Chapter 5 Observing the Atmosphere
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Transcript of Chapter 5 Observing the Atmosphere
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Chapter 5Chapter 5Observing the Observing the AtmosphereAtmosphere
ATMO 1300SPRING 2010
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Two Types of Two Types of MeasurementsMeasurements
• Direct Methods– Taken in place,
instruments in direct contact with atmospheric property you are trying to measure
• Indirect Methods– Atmospheric properties
measured from a distance (i.e., no direct contact).
– Also referred to as remote sensing.
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Direct MeasurementsDirect Measurements
• Automated Surface Observing System (ASOS) – Typically located at airports
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Automated Surface Observing System(ASOS)
Over 600 ASOS sites across North America Measures and reports standard atmospheric variables with a frequency of 1-60 minutes
TemperatureDew point temperaturePressureWind direction/speedRainfallCloud heightVisibility
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Displaying Surface Observations
Fig. 1-17, p. 21
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Fig. 1-16, p. 19
Station Model
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Box 5-1, p. 128
Meteogram
• Displays a time series of meteorological variables for a single station
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How are atmospheric How are atmospheric variables measured?variables measured?
• Unique instrumentation exists for each variable
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TemperatureTemperature
• ASOS uses resistance thermometers, which measure the change in electrical resistance of a piece of metal (a function of temperature)
• Often sheltered by a white “Stevenson Screen”, protecting thermometer from direct solar irradiation
• Well ventilated
Fig. 5-2, p. 129
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Humidity• Dew point hygrometer• Also called a “chilled
mirror sensor”• A clean mirror will exactly
reflect laser light to the receiver
• Temperature of mirror is decreased incrementally until water vapor condenses on it. Laser light scattered by the water droplets, reduction in intensity at receiver, dewpoint temperature reported.
Fig. 5-3, p. 130
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PressurePressure
• Mercury barometers (top) and aneroid barometers (bottom) are what we are used to.
• ASOS uses electronic barometers.
Fig. 5-4, p. 131
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Wind Direction / Speed• Cup anemometer used to
measure wind speed• Wind vane used to measure
wind direction• Also, there are sonic
anemometers (below), which measure how wind affects the propagation of acoustic energy (no moving parts!)
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PrecipitationPrecipitation• Tipping bucket rain
gauge• Upper heated collector
(melts frozen precipitation)
• Collector empties into bucket underneath, which tips and empties after every 0.01” of precipitation is collected.
• Wind guard around outside to keep precipitation from blowing across opening.
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Measuring the Upper Measuring the Upper AtmosphereAtmosphere
• Upper atmosphere is sorely undersampled• These measurements needed for improved model
forecasts!• Radiosondes released twice a day from stations
spaced far apart
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Indirect MeasurementsIndirect Measurements
• Two forms:– Active sensors – transmit and
receive energy– Passive sensors – just receive energy
• Examples?
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Satellite ObservationsSatellite Observations
• Two orbits for satellites– Geosynchronous or Geostationary orbit – 36,000
km above Earth’s surface. • Satellite rotates at same rate that the planet does.
Therefore, the satellite constantly views the same footprint on Earth.
• Good for constructing animations to determine motion of atmospheric features .
– Low earth orbit (~ 500 miles above the surface)• Satellite rotates faster than the planet• Therefore, this strategy is good for scanning many
portions of the planet• Usually, scans are from pole to pole
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Fig. 5-13, p. 140
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Typical coverage for a low-earth orbit
http://sharaku.eorc.jaxa.jp/AMSR/ocean_wind/manual/images/sunglitter_e.bmp
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Operational U. S. Satellites
• Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES)
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Visible Satellite Animations
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Types of Satellite Types of Satellite ImageryImagery
• Visible– What we have seen thus far– Solar radiation reflected/scattered by earth
and atmosphere
• Infrared– Allows us to visualized how much infrared
energy the earth and atmosphere are emitting– Tells us the temperature of the emitting
substance– For clouds, this information is valuable for
determining altitude of cloud tops!
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Recall Wien’s LawRecall Wien’s Law
• λmax = C / T
• The wavelength of maximum emission is inversely proportional to temperature
• Graphic from www.cira.colostate.edu/ramm/goes39
Fig. 2-8, p. 36
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Visible vs. Infrared
VISIBLE satellite image INFRARED satellite image
X X XX
cold warm
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Types of Satellite Types of Satellite ImageryImagery
• Water Vapor– Tracks infrared emission primarily from water
vapor (6.5-7 mm)– Altitude of emission: 300-600 mb– Can track upper-atmospheric flow– Useful for diagnosing upper-air weather
pattern (e.g., troughs, ridges…more later)– Since water vapor exists in some proportion
everywhere across the globe, continuous surveillance of flow is possible (do not need to have clouds)
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Water Vapor Animation
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RADAR basics• Electromagnetic energy
transmitted into atmosphere
• Backscattered energy (“radar echo”) measured by radar and displayed
• The larger the object, the more energy that is returned. Therefore, the intensity of the radar echo tells us how much precipitation is falling
• Sources of backscattering: raindrops, hail, snow, ground targets, debris
Fig. 5-19, p. 145
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Example of Radar Reflectivity
0.5 degree elevation
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Storm Total Precipitation
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WSR-88D Doppler Radar
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Doppler Effect
• Johann Christian Doppler (1803-1853)• Apparent frequency of radiation is affected
by motion of emitting source– Frequency increases for motion towards
observer– Frequency decreases for motion away from
observer
• Can use this effect to deduce motion of scatterers in atmosphere (driven by wind)
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Doppler Effect Animation
The Doppler Effect
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WSR-88D Network
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Radar Reflectivity & Doppler Velocity
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Research Radars
Doppler on Wheels (DOW) –Center for Severe Weather Research
Shared Mobile Atmospheric Research and Teaching Radar (SMART-R) – Texas Tech, Texas A&M,University of Oklahoma,National Severe Storms Laboratory
University of Massachusetts Tornado Radar
COMING IN 2007:TEXAS TECH Ka-band Radars
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UMass Tornado Radar Data3 May 1999
Reflectivity Velocity
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Wind Profilers
• Wind direction and speed inferred from three separate radar beams (one vertical, two orthogonal oblique)
• Vertical profiling
Image from B. GeertsUniv. of Wyoming
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Fig. 5-23, p. 148