Chapter 40 Introduction to Animal Structure and Function.
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Transcript of Chapter 40 Introduction to Animal Structure and Function.
![Page 1: Chapter 40 Introduction to Animal Structure and Function.](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062221/56649cb05503460f949756a6/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
Chapter 40Chapter 40
Introduction to Animal Structure and Function
![Page 2: Chapter 40 Introduction to Animal Structure and Function.](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062221/56649cb05503460f949756a6/html5/thumbnails/2.jpg)
Overview: Diverse Forms, Common Challenges
• Anatomy is the study of the biological form of an organism
• Physiology is the study of the biological functions an organism performs
(a) Tuna
(b) Penguin
(c) Seal
![Page 3: Chapter 40 Introduction to Animal Structure and Function.](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062221/56649cb05503460f949756a6/html5/thumbnails/3.jpg)
Exchange with the Environment
• An animal’s size and shape directly affect how it exchanges energy and materials with its surroundings
• Multicellular organisms with a sac body plan have body walls that are only two cells thick, facilitating diffusion of materials
• More complex organisms have highly folded internal surfaces for exchanging materials
• In vertebrates, the space between cells is filled with interstitial fluid, which allows for the movement of material into and out of cells
![Page 4: Chapter 40 Introduction to Animal Structure and Function.](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062221/56649cb05503460f949756a6/html5/thumbnails/4.jpg)
Exchange
0.15 mm
(a) Single cell
1.5 mm
(b) Two layers of cells
Exchange
Exchange
Mouth
Gastrovascularcavity
![Page 5: Chapter 40 Introduction to Animal Structure and Function.](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062221/56649cb05503460f949756a6/html5/thumbnails/5.jpg)
0.5 cmNutrients
Digestivesystem
Lining of small intestine
MouthFood
External environment
Animalbody
CO2 O2
Circulatorysystem
Heart
Respiratorysystem
Cells
Interstitialfluid
Excretorysystem
Anus
Unabsorbedmatter (feces)
Metabolic waste products(nitrogenous waste)
Kidney tubules
10 µm
50 µ
m
Lung tissue
![Page 6: Chapter 40 Introduction to Animal Structure and Function.](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062221/56649cb05503460f949756a6/html5/thumbnails/6.jpg)
• Most animals are composed of specialized cells organized into tissues that have different functions
• Tissues make up organs, which together make up organ systems
Hierarchical Organization of Body Plans
![Page 7: Chapter 40 Introduction to Animal Structure and Function.](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062221/56649cb05503460f949756a6/html5/thumbnails/7.jpg)
Tissue Structure and Function- Epithelial Tissue
• Epithelial tissue covers the outside of the body and lines the organs and cavities within the body
• Shape: cuboidal (like dice), columnar (like bricks on end), or squamous (like floor tiles)
• Arrangement: simple (single cell layer), stratified (multiple tiers of cells), or pseudostratified (a single layer of cells of varying length)
![Page 8: Chapter 40 Introduction to Animal Structure and Function.](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062221/56649cb05503460f949756a6/html5/thumbnails/8.jpg)
Epithelial Tissue
Cuboidalepithelium
Simplecolumnarepithelium
Pseudostratifiedciliatedcolumnarepithelium
Stratifiedsquamousepithelium
Simplesquamousepithelium
![Page 9: Chapter 40 Introduction to Animal Structure and Function.](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062221/56649cb05503460f949756a6/html5/thumbnails/9.jpg)
Tissue Structure and Function- Connective Tissue
• Connective tissue mainly binds and supports other tissues
– Collagenous fibers provide strength and flexibility
– Elastic fibers stretch and snap back to their original length
– Reticular fibers join connective tissue to adjacent tissues
![Page 10: Chapter 40 Introduction to Animal Structure and Function.](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062221/56649cb05503460f949756a6/html5/thumbnails/10.jpg)
• Connective tissue contains cells, including
– Fibroblasts that secrete the protein of extracellular fibers
– Macrophages that are involved in the immune system
Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
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• Loose connective tissue binds epithelia to underlying tissues and holds organs in place
• Cartilage is a strong and flexible support material
• Fibrous connective tissue is found in tendons (attach muscles to bones) and ligaments (connect bones at joints)
![Page 12: Chapter 40 Introduction to Animal Structure and Function.](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062221/56649cb05503460f949756a6/html5/thumbnails/12.jpg)
• Adipose tissue stores fat for insulation and fuel
• Blood is composed of blood cells and cell fragments in blood plasma
• Bone is mineralized and forms the skeleton
![Page 13: Chapter 40 Introduction to Animal Structure and Function.](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062221/56649cb05503460f949756a6/html5/thumbnails/13.jpg)
Connective Tissue
Collagenous fiber
Looseconnectivetissue
Elastic fiber12
0 µ
m
Cartilage
Chondrocytes
10
0 µ
m
Chondroitinsulfate
Adiposetissue
Fat droplets
15
0 µ
m
White blood cells
55
µm
Plasma Red bloodcells
Blood
Nuclei
Fibrousconnectivetissue
30
µm
Osteon
Bone
Central canal
70
0 µ
m
![Page 14: Chapter 40 Introduction to Animal Structure and Function.](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062221/56649cb05503460f949756a6/html5/thumbnails/14.jpg)
Loose connective tissue
![Page 15: Chapter 40 Introduction to Animal Structure and Function.](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062221/56649cb05503460f949756a6/html5/thumbnails/15.jpg)
Fibrous connective tissue
![Page 16: Chapter 40 Introduction to Animal Structure and Function.](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062221/56649cb05503460f949756a6/html5/thumbnails/16.jpg)
Bone
![Page 17: Chapter 40 Introduction to Animal Structure and Function.](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062221/56649cb05503460f949756a6/html5/thumbnails/17.jpg)
Cartilage
![Page 18: Chapter 40 Introduction to Animal Structure and Function.](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062221/56649cb05503460f949756a6/html5/thumbnails/18.jpg)
Adipose tissue
![Page 19: Chapter 40 Introduction to Animal Structure and Function.](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062221/56649cb05503460f949756a6/html5/thumbnails/19.jpg)
Blood
![Page 20: Chapter 40 Introduction to Animal Structure and Function.](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062221/56649cb05503460f949756a6/html5/thumbnails/20.jpg)
Tissue Structure and Function- Muscle Tissue
– Skeletal muscle, or striated muscle, is responsible for voluntary movement
– Smooth muscle is responsible for involuntary body activities
– Cardiac muscle is responsible for contraction of the heart
![Page 21: Chapter 40 Introduction to Animal Structure and Function.](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062221/56649cb05503460f949756a6/html5/thumbnails/21.jpg)
Muscle Tissue
50 µmSkeletalmuscle
Multiplenuclei
Muscle fiber
Sarcomere
100 µm
Smoothmuscle
Cardiac muscle
Nucleus
Musclefibers
25 µm
Nucleus Intercalateddisk
![Page 22: Chapter 40 Introduction to Animal Structure and Function.](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062221/56649cb05503460f949756a6/html5/thumbnails/22.jpg)
Skeletal muscle
Multiplenuclei
Muscle fiber
Sarcomere
100 µm
![Page 23: Chapter 40 Introduction to Animal Structure and Function.](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062221/56649cb05503460f949756a6/html5/thumbnails/23.jpg)
Smooth muscle
Nucleus
Musclefibers
25 µm
![Page 24: Chapter 40 Introduction to Animal Structure and Function.](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062221/56649cb05503460f949756a6/html5/thumbnails/24.jpg)
Nucleus Intercalateddisk
Cardiac muscle
50 µm
![Page 25: Chapter 40 Introduction to Animal Structure and Function.](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062221/56649cb05503460f949756a6/html5/thumbnails/25.jpg)
Tissue Structure and Function- Nervous Tissue
• Nervous tissue senses stimuli and transmits signals throughout the animal
• Nervous tissue contains:
– Neurons, or nerve cells, that transmit nerve impulses
– Glial cells, or glia, that help nourish, insulate, and replenish neurons
![Page 26: Chapter 40 Introduction to Animal Structure and Function.](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062221/56649cb05503460f949756a6/html5/thumbnails/26.jpg)
Glial cells
Nervous Tissue
15 µm
Dendrites
Cell body
Axon
Neuron
Axons
Blood vessel
40 µm
![Page 27: Chapter 40 Introduction to Animal Structure and Function.](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062221/56649cb05503460f949756a6/html5/thumbnails/27.jpg)
Dendrites
Cell body
Axon
40 µm
Neuron
![Page 28: Chapter 40 Introduction to Animal Structure and Function.](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062221/56649cb05503460f949756a6/html5/thumbnails/28.jpg)
Glial cells
Axons
Blood vessel
Glial cells and axons15 µm
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Stimulus
Hormone
Endocrinecell
Signal travelseverywherevia the bloodstream.
Bloodvessel
Response
(a) Signaling by hormones
Stimulus
Neuron
AxonSignal
Signal travelsalong axon toa specificlocation.
Signal
Axons
Response
(b) Signaling by neurons
Coordination and Control
![Page 30: Chapter 40 Introduction to Animal Structure and Function.](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062221/56649cb05503460f949756a6/html5/thumbnails/30.jpg)
Homeostasis
• Organisms use homeostasis to maintain a “steady state” or internal balance regardless of external environment
• In humans, body temperature, blood pH, and glucose concentration are each maintained at a constant level
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Response:Heater turnedoff
Stimulus:Control center(thermostat)reads too hot
Roomtemperaturedecreases
Setpoint:20ºC
Roomtemperature
increases
Stimulus:Control center(thermostat)
reads too cold
Response:Heater turnedon
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Feedback Loops in Homeostasis
• Negative feedback -returns a variable to either a normal range or a set point, buildup of the end product shuts the system off
• Positive feedback- the end product accelerates the systems further
![Page 33: Chapter 40 Introduction to Animal Structure and Function.](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062221/56649cb05503460f949756a6/html5/thumbnails/33.jpg)
• Endothermic animals generate heat by metabolism; more active; energy expensive
• Ectothermic animals gain heat from external sources; less active; less energy needed
Endothermy and Ectothermy
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(a) A walrus, an endotherm
(b) A lizard, an ectotherm
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Quantifying Energy Use
• Metabolic rate is the amount of energy an animal uses in a unit of time
• Basal metabolic rate (BMR) is the metabolic rate of an endotherm at rest at a “comfortable” temperature
• Standard metabolic rate (SMR) is the metabolic rate of an ectotherm at rest at a specific temperature
• Ectotherms have much lower metabolic rates than endotherms of a comparable size
![Page 36: Chapter 40 Introduction to Animal Structure and Function.](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062221/56649cb05503460f949756a6/html5/thumbnails/36.jpg)
Size and Metabolic Rate
• Metabolic rate per gram is inversely related to body size among similar animals
• The higher metabolic rate of smaller animals leads to a higher oxygen delivery rate, breathing rate, heart rate, and greater (relative) blood volume, compared with a larger animal
![Page 37: Chapter 40 Introduction to Animal Structure and Function.](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062221/56649cb05503460f949756a6/html5/thumbnails/37.jpg)
Shrew
Harvest mouseMouse
Ground squirrel
Rat
Cat Dog
Sheep
Human
Horse
Elephant
Body mass (kg) (log scale)
BM
R (
L O
2/h
r) (
log
sc
ale
)
(a) Relationship of BMR to body size
10–3 10–210–2
10–1
10–1
1
1
10 102 103
10
102
103
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10310210110–110–210–30
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Body mass (kg) (log scale)
(b) Relationship of BMR per kilogram of body mass to body size
BM
R (
L O
2/h
r) (
pe
r kg
)Shrew
Harvest mouse
Mouse
Rat
Ground squirrel
Cat
Sheep
DogHuman
Horse
Elephant
![Page 39: Chapter 40 Introduction to Animal Structure and Function.](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062221/56649cb05503460f949756a6/html5/thumbnails/39.jpg)
• Different species use energy and materials in food in different ways, depending on their environment
• Use of energy is partitioned to BMR (or SMR), activity, thermoregulation, growth, and reproduction
Energy Budgets
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An
nu
al e
ner
gy
exp
end
itu
re (
kcal
/hr)
60-kg female humanfrom temperate climate
800,000Basal(standard)metabolism
ReproductionThermoregulation
Growth
Activity
340,000
4-kg male Adélie penguinfrom Antarctica (brooding)
4,000
0.025-kg female deer mousefrom temperateNorth America
8,000
4-kg female easternindigo snake
Endotherms Ectotherm
![Page 41: Chapter 40 Introduction to Animal Structure and Function.](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062221/56649cb05503460f949756a6/html5/thumbnails/41.jpg)
An
nu
al e
ne
rgy
ex
pe
nd
itu
re (
kc
al/h
r)
60-kg female humanfrom temperate climate
800,000Basal(standard)metabolism
ReproductionThermoregulation
Growth
Activity
![Page 42: Chapter 40 Introduction to Animal Structure and Function.](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062221/56649cb05503460f949756a6/html5/thumbnails/42.jpg)
Reproduction
Thermoregulation
Activity
Basal(standard)metabolism
4-kg male Adélie penguinfrom Antarctica (brooding)
An
nu
al e
ner
gy
exp
end
itu
re (
kcal
/yr)
340,000
![Page 43: Chapter 40 Introduction to Animal Structure and Function.](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062221/56649cb05503460f949756a6/html5/thumbnails/43.jpg)
Reproduction
Thermoregulation
Basal(standard)metabolism
Activity
4,000
0.025-kg female deer mousefrom temperateNorth America
An
nu
al e
ner
gy
exp
end
itu
re (
kcal
/yr)
![Page 44: Chapter 40 Introduction to Animal Structure and Function.](https://reader035.fdocuments.in/reader035/viewer/2022062221/56649cb05503460f949756a6/html5/thumbnails/44.jpg)
Reproduction
Growth
Activity
Basal(standard)metabolism
4-kg female easternindigo snake
8,000
An
nu
al e
ner
gy
exp
end
itu
re (
kcal
/yr)