Chapter 6: Incentive Motivation

PSY 338: Motivation

The idea that motivation is not just innate but is based primary on external incentivesCan be thought of as mediator (M) that comes between the stimulus characteristics (S) of some goal object and the responses (R) that are directed toward the objectSMR Indications are these are actually two separate links:One between the stimulus and mediator and then a second between the mediator and response SM, MR

More on this theory later (Overmier & Lawry Model)

INCENTIVE MOTIVATION

INCENTIVES AS ENERGIZERS

Crespi (1942)ProcedureRats running for pelletsGroup 1: Initial small reward; then switched from small reward to larger rewardGroup 2: initial large reward; then switched from large reward to smaller rewardGroup 3: served as a control (no change in reward)ResultsInitially, Group 2 > Group 1Group 1: Started running faster Group 2: Started running slower See next slide

INCENTIVES AS ENERGIZERS

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Crespi (1942)

ResultsInitially, Group 2 > Group 1Group 1: Started running faster Group 2: Started running slowerInterpretationDifferent incentive objects affect how hard the organism is willing to perform (motivation) but not the rate of learning as had been previously thoughtAfter 20 trials, all three groups were getting the same amount of reward, yet it was viewed differently depending on the group

INCENTIVES AS ENERGIZERS

Crespi (1942)

If a goal can influence behavior even before that goal is reached, then organisms must in some way come to anticipate the availability of the goal

Hull-Spence and rg – sg

Consummatory Response (Rg )Witnessed response from incentiveIncentive value of goal object could be indexed by the vigor of this responseStimuli present when Rg occurs will become associated with it (classical conditioning) and tend to elicit Rg directly

INCENTIVE MOTIVATION (K)

Hull-Spence and rg – sg

Consummatory Response (Rg)

Rg response does not occur in a vacuum; rats running a maze will be affected by the extent that the stimuli also occur before the organism reaches the goal box will determine whether Rg will be elicitedOf course this would be disruptive; therefore, a fractional anticipatory response is more likely the result

INCENTIVE MOTIVATION (K)

Organism can sense if it is making the Rg

Sensory feedback (Sg) allows for this

This rg – sg mechanism serves to motivate the instrumental responses that must be made in order to get to the goal box and engage in the Rg

This is an entirely mechanical process; through the process of classical conditioning, the stimuli in the environment come to elicit small parts of the final Rg and the Sg from these responses serves to motivate ongoing behavior

RG – SG MECHANISM

RG – SG MECHANISM

How does previous experience with reward become an incentive?Spence (1956) Proposed that environmental cues become associated with rewardsRG changes with the stimuli related to SG

RG becomes more apparent as the organism gets closer to the goal

Seeing the rewarding stimulus results in arousal, rg and sg, motivating approach behaviorAs the organism approaches the goal area, more and more stimuli should occur that have been associated with RG

RG – SG MECHANISM

What if the external stimuli are different at the beginning of the route as compared to the goal box? Not just based on external cuesThe sensations we feel when we are hungry are with us all the way from start to goal and thus they are present when RG occurs and should also elicit a fractional anticipatory response

PROBLEMS WITH ANTICIPATORY RESPONSE

Spence hypothesized a peripheral nervous system responseHe posited that Rg consisted of minute muscular responses and the associated sensory feedback from these muscle contractions Other researchers found no reliable physiological change with instrumental behaviorThey suggest that the response may be CNS not ANSThe change is in activation of some brain region, not an autonomic response

PERSISTENCE OF BEHAVIOR: RF - SF MECHANISM

Why do we persist even after instances of difficulty or failure? Other times we don’t.Seems to be related to anticipatory responses

RF - SF MECHANISM

What happens when a rat reaches a goal in which it has been previously rewarded but now finds nothing? If the rat has been in the situation several times and has been rewarded then incentive motivation has been instituted by the rg – sg mechanism

Amsel & Roussel (1952)Result is an unlearned frustration response (RF )

Occurs when it discovers all its efforts (fractional anticipatory response) are for naught

RF - SF MECHANISM

Amsel & Roussel (1952)Used Spence’s idea of anticipatory states to explain inhibitionFrustration motivates avoidance and suppression of approach behaviorNonreward produces RF - SF mechanism motivating avoidanceAnticipation of RF - SF motivates avoidance

RF - SF MECHANISM

Amsel & Roussel (1952)Any stimuli present at the time RF occurs will likely become associated with it and if these stimuli also occur early in the sequence of events it will elicit the anticipatory frustration responseAs with the rg – sg mechanism, the organism knows it is making these responses based on the feedback stimuli which in this case is referred to as frustration response stimulus feedback (SF)These partial frustration responses typically cause the animal to stop its present behavior and engage in some other behaviorBut not always…

See next slide

Amsel (1952): CounterconditioningMotivation generated by the frustration of nonreward gets channeled into the very response that causes the frustrationThe competing responses that would normally develop as a result of this frustration are countered by the situationThe motivation becomes conditioned only to responses that can easily occur

For example, responses leading to the sometimes filled goal box

Thus, RF - SF mechanism serves as a motivator for ongoing behavior

PERSISTENCE OF BEHAVIOR: RF - SF MECHANISM

Amsel (1952): CounterconditioningMost likely to occur when someone began with a partial reinforcement scheduleMuch more persistence than from a continuous reinforcement scheduleDuring, continuous reinforcement rg – sg builds up; motivating necessary responses to reach goalWhen taken away, frustration causes avoidanceDuring, partial reinforcement rg – sg builds up too; but not as much (slower process)During, partial reinforcement rf – sf builds up too on the unrewarded trialsAlternating competing and persistent responses are seen from those in these situations

PERSISTENCE OF BEHAVIOR: RF - SF MECHANISM

Mowrer (1960)Felt that four primary emotions were involved in incentive motivationFearA drive state (which is negative) occurs during emotion of fearThe emotional responses associated with the state of fear will become connected to any stimuli also present at the time the emotion occursThus, any stimuli present serve as cues to fear that will elicit driveConditioned fear motivates organism to make response to escape from the situation containing the fear cues (avoidance behavior)

INCENTIVES AS GENERATORS OF EMOTION

HopeDecrease in drive leads to the emotion of hope; cues present at the time hope occurs will become associated with the emotion and will eventually begin to serve as signals that a decrease in drive is imminent Stimuli that produce the emotion of hope will activate behaviors that will keep the organism in their presence (approach behavior)

INCENTIVES AS GENERATORS OF EMOTION

Mowrer (1960)

DisappointmentOccurs when hope cues that predict a decrease in drive, do not lead to an actual reduction in driveNegative state that motivates the organism to remove itself from cues that signal disappointment (avoidance behavior)ReliefThis occurs when cues that signal an increase in drive are removedThus, stimuli present when fear cues are removed will then become relief signalsOrganisms will strive to maintain situations that predict relief (approach behavior)

INCENTIVES AS GENERATORS OF EMOTION

Mowrer (1960)

Tolman (1959)Behavior is not an automatic response to the environment but has direction and purposeExpectations will lead to goal oriented behaviorThe environment conveys goal-relevant informationStimuli point to reward or punishment

ExpectancyKey aspect of Tolman’s theoryIncentive objects influence behavior only if they are experienced enough times so that a cognitive expectation is built up

COGNITIVE FORMULATIONS

Bolles & Moot (1972)Felt that cues become incentive motivators to the extent that they predict the arrival or withdrawal of some goal objectA cue takes on motivational control only to the extent that it predicts some future event

Can lead to motivated behaviors Can cause demotivation as well

PREDICTABILITY

Overmier & Lawry (1979)These researchers posit that there are two independent systems which act like mediators between environmental stimuli and an organisms response to the stimuli

First system involves a link between the stimulus and mediator (SM)

Second system involves a link between mediator and response (MR)

OVERMIER & LAWRY MODEL

Overmier & Lawry (1979)Incentives have both an energizing and an informational functionEnergizing aspect motivates person to respond (first system)Incentives mediate behavior through informational properties as well; incentives serve as cues that aid in response selection (second system)

Informational aspect seems to be more important At least this is he case when the two aspects compete for the control of behaviorIncentives alter performance because they provide information about goals

OVERMIER & LAWRY MODEL

Overmier & Lawry (1979)Both systems appear to be connected to secondary reinforcers; these reinforcers play role as they have energizing and response selection propertiesFor example, money is a secondary reinforcer

OVERMIER & LAWRY MODEL

Bindra (1968)Proposed idea that there was a central motive state that activated goal-directed behavior toward incentive objectsMotivational states and emotional states were identicalThe organismic state (drive) and the stimuli from the goal object (incentive) combine to produce the central motive state Innate sensorimotor coordinations prepare us for contact with or escape from the incentive object

This model assumes that incentive stimuli serve both energizing and directional functions

THE BINDRA MODEL

Bindra (1968)Positive Incentives

These lead to approach behaviorNegative Incentives

These lead to avoidance behavior

THE BINDRA MODEL

Klinger (1977)Posits that incentive motivation is based on relationships

People pursue objects, events, and experiences that are emotionally important for them (meaningful)

We are motivated to obtain or keep incentives that we prize

Incentives & Goals Incentives are things that are valued; goals are things a person is willing to expand effort to attain

Being committed to a goal requires dedication

MEANINGFULNESS

Klinger (1977)Disengagement occurs when a goal is made unreachableDisengagement PhasesInvigorationIf blocked from reaching a goal; behavior gets stronger for a whilePrimitivationStereotyped and primitive behavior will result from not reaching goalAggressionVery primitive action

MEANINGFULNESS

Klinger (1977)DepressionFeelings of helplessness and hopelessnessRecoverySuccess in obtaining goals in other areas may lead to overall recovery

MEANINGFULNESS

PheromonesChemical messengers emitted into the environment that are sexually arousing Evidence that this is the case with some animalsNo direct evidence that this is the case for people

INCENTIVE ASPECTS OF SEXUAL MOTIVATION

Lopez & Ettenberg (2002)ProcedureMale rats copulate with female rats in a room with a distinctive odor; 5 trialsPut in isolation in a room with different scent after each trialLater they were allowed to run down an alley with 3 rooms at the end. One had the scent used in the room they had sex, another a scent of the room they were kept captive in, and a third room had no scentResultsThey ran the quickest to the room with the scent used in the sex roomInterpretationThe scent associated previously with sexual activity became a conditioned (learned) response

LEARNED SEXUAL STIMULI

Money & Ehrhardt (1972)Humans have sexual signaling system; visual at a distance, touch close-up

LEARNED SEXUAL STIMULI

Symons (1979)Two major attributes: health and age (evolutionary perspective again)Third characteristic: novelty

“Coolidge effect”No one particular physical characteristic that is consistently reported

FEMALE ATTRACTIVENESS

Berscheid & Walster (1974)Height is the only male physical trait that was consistently considered sexually attractive to women

Other studies say skills and abilities are what attract women to men; also status ranks high (evolutionary perspective yet again)

MALE ATTRACTIVENESS

Incentive motivations appear to play some role in physical addictionsResults from hedonic value of the incentive objectProbably some type of interaction with biological factorsClassical and operant conditioning seem to be involvedCertainly, the role of external factors is not as clear as the role of biological factors; genetic influences, etc.More research needed in this area

INCENTIVE MOTIVATION & PHYSICAL ADDICTIONS

Clear evidence that goal objects in the environment have motivational effects on our behaviorReasonable to assume that incentive motivation processes are involved in behavioral addictions as wellSome examples: gambling, sex, compulsive eating, compulsive shopping, running, InternetCues associated with these behaviors become incentive motivators by inducing a craving for those behaviorsMore research needed here as well

BEHAVIORAL ADDICTIONS

Some slides prepared with the help of the following websites:www.thocp.net/reference/artificial_intelligence/hull.ppt

CREDITS