not have enough raw materials to Furthermore, China did not have enough raw materials to

supply Japan’s needs. supply Japan’s needs. Japan also found it difficult to buy raw materials from Japan also found it difficult to buy raw materials from

abroad because of war in Europe.abroad because of war in Europe. This meant that if Japan had to continue its war in China, it This meant that if Japan had to continue its war in China, it

would have to conquer British Malaya for its rubber and tin would have to conquer British Malaya for its rubber and tin and occupy the Dutch East Indies for its oil.and occupy the Dutch East Indies for its oil.

BackBack

26


Japan’s Neutrality Agreement with Japan’s Neutrality Agreement with the Soviet Unionthe Soviet Union

Japan was concerned about a war two fronts as it had Japan was concerned about a war two fronts as it had clashed with the Russians along the Russo-Japanese clashed with the Russians along the Russo-Japanese border between 1938 and 1939.border between 1938 and 1939.

In April 1941, Japan signed a neutrality agreement with the In April 1941, Japan signed a neutrality agreement with the USSR.USSR.

This made war against the USSR less likely in 1941.This made war against the USSR less likely in 1941. The threat of a war on two fronts became even more unlikely The threat of a war on two fronts became even more unlikely

when Germany invaded the USSR in June 1941 as the when Germany invaded the USSR in June 1941 as the Russians would be too busy fighting the Germans to attack Russians would be too busy fighting the Germans to attack Japan.Japan.

This left Japan free to attack Southeast Asia and Pearl This left Japan free to attack Southeast Asia and Pearl Harbour.Harbour.

27


Soviet and Japanese clashes along the Russo-Japanese border

Changkufeng

Nomonhan

28


War in Europe left European War in Europe left European colonies in Asia undefendedcolonies in Asia undefended

The Western powers were fighting for survival in Europe The Western powers were fighting for survival in Europe against Germany.against Germany.

The situation in Europe left the Southeast Asian colonies The situation in Europe left the Southeast Asian colonies of the Western powers vulnerable.of the Western powers vulnerable.

These colonies included:These colonies included:

•• British Malaya (Malaysia and Singapore)British Malaya (Malaysia and Singapore)

•• French Indochina (Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia)French Indochina (Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia)

•• The Dutch East Indies (Indonesia)The Dutch East Indies (Indonesia)

BackBack

29


Japan saw the USA as a threat to Japan saw the USA as a threat to its plans to build an empireits plans to build an empire

Throughout the 1930s, Japan thought that the USA was Throughout the 1930s, Japan thought that the USA was trying to stop Japan’s plan to control the Asia-Pacific trying to stop Japan’s plan to control the Asia-Pacific region.region.

Relations between the two countries became increasingly Relations between the two countries became increasingly hostile.hostile.

The USA had a large Pacific fleet. The USA had a large Pacific fleet. It was able to protect territories and trading ships using It was able to protect territories and trading ships using

the fleet.the fleet.

30


Japan saw the USA as a threat to Japan saw the USA as a threat to its plans to build an empireits plans to build an empire

The Americans saw Japan’s aggression as a threat and The Americans saw Japan’s aggression as a threat and hence increased the size of their navy at Pearl Harbour.hence increased the size of their navy at Pearl Harbour.

Some Japanese military leaders felt that Japan had to Some Japanese military leaders felt that Japan had to attack the US Pacific fleet in order to cripple the USA’s attack the US Pacific fleet in order to cripple the USA’s ability to fight a war in the Pacific.ability to fight a war in the Pacific.

This will enable Japan to gain time to build up its troops This will enable Japan to gain time to build up its troops and protect the positions it had conquered in Southeast and protect the positions it had conquered in Southeast Asia.Asia.

31


US embargo on steel, scrap iron US embargo on steel, scrap iron and oiland oil

In 1941, the USA placed an embargo on Japan by In 1941, the USA placed an embargo on Japan by prohibiting exports of steel, scrap iron and oil to Japan.prohibiting exports of steel, scrap iron and oil to Japan.

Japan considered the embargo as a threat to Japan’s Japan considered the embargo as a threat to Japan’s survival in the war.survival in the war.

Japan was badly hit as it bought most of its oil and metal Japan was badly hit as it bought most of its oil and metal from the USA.from the USA.

The USA would only sell oil to Japan if it agreed to leave The USA would only sell oil to Japan if it agreed to leave China immediately.China immediately.

Japan was thus left with the option of either to leave Japan was thus left with the option of either to leave China or invade the Dutch East Indies and take the oil China or invade the Dutch East Indies and take the oil that can be found there.that can be found there.

32


Breakdown of US-Japan talks in Breakdown of US-Japan talks in 19411941

In 1941, Japan’s ambassador to the USA, Nomura In 1941, Japan’s ambassador to the USA, Nomura Kichisaburo and US Secretary of State, Cordell Hull, held Kichisaburo and US Secretary of State, Cordell Hull, held talks to improve relations between their countries.talks to improve relations between their countries.

US foreign policy was aimed at forcing Japan to withdraw US foreign policy was aimed at forcing Japan to withdraw from China.from China.

On the other hand, Japan felt peace could only be On the other hand, Japan felt peace could only be achieved if China accepted Japanese occupation. achieved if China accepted Japanese occupation.

The two goals were too different to allow room for The two goals were too different to allow room for compromise.compromise.

33


Based on the illustration, what were the causes of conflict between the Based on the illustration, what were the causes of conflict between the USA and Japan? USA and Japan?

Steel, iron and oil embargoes: In response to Japan’s aggression and invasion of China, the USA placed an embargo on Japan by prohibiting exports of steel, scrap iron and oil to Japan.

34


Hostility between Japan and the USA: As a result of the blockade by the USA, relations between Japan and the USA deteriorated further. The oil embargo left Japan with only two years’ supply of oil. Since no other country would sell oil to Japan, it had two choices — give in to US demands and remove Japanese forces from China in exchange for lifting the oil embargo; or take oil by invading the Dutch East Indies.

BackBack

35


Hideki Tojo became Prime Hideki Tojo became Prime MinisterMinister

In 1941, War Minister Tojo became Prime Minister.In 1941, War Minister Tojo became Prime Minister.

He felt that war with the USA could not be avoided.He felt that war with the USA could not be avoided.

Japanese leaders who supported negotiations were Japanese leaders who supported negotiations were gradually removed from the new government.gradually removed from the new government.

This made war likely because a general who supported an This made war likely because a general who supported an aggressive foreign policy was now in charge of the aggressive foreign policy was now in charge of the government.government.

BackBack

36


Japan orders the attack on Japan orders the attack on Pearl HarbourPearl Harbour

On 2 December 1941, Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto, On 2 December 1941, Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto, commander of the Japanese fleet sent out a coded order commander of the Japanese fleet sent out a coded order to ‘ascend Mt Nikita 1298’.to ‘ascend Mt Nikita 1298’.

This was a signal to bomb Pearl Harbour.This was a signal to bomb Pearl Harbour.

On Sunday 7 December 1941, the Japanese fleet On Sunday 7 December 1941, the Japanese fleet attacked Pearl Harbour.attacked Pearl Harbour.

The war in the Asia-Pacific had begun.The war in the Asia-Pacific had begun.

37


1. Although Japan’s attack on Pearl Harbour on 7December 1941 was a success with the sinking ofthree battleships and the destruction of 300 aircraft, US aircraft carriers and other battleships escaped the attack. In the end, Japan was defeated in the war.

2. Most of the Japanese Navy wasdestroyed after Japan lost majorbattles such as the Battle Of Midway. US planes and submarines attackedJapanese ships preventing vitalsupplies from reaching Japan.

3. US troops conducted ‘islandhopping’ campaigns taking only the main islands as they had goodharbours and airfields. This helped the USA to win control of the Pacific quickly.

4. On mainland Southeast Asia,British and Commonwealth forces fought the Japanese in Burma and India. US troops also fought their way across the Pacific from Australia to New Guinea and freedthe Philippines.

War in the Asia-Pacific 1942–1945

BackBack

5. In 1945, President Harry Trumanwanting to avoid the invasion of Japan, ordered the use of the atomic bomb. Hiroshima was bombed on 6 August 1945 and Nagasaki,three days later. The Japanese emperoragreed to surrender, ending the Asia-Pacific War.

38


Japan’s Japan’s AggressiveAggressive

Foreign PolicyForeign Policy

Weak League of Nations

Economic crisis

Militarism

Worseninginternational relations

Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity

Sphere

Rising tension

contributed contributed toto

failed to stop failed to stop

promoted anpromoted an

Contributed Contributed toto

contributed contributed toto

led toled to

aimed at creatingaimed at creating

SummarySummary

39


Causes of WWII inthe Asia-Pacific

US-Japan relationship• became worse in 1930s• 1941 talks broke down

Tojo became PM

Economic situation • War in China

International situation• USSR pact with Japan• War in Europe

Chapter 7

Documents

Transcript of Chapter 7