Chapter 4 The Age of Great Empires

Chapter 4The Age of Great Empires

Alexander’s Empire and the Successor Kingdom


1. Alexander's army of 37,000 and cavalry of 5,000 had little trouble with the Persians at the battles of Granicus River in 334 B.C.E. and Issus in 333 B.C.E. Before pursuing Darius III (336-330 B.C.), Alexander had to gain the Syrian coast and Egypt in order to cut off the Persian navy from its ports and secure his rear from disloyal elements in Greece. The most strategic point was the port of Tyre. Although it was well fortified, the city fell after a siege of seven months. Tyre was then re-colonized and became the center of Alexander's control of the Syrian coast.

2. Alexander's dream of Hellenization found realization in the creation of Alexandria in Egypt as the center of Greek commerce and culture. The city was built on a narrow spit of land between a lake and the sea. The lake harbor connected with the Nile while the Mediterranean port was protected from the sea by an island. The city was thus a link between the valley of the Nile and the Mediterranean. Moreover, a canal previously built by the Egyptians connecting the Nile and the Red Sea provided access to the trade of Arabia and the Far East. As a crossroad, the population of Alexandria blossomed and by the first century B.C.E. the city had half a million inhabitants.

4. According to legend, at Siwah the oracle of Zeus-Amon addressed Alexander as "son of Amon", thereby suggesting his divine status.

5. Darius chose to meet Alexander at a wide plain on the left bank of the Tigris River. Coming from Tyre, Alexander’s army met that of Darius at Gaugamela in 331 B.C.E. The army of Darius was defeated and the Persian king fled the field. Alexander proclaimed himself the king of Asia. At Persepolis, the third great capital of the Persian Empire (Babylon and Susa the other two), Alexander passed the winter of 331-330 B.C.E. According to Plutarch, the booty taken here loaded 10,000 mules and 5,000 camels. The city was burned in revenge for the aggression of Xerxes against Greece in the sixth century B.C.E.

6. Entering India in 326 B.C.E., Alexander met a formidable army at the Hydaspes River. Emerging victorious, he founded the new city of Bucephala named in honor of his beloved horse that had died. The circuit of the Persian Empire, however, was now completed as Alexander's troops rebelled at going on any further. They had been away eight and a half long years and had traveled 11,000 miles. Reluctantly, Alexander acceded and the force struck out from the Indus to the mouth of the Persian Gulf across the bleak coast of the Gedrosian Desert. The journey cost nearly half his force of 30,000 men. Alexander then proceeded to Persepolis and then to Babylon where he died of a fever in 323 B.C.E. at the age of thirty-two. The following decades, Alexander’s generals divided his lands among themselves. Three Hellenistic kingdoms emerged: Egypt, the Ptolemaic Kingdom, ruled by Ptolemy and his successors; Asia, comprising most of the remaining provinces of the Persian Empire, became the Seleucid Kingdom founded by Seleucus; and Macedonia and Greece, the Antigonid Kingdom, ruled by the descendants of Antigonus.

9. Estimates are that Alexander summoned 60,000 to 65,000 additional mercenaries from Greece during his conquests. At least 36,000 became residents of the garrisons and new cities, thereby serving as agents for the diffusion of Greek culture.

10. Unlike the other Hellenistic kings, the Ptolemies in Egypt were not city builders and made little effort to spread Greek culture. In the second century B.C.E. the Greeks and Egyptians began to intermarry with each adopting the language and customs of the other thereby creating a Greco-Egyptian culture. The far ranging Seleucid Kingdom, on the other hand, established many cities and military colonies. Although the Seleucids had no apparent plan for Hellenizing the population, the arrival of so many Greeks must have had an impact. Especially important in the Hellenizing process were the military colonies located near native villages.

Questions:1. How did Greek ideas penetrate the East?2. How did cities act as a catalyst for the Hellenistic Age


1. Alexander's army of 37,000 and cavalry of 5,000 had little trouble with the Persians at the battles of Granicus River in 334 B.C.E. and Issus in 333 B.C.E. Before pursuing Darius III (336-330 B.C.), Alexander had to gain the Syrian coast and Egypt in order to cut off the Persian navy from its ports and secure his rear from disloyal elements in Greece. The most strategic point was the port of Tyre. Although it was well fortified, the city fell after a siege of seven months. Tyre was then re-colonized and became the center of Alexander's control of the Syrian coast.

2. Alexander's dream of Hellenization found realization in the creation of Alexandria in Egypt as the center of Greek commerce and culture. The city was built on a narrow spit of land between a lake and the sea. The lake harbor connected with the Nile while the Mediterranean port was protected from the sea by an island. The city was thus a link between the valley of the Nile and the Mediterranean. Moreover, a canal previously built by the Egyptians connecting the Nile and the Red Sea provided access to the trade of Arabia and the Far East. As a crossroad, the population of Alexandria blossomed and by the first century B.C.E. the city had half a million inhabitants.

4. According to legend, at Siwah the oracle of Zeus-Amon addressed Alexander as "son of Amon", thereby suggesting his divine status.

5. Darius chose to meet Alexander at a wide plain on the left bank of the Tigris River. Coming from Tyre, Alexander’s army met that of Darius at Gaugamela in 331 B.C.E. The army of Darius was defeated and the Persian king fled the field. Alexander proclaimed himself the king of Asia. At Persepolis, the third great capital of the Persian Empire (Babylon and Susa the other two), Alexander passed the winter of 331-330 B.C.E. According to Plutarch, the booty taken here loaded 10,000 mules and 5,000 camels. The city was burned in revenge for the aggression of Xerxes against Greece in the sixth century B.C.E.

6. Entering India in 326 B.C.E., Alexander met a formidable army at the Hydaspes River. Emerging victorious, he founded the new city of Bucephala named in honor of his beloved horse that had died. The circuit of the Persian Empire, however, was now completed as Alexander's troops rebelled at going on any further. They had been away eight and a half long years and had traveled 11,000 miles. Reluctantly, Alexander acceded and the force struck out from the Indus to the mouth of the Persian Gulf across the bleak coast of the Gedrosian Desert. The journey cost nearly half his force of 30,000 men. Alexander then proceeded to Persepolis and then to Babylon where he died of a fever in 323 B.C.E. at the age of thirty-two. The following decades, Alexander’s generals divided his lands among themselves. Three Hellenistic kingdoms emerged: Egypt, the Ptolemaic Kingdom, ruled by Ptolemy and his successors; Asia, comprising most of the remaining provinces of the Persian Empire, became the Seleucid Kingdom founded by Seleucus; and Macedonia and Greece, the Antigonid Kingdom, ruled by the descendants of Antigonus.

9. Estimates are that Alexander summoned 60,000 to 65,000 additional mercenaries from Greece during his conquests. At least 36,000 became residents of the garrisons and new cities, thereby serving as agents for the diffusion of Greek culture.

10. Unlike the other Hellenistic kings, the Ptolemies in Egypt were not city builders and made little effort to spread Greek culture. In the second century B.C.E. the Greeks and Egyptians began to intermarry with each adopting the language and customs of the other thereby creating a Greco-Egyptian culture. The far ranging Seleucid Kingdom, on the other hand, established many cities and military colonies. Although the Seleucids had no apparent plan for Hellenizing the population, the arrival of so many Greeks must have had an impact. Especially important in the Hellenizing process were the military colonies located near native villages.

Questions:1. How did Greek ideas penetrate the East?2. How did cities act as a catalyst for the Hellenistic Age

Macedonian Conquest and Hellenistic Empires Philip II, 359-336 B.C.E.

ArmyBattle of Chaeronea, 338 B.C.E.

Alexander, 336-323 B.C.E.Crosses the Hellespont, 334 B.C.E.Conquest of the Persian EmpireDefeats Indians at Hydaspes River, 326 B.C.E.Return to Babylon, dies of fever, 323 B.C.E.Hellenistic Kingdoms – Macedon and Greece;

Seleucid Empire; and Ptolemaic Empire

The World of the Hellenistic Monarchs


1. Unlike the other Hellenistic kings, the Ptolemies in Egypt were not city builders and made little effort to spread Greek culture. In the second century B.C. the Greeks and Egyptians began to intermarry with each adopting the language and customs of the other thereby creating a Greco-Egyptian culture.

2. In order to attract Greeks, the far ranging Selucid Empire established many cities and military colonies in Mesopotamia. Although the Selucids had no apparent plan for Hellenizing the population, the arrival of so many Greeks must have had an impact. Especially important in the Hellenizing process had to be the military colonies located near native villages.

3. The great wealth Alexander found in the Persian capitals was used to finance the creation of new cities, building roads, and modernizing harbors.

4. Contact with India by sea was established by the Ptolemies who learned to utilize the monsoon winds. This route further stimulated the exchange of ideas and goods. The commerce came by sea into the Persian Gulf, up the Tigris to Seleucia. From Seleucia, the trade would move by caravan to Antioch and Ephesus on the west coast of Asia Minor. By land, the trip from the Indus to Seleucia took forty days and from Seleucia to the Mediterranean another fifteen. The longer alternate southern route wound its way by sea along the coast from India, around Arabia, and up the Red Sea. Goods would be transferred by caravan to the Nile and floated down to Alexandria and the Mediterranean.

5. The Hellenistic Age marked a shift in the center of eastern Mediterranean trade from Athens to Corinth and the new cities of Egypt and Asia. The Black Sea's commercial importance was reduced due to the Gallic and Scythian invasions.

6. The despotism of Hellenistic kingdoms was countered by a city-state federalism established by the Aetolian League (stretching across central Greece and parts of the Peloponnesus) and the Aechean League (including much of the Peloponnesus). These confederations were national unions in the modern sense.

Questions:1. After the breakup of Alexander's empire, how did the new kingdoms approach their political organization? How was it different from the polis?2. How did trade contribute to the development of the Hellenistic Age?


1. Unlike the other Hellenistic kings, the Ptolemies in Egypt were not city builders and made little effort to spread Greek culture. In the second century B.C. the Greeks and Egyptians began to intermarry with each adopting the language and customs of the other thereby creating a Greco-Egyptian culture.

2. In order to attract Greeks, the far ranging Selucid Empire established many cities and military colonies in Mesopotamia. Although the Selucids had no apparent plan for Hellenizing the population, the arrival of so many Greeks must have had an impact. Especially important in the Hellenizing process had to be the military colonies located near native villages.

3. The great wealth Alexander found in the Persian capitals was used to finance the creation of new cities, building roads, and modernizing harbors.

4. Contact with India by sea was established by the Ptolemies who learned to utilize the monsoon winds. This route further stimulated the exchange of ideas and goods. The commerce came by sea into the Persian Gulf, up the Tigris to Seleucia. From Seleucia, the trade would move by caravan to Antioch and Ephesus on the west coast of Asia Minor. By land, the trip from the Indus to Seleucia took forty days and from Seleucia to the Mediterranean another fifteen. The longer alternate southern route wound its way by sea along the coast from India, around Arabia, and up the Red Sea. Goods would be transferred by caravan to the Nile and floated down to Alexandria and the Mediterranean.

5. The Hellenistic Age marked a shift in the center of eastern Mediterranean trade from Athens to Corinth and the new cities of Egypt and Asia. The Black Sea's commercial importance was reduced due to the Gallic and Scythian invasions.

6. The despotism of Hellenistic kingdoms was countered by a city-state federalism established by the Aetolian League (stretching across central Greece and parts of the Peloponnesus) and the Aechean League (including much of the Peloponnesus). These confederations were national unions in the modern sense.

Questions:1. After the breakup of Alexander's empire, how did the new kingdoms approach their political organization? How was it different from the polis?2. How did trade contribute to the development of the Hellenistic Age?

The World According to Eratosthenes


1. Eratosthenes (c. 276-c. 194 B.C.E.), born in Cyrene, a Greek town in northern Africa, was a Greek mathematician and geographer who drew a map of the then known world, relying on accounts by mariners, travelers, and his own observations. As the head librarian of the great library at Alexandria established by the Ptolemies, Eratosthenes had access to a wide range of sources.

2. In Geographica, Eratosthenes brought together reports of travelers including voyagers around Britain and to Norway and perhaps the Arctic Circle. He also sought to depict physical features of the lands and the character of the people. Eratosthenes thought many Greeks were scoundrels, Persians and Hindus as refined, and Romans as proficient at social order and competent government. Nevertheless, he knew little of northern Europe, India south of the Ganges River, and nothing of south Africa. He is the first geographer, however, to mention China. Significantly, Eratosthenes declared that only the Atlantic Ocean separated Iberia (Spain) and India.

3. Assuming that the Earth is round and that the sun’s rays are parallel, Eratosthenes calculated that the circumference was about 24,662 miles (the correct figure is 24,847 miles).

Question:1. What does the map of Eratosthenes tell about the knowledge of the world in the third century B.C.E.


1. Eratosthenes (c. 276-c. 194 B.C.E.), born in Cyrene, a Greek town in northern Africa, was a Greek mathematician and geographer who drew a map of the then known world, relying on accounts by mariners, travelers, and his own observations. As the head librarian of the great library at Alexandria established by the Ptolemies, Eratosthenes had access to a wide range of sources.

2. In Geographica, Eratosthenes brought together reports of travelers including voyagers around Britain and to Norway and perhaps the Arctic Circle. He also sought to depict physical features of the lands and the character of the people. Eratosthenes thought many Greeks were scoundrels, Persians and Hindus as refined, and Romans as proficient at social order and competent government. Nevertheless, he knew little of northern Europe, India south of the Ganges River, and nothing of south Africa. He is the first geographer, however, to mention China. Significantly, Eratosthenes declared that only the Atlantic Ocean separated Iberia (Spain) and India.

3. Assuming that the Earth is round and that the sun’s rays are parallel, Eratosthenes calculated that the circumference was about 24,662 miles (the correct figure is 24,847 miles).

Question:1. What does the map of Eratosthenes tell about the knowledge of the world in the third century B.C.E.

Cosmopolitan Society and Economy Growth in manufacturing and international commerce Science

EuclidArchimedesClaudius PtolemyEratosthenes

CultureStoicismEpicureanism

Literature Art – sculptur

Ancient Italy

Ancient Italy

1. The geography of Italy is such that it naturally faces west, not east to Greece. Extending 750 miles north to south, the peninsula is dominated by the Apennine Mountains which break off from the Alps and not only run the entire length but also span more than half the breadth. While the Alps and Apennines form a natural barrier, the numerous valleys and passes permit people to migrate to Italy from the north. On the Adriatic side the land is unattractive while that which faces the Tyrrhenian Sea has fertile valleys among the mountains and numerous rivers in addition to the fertile coastal plain of Latium in central Italy and Campania to the south. The fertility of the land permits the support of a large population.

2. The Po Valley in the north is the most fertile region of Italy. While the Etruscans expanded early into the region, Rome did not until late in the Republic.

3. The people who settled the upland valleys of the western Apennines (Sabines and Samnites) found well-protected areas and thus there was little to persuade the scattered settlements to combine for defense or politics. However, on the plains, especially Latium, no such natural defenses existed. Therefore, there was inducement to not only come together for protection but also to carry on trade. By the seventh century B.C.E. there were about forty city-states in Latium.

4. Italy has few good harbors but those that do exist are found in the south. It was natural that the seafarers from Greece beginning in the eighth century B.C.E. should make use of these. They founded Cumae in the Bay of Naples, Naples, Tarentum, Brindisi and Syracuse in Sicily. So heavily occupied was the southern boot by Greeks that the Romans came to call it Magna Graecia. The trade, however, did not go only east and west but also extended north and south. This brought the Greeks into contact with the Etruscans of Eturia. By the seventh century the Etruscans were not only in Rome but also had established a settlement at Capua near the Greek city of Naples.

5. The location of Rome was ideal. The area was a crossroad for trade since it was here that the Tiber River could be forded. Established eighteen miles up the river from the coast, Rome was as far as ships could safely navigate. For building, there was plenty of timber. The land was rolling with several hills, which were easily defensible, especially Capitoline Hill. A defensive wall of stone and earth built by Servius Tullius surrounded the settlement in a six-mile circuit. The center of city life was the paved Forum that was originally a marketplace but later became the center of government. Found here was the Temple of Saturn where the treasury was kept, the House of the Vestal Virgins, and the Basilica Aemilia and Julia where the most important legal cases were heard. At the north end of the Forum was the curia (Senate house) and the cometium (meeting place of the assemblies). The cura was a small and simple building with three rows of uncomfortable marble seats for the senators. Immediately next to the curia was the comitium, a paved space featuring a platform from which an orator might speak. The streets were lined with shops. The population of Rome was about one million and included about 400,000 slaves and 300,000 free workers. Perhaps 200,000 were on the state dole for bread. Blocks of tenements near the heart of the city ranged six to ten stories high. By the fourth century there were fewer than 2000 private homes.

3. South of Palatine Hill was the great chariot arena, the Circus Maximus that was first built during Etruscan rule. It was 2200 feet long and 705 feet wide with seats enough to sit 180,000. Near to it was the Hippodrome that served the same purpose.

4. The Great Fire of Rome in 64 started in the shops where the Palatine reaches the Circus Maximus. Because much of Rome at this time was made of wood, the fire spread rapidly and burned for six days, stopping just short of the Forum. Two-thirds of the city was destroyed. When rebuilt, a plan was utilized specifying building materials (marble and cement) and street layouts.

Questions:1. What geographical features of Italy influenced its development?2. Compare and contrast the physical conditions of Greece and Italy.

Ancient Italy

1. The geography of Italy is such that it naturally faces west, not east to Greece. Extending 750 miles north to south, the peninsula is dominated by the Apennine Mountains which break off from the Alps and not only run the entire length but also span more than half the breadth. While the Alps and Apennines form a natural barrier, the numerous valleys and passes permit people to migrate to Italy from the north. On the Adriatic side the land is unattractive while that which faces the Tyrrhenian Sea has fertile valleys among the mountains and numerous rivers in addition to the fertile coastal plain of Latium in central Italy and Campania to the south. The fertility of the land permits the support of a large population.

2. The Po Valley in the north is the most fertile region of Italy. While the Etruscans expanded early into the region, Rome did not until late in the Republic.

3. The people who settled the upland valleys of the western Apennines (Sabines and Samnites) found well-protected areas and thus there was little to persuade the scattered settlements to combine for defense or politics. However, on the plains, especially Latium, no such natural defenses existed. Therefore, there was inducement to not only come together for protection but also to carry on trade. By the seventh century B.C.E. there were about forty city-states in Latium.

4. Italy has few good harbors but those that do exist are found in the south. It was natural that the seafarers from Greece beginning in the eighth century B.C.E. should make use of these. They founded Cumae in the Bay of Naples, Naples, Tarentum, Brindisi and Syracuse in Sicily. So heavily occupied was the southern boot by Greeks that the Romans came to call it Magna Graecia. The trade, however, did not go only east and west but also extended north and south. This brought the Greeks into contact with the Etruscans of Eturia. By the seventh century the Etruscans were not only in Rome but also had established a settlement at Capua near the Greek city of Naples.

5. The location of Rome was ideal. The area was a crossroad for trade since it was here that the Tiber River could be forded. Established eighteen miles up the river from the coast, Rome was as far as ships could safely navigate. For building, there was plenty of timber. The land was rolling with several hills, which were easily defensible, especially Capitoline Hill. A defensive wall of stone and earth built by Servius Tullius surrounded the settlement in a six-mile circuit. The center of city life was the paved Forum that was originally a marketplace but later became the center of government. Found here was the Temple of Saturn where the treasury was kept, the House of the Vestal Virgins, and the Basilica Aemilia and Julia where the most important legal cases were heard. At the north end of the Forum was the curia (Senate house) and the cometium (meeting place of the assemblies). The cura was a small and simple building with three rows of uncomfortable marble seats for the senators. Immediately next to the curia was the comitium, a paved space featuring a platform from which an orator might speak. The streets were lined with shops. The population of Rome was about one million and included about 400,000 slaves and 300,000 free workers. Perhaps 200,000 were on the state dole for bread. Blocks of tenements near the heart of the city ranged six to ten stories high. By the fourth century there were fewer than 2000 private homes.



Questions:1. What geographical features of Italy influenced its development?2. Compare and contrast the physical conditions of Greece and Italy.

Roman Conquests

Rise and Decline of Roman Power Early Roman Republic

Greeks, Etruscans, and Italic peoplePatricians – hereditary aristocracyPlebians – masses, lived in poverty and oppression

By strikes secured individual rights and freedomsThe Twelve Tables (449 B.C.E.)SlaveryGovernment

Two Conusuls, Magistrates Pontifex maximus Senate

WomenReligion

Expansion of Roman Territories to 100 C.E.


1. The first war between Rome and Carthage (264-241 B.C.E) centered on Sicily and the Straits of Messina between Sicily and Italy. The defeat of Carthage forced it to surrender Corsica and Sardinia. In a second conflict, Hannibal, a Carthagenian general, in 218 B.C.E. organized in Spain an invasion force of 30,000-40,000 infantry, 6,000 cavalry, and about forty war elephants. Crossing the Alps, Hannibal annihilated the Roman army at Cannae in 216 B.C.E. thereby gaining control of most of Italy. The city of Rome, however, did not fall. In 202 B.C.E., Hannibal was forced to abandon Italy and defend Carthage from a Roman army. The Carthagenian defeat at Zama resulted in the surrender of Spain to the Romans.

2. In order to protect Rome's ally Massilia (Marseille) from the Gauls, the southern region of Gaul in was annexed 121 B.C.E. After Julius Caesar became the governor of Cisalpine and Narbonese Gaul in 58 B.C.E., war was waged on the Gauls for two years. Caesar proclaimed conquest in 56 B.C.E. and the Senate prematurely declared it a Roman province. The region was not fully conquered by Caesar until four years later.

3. In 67 B.C.E. Pompey was sent against the pirates of the Cilician coast who were ultimately defeated. Pompey then turned his attention to Bithynia, Pontus, Syria, and Judea that were soon conquered, much to the joy of Roman businessmen and merchants.

4. In late summer 31 B.C.E. the forces of Octavian defeated those of Antony and Cleopatra at Actium. Following the death of Cleopatra, Octavian took the Egyptian throne for himself and did not make Egypt a province. Also after Actium, Augustus personally completed the conquest of Spain and between 19 B.C.E. and 9 B.C.E. Illyricum, Pannonia, and Rhaetia were subjugated. Rome expanded into Germany in 15 B.C.E when its forces crossed the Rhine River. By 9 B.C.E. they had reached eastern Germany. In 9 C.E., the Roman governor of Germania led three legions (16,200 men) into a trap at Teutoberg Forest and all were killed by a coalition of Germanic tribes. In the aftermath of the defeat, the army on the frontier was reorganized and by the order of Augustus withdrawn to the Rhine River, which was to be the boundary between the Germans and Gaul. The Danube River would serve the same purpose further east.

5. The provinces were divided into two classes by Augustus (Octavian), those that did not require active defense and those that did. The first category, ruled by the Senate, included Sicily, Baetica, Narbonensis, Macedonia, Achaia, Asia Minor, Bithynia, Pontus, Cyprus, Crete, Cyrenaica, and North Africa. Augustus’s own representatives governed all the other provinces. This division allowed Augustus to retain control of the army in difficult provinces and draw upon their wealth.

6. The defensive imperialism established by Augustus was generally pursued by his successors. Claudius (41-54) made Britain a province and annexed Mauritania, Lycia, and Thrace (all of which had been dependencies left under native princes). Vespasian (69-79) annexed the angle between the Rhine and the Danube Rivers. Trajan (98-117), after a prolonged war with the Dacians, made Dacia a province. In the east, he warred against Parthia annexed Arabia Petraea and made provinces of Armenia, northern Mesopotamia, and Syria. Overextended and facing revolts by Jews in the east and counterattacks by the Parthians, Rome had to withdraw its troops from Armenia.

7. During the Empire some cities grew to be quite large, particularly in the east, Alexandria in Egypt had over 300,000 inhabitants; Ephesus in Asia Minor counted 200,000; and in Syria, Antioch had about 150,000 residents.

Questions:1. What will be the consequences of an empire so spread out in the Mediterranean?2. What were the barriers that prevented further expansion of the Roman


1. The first war between Rome and Carthage (264-241 B.C.E) centered on Sicily and the Straits of Messina between Sicily and Italy. The defeat of Carthage forced it to surrender Corsica and Sardinia. In a second conflict, Hannibal, a Carthagenian general, in 218 B.C.E. organized in Spain an invasion force of 30,000-40,000 infantry, 6,000 cavalry, and about forty war elephants. Crossing the Alps, Hannibal annihilated the Roman army at Cannae in 216 B.C.E. thereby gaining control of most of Italy. The city of Rome, however, did not fall. In 202 B.C.E., Hannibal was forced to abandon Italy and defend Carthage from a Roman army. The Carthagenian defeat at Zama resulted in the surrender of Spain to the Romans.

2. In order to protect Rome's ally Massilia (Marseille) from the Gauls, the southern region of Gaul in was annexed 121 B.C.E. After Julius Caesar became the governor of Cisalpine and Narbonese Gaul in 58 B.C.E., war was waged on the Gauls for two years. Caesar proclaimed conquest in 56 B.C.E. and the Senate prematurely declared it a Roman province. The region was not fully conquered by Caesar until four years later.

3. In 67 B.C.E. Pompey was sent against the pirates of the Cilician coast who were ultimately defeated. Pompey then turned his attention to Bithynia, Pontus, Syria, and Judea that were soon conquered, much to the joy of Roman businessmen and merchants.

4. In late summer 31 B.C.E. the forces of Octavian defeated those of Antony and Cleopatra at Actium. Following the death of Cleopatra, Octavian took the Egyptian throne for himself and did not make Egypt a province. Also after Actium, Augustus personally completed the conquest of Spain and between 19 B.C.E. and 9 B.C.E. Illyricum, Pannonia, and Rhaetia were subjugated. Rome expanded into Germany in 15 B.C.E when its forces crossed the Rhine River. By 9 B.C.E. they had reached eastern Germany. In 9 C.E., the Roman governor of Germania led three legions (16,200 men) into a trap at Teutoberg Forest and all were killed by a coalition of Germanic tribes. In the aftermath of the defeat, the army on the frontier was reorganized and by the order of Augustus withdrawn to the Rhine River, which was to be the boundary between the Germans and Gaul. The Danube River would serve the same purpose further east.

5. The provinces were divided into two classes by Augustus (Octavian), those that did not require active defense and those that did. The first category, ruled by the Senate, included Sicily, Baetica, Narbonensis, Macedonia, Achaia, Asia Minor, Bithynia, Pontus, Cyprus, Crete, Cyrenaica, and North Africa. Augustus’s own representatives governed all the other provinces. This division allowed Augustus to retain control of the army in difficult provinces and draw upon their wealth.

6. The defensive imperialism established by Augustus was generally pursued by his successors. Claudius (41-54) made Britain a province and annexed Mauritania, Lycia, and Thrace (all of which had been dependencies left under native princes). Vespasian (69-79) annexed the angle between the Rhine and the Danube Rivers. Trajan (98-117), after a prolonged war with the Dacians, made Dacia a province. In the east, he warred against Parthia annexed Arabia Petraea and made provinces of Armenia, northern Mesopotamia, and Syria. Overextended and facing revolts by Jews in the east and counterattacks by the Parthians, Rome had to withdraw its troops from Armenia.

7. During the Empire some cities grew to be quite large, particularly in the east, Alexandria in Egypt had over 300,000 inhabitants; Ephesus in Asia Minor counted 200,000; and in Syria, Antioch had about 150,000 residents.

Questions:1. What will be the consequences of an empire so spread out in the Mediterranean?2. What were the barriers that prevented further expansion of the Roman

Roman Conquest of Italy and the Mediterranean By 290 B.C.E. Rome controlled half the Italian Peninsula

Conscripted militia First Punic War, 264-241 B.C.E. Second Punic War, 219-201 B.C.E.

Hannibal (247-183 B.C.E.)Battle of Zama, 202 B.C.E.

Third Punic War, 146 B.C.E. Roman successes in Greece Conquests expand slavery

The Later Empire

Breakdown of the Republic and Rise of Augustus Populares and Optimates Gaius Marius (157-86 B.C.E.) Sulla Gnaeus Pompeius, Pompey (104-48 B.C.E.) Marcus Lininius Crassus (c. 112-53 B.C.E) Julius Caesar (100-44 B.C.E.)

Gallic Wars, 58-50 B.C.E.Civil WarDictator perpetius (dictator for life), 45 B.C.E.Octavian (63 B.C.E.-14 C.E.), AugustusConquest to secure bordersPax Romana

Products of the Roman Empire, c. 200 C.E.


1. Italy was poor in minerals, having no gold and little silver but a fair supply of iron, some copper, lead, tin, and zinc. All, however, was inadequate to support industrial development. Moreover, metallurgy and technology made few advances; therefore, during the Republic bronze was employed more frequently than iron. The most prosperous industries were bronze work in Capua, manufacture of weapons and tools in Campania, and pottery in Arretium.

2. One of the most significant problems holding back early Rome from industrial production was the difficulty of transport. Traffic moved along canals and rivers while coastal towns imported by sea rather than from the interior. This was alleviated during the republic when Rome began to build a road system. The Appian Way between Rome and Capua was eventually extended as far as Brundisium thereby facilitating greater trade with Greece and the East.

3. Goods from the Far East came by two routes. One route was by sea from India to the Persian Gulf, up the Tigris River to Seleucia and then on to Antioch. The second route also came from India by sea but went around the Arabian Peninsula, up the Red Sea, overland by caravan to Coptos on the Nile, and then to Alexandria.

4. Movement of goods by sea was very risky at best. The ships were small and made only about six miles an hour by sail or rowing. They typically hugged the coast since the compass did not yet exist and navigation was very rudimentary. Because the weather in the Mediterranean could be treacherous in the winter, most ships stayed in port from November to March. When the ships did sail, typically it would take nine days to travel from Ostia, the port for Rome at the mouth of the Tiber River, to Gades (Cadez); five days from Ostia to Carthage; twenty days from Ostia to Caesarea in the East; and fifteen to twenty days from Puteoli on the Bay of Naples to Alexandria.

5. Internal peace and a single currency throughout the provinces during the Empire brought unprecedented levels of trade and accompanying prosperity. The trade, however, was unbalanced. Exports included Arretine pottery, some wine, olive oil, metalware, glass, and perfumes from Campania, and, significantly, silver to pay for vast imports. One of the most important imported products was grain needed to feed the burgeoning population of Rome. This primarily came from Spain, North Africa, Egypt, and Asia Minor. Some of the other imported products included black slaves and wild beasts for the arena from Africa; gold, silver, and horses from Spain; timber, textiles, wine, and pottery from Gaul; amber, slaves, and furs from Germany; fine linen and woolen fabrics from Asia Minor; wine, silk, and linen from Syria; and textiles, perfumes, and drugs from Palmyra.

Questions:1. What would be the consequence of Rome's dependency on imported grains and luxury goods?2. What factors inhibited Roman industrialization?


1. Italy was poor in minerals, having no gold and little silver but a fair supply of iron, some copper, lead, tin, and zinc. All, however, was inadequate to support industrial development. Moreover, metallurgy and technology made few advances; therefore, during the Republic bronze was employed more frequently than iron. The most prosperous industries were bronze work in Capua, manufacture of weapons and tools in Campania, and pottery in Arretium.

2. One of the most significant problems holding back early Rome from industrial production was the difficulty of transport. Traffic moved along canals and rivers while coastal towns imported by sea rather than from the interior. This was alleviated during the republic when Rome began to build a road system. The Appian Way between Rome and Capua was eventually extended as far as Brundisium thereby facilitating greater trade with Greece and the East.

3. Goods from the Far East came by two routes. One route was by sea from India to the Persian Gulf, up the Tigris River to Seleucia and then on to Antioch. The second route also came from India by sea but went around the Arabian Peninsula, up the Red Sea, overland by caravan to Coptos on the Nile, and then to Alexandria.

4. Movement of goods by sea was very risky at best. The ships were small and made only about six miles an hour by sail or rowing. They typically hugged the coast since the compass did not yet exist and navigation was very rudimentary. Because the weather in the Mediterranean could be treacherous in the winter, most ships stayed in port from November to March. When the ships did sail, typically it would take nine days to travel from Ostia, the port for Rome at the mouth of the Tiber River, to Gades (Cadez); five days from Ostia to Carthage; twenty days from Ostia to Caesarea in the East; and fifteen to twenty days from Puteoli on the Bay of Naples to Alexandria.

5. Internal peace and a single currency throughout the provinces during the Empire brought unprecedented levels of trade and accompanying prosperity. The trade, however, was unbalanced. Exports included Arretine pottery, some wine, olive oil, metalware, glass, and perfumes from Campania, and, significantly, silver to pay for vast imports. One of the most important imported products was grain needed to feed the burgeoning population of Rome. This primarily came from Spain, North Africa, Egypt, and Asia Minor. Some of the other imported products included black slaves and wild beasts for the arena from Africa; gold, silver, and horses from Spain; timber, textiles, wine, and pottery from Gaul; amber, slaves, and furs from Germany; fine linen and woolen fabrics from Asia Minor; wine, silk, and linen from Syria; and textiles, perfumes, and drugs from Palmyra.

Questions:1. What would be the consequence of Rome's dependency on imported grains and luxury goods?2. What factors inhibited Roman industrialization?

Roman Culture Cultural consequences of conquest of Greece Epicureanism and Stoicism brought to Rome Mystery cults Roman literature

Plautus and TerenceCicero (106-43 B.C.E.)Lucretius (c. 84-c. 54 B.C.E.)Vergil (70-19 B.C.E.)Horace (65-8 B.C.E.)Tacitus (c. 56-c. 120 B.C.E.)Juvenal (c. 60-c. 135)

Architecture Engineering

Imperial Rome

Imperial Rome

1. The center of Rome and the empire was the Forum that housed the Temple of Saturn where the treasury was kept, the House of the Vestal Virgins, and the Basilica Aemilia and Julia where the most important legal cases were heard. At the north end of the Forum was the curia (Senate house) and the cometium (meeting place of the assemblies). The cura was a small and simple building with three rows of uncomfortable marble seats for the senators. Immediately next to the cura was the cometium, a paved space featuring a platform from which an orator might speak. The streets were lined with shops.

2. Overlooking the Forum to the south was Palatine Hill. Of the seven hills of Rome, this was by tradition the first to be settled, probably because there is an island at its foot which allowed easy fording of the Tiber River. Here were found the homes of the leading patricians.



5. The population of Rome was about one million and included about 400,000 slaves and 300,000 free workers. Perhaps 200,000 were on the state dole for bread. Blocks of tenements near the heart of the city ranged six to ten stories high. By the fourth century there were fewer than 2000 private homes.

6. The Campus Martius (Field of Mars) featured theaters, baths, and stadiums. On this field athletes competed and the legions practiced. The assemblies would meet here to go through the motions of democracy.

7. The Walls of Servius were the first to protect Rome. Rebuilt after the raid of the Gauls in 390 B.C., they eventually lapsed into ruins as peace came. The new Walls of the Emperors was erected in 270.

8. By the fourth century there were 856 baths and 1352 public swimming pools. The Baths of Nero could accommodate 1600 people, the Baths of Caracella, 3000. Baths were opened from daybreak to one P.M. for women and from two to eight P.M. for men. Nevertheless, most emperors permitted mixed bathing. (Will Durant, Caesar and Christ, p. 375)

Questions:1. What urban problems could be expected in Rome?2. How did the city of Rome express the greatness of the empire?

Imperial Rome

1. The center of Rome and the empire was the Forum that housed the Temple of Saturn where the treasury was kept, the House of the Vestal Virgins, and the Basilica Aemilia and Julia where the most important legal cases were heard. At the north end of the Forum was the curia (Senate house) and the cometium (meeting place of the assemblies). The cura was a small and simple building with three rows of uncomfortable marble seats for the senators. Immediately next to the cura was the cometium, a paved space featuring a platform from which an orator might speak. The streets were lined with shops.

2. Overlooking the Forum to the south was Palatine Hill. Of the seven hills of Rome, this was by tradition the first to be settled, probably because there is an island at its foot which allowed easy fording of the Tiber River. Here were found the homes of the leading patricians.



5. The population of Rome was about one million and included about 400,000 slaves and 300,000 free workers. Perhaps 200,000 were on the state dole for bread. Blocks of tenements near the heart of the city ranged six to ten stories high. By the fourth century there were fewer than 2000 private homes.

6. The Campus Martius (Field of Mars) featured theaters, baths, and stadiums. On this field athletes competed and the legions practiced. The assemblies would meet here to go through the motions of democracy.

7. The Walls of Servius were the first to protect Rome. Rebuilt after the raid of the Gauls in 390 B.C., they eventually lapsed into ruins as peace came. The new Walls of the Emperors was erected in 270.

8. By the fourth century there were 856 baths and 1352 public swimming pools. The Baths of Nero could accommodate 1600 people, the Baths of Caracella, 3000. Baths were opened from daybreak to one P.M. for women and from two to eight P.M. for men. Nevertheless, most emperors permitted mixed bathing. (Will Durant, Caesar and Christ, p. 375)

Questions:1. What urban problems could be expected in Rome?2. How did the city of Rome express the greatness of the empire?

Politics, Society, and Economy Cosmopolitan collection of 5000+ towns 50-60 million population Empire spread Roman culture

Decay and Temporary Recovery 235-284, more than 20 emperors Defensive problems Diocletian, 284-305, splits empire into four sectors Constantine, 306-337

Constantinople

The Empire of Asoka

The Empire of Asoka

1. As a result of conquests about 500 B.C.E., the Indus valley became a satrapy (province) of the Persian Empire. Alexander's defeat of the Persians was followed by a march through the Hindu Kush into the upper Indus valley in 327-326 B.C.E. He crossed through the Punjab and eventually installed Macedonian officials in the area. The death of Alexander (323 B.C.E.) and the ensuing confusion gave Chandragupta Maurya (332-298 B.C.E.) from the Ganges valley an opportunity to expel the Macedonian officials. He then turned on the Magadha kingdom, defeating and killing its ruler. Proclaiming himself ruler, Chandragupta established his capital at Pataliputra on the Ganges. His army consisted of an infantry of 600,000, a cavalry of 30,000 and 9000 elephants. In 304 B.C.E., this army defeated that of the Seleucus (successor to Alexander in Syria and Persia) and forced cession of Baluchistan and part of Afghanistan. With control over northern India, the Mauryan Empire was created.

2. The greatest of the Mauryan rulers was Chandragupta's grandson Asoka (269-232 B.C.E.). Like his grandfather, Asoka began his career as a warrior. When his father died in 274 B.C.E, Asoka rebelled against his older brother, the rightful ruler. After four years of bloody fighting, Asoka gained the throne in 269 B.C.E. He continued his wars until 260 B.C.E. when he conquered the last independent kingdom in northern India, Kalinga, in a savagely bloody campaign that witnessed the killing of hundreds of thousands of people. The slaughter so appalled Asoka that he forswore violence and embraced Buddhism. The empire was now used to spread Buddhist teachings throughout India and even reached Tamraparni (modern Sri Lanka). Asoka used diplomatic means to win submission from most of the remaining states until his empire extended from Afghanistan to Mysore in the southern Deccan plain.

3. The pious Asoka had inscriptions carved throughout his empire on rocks and on thirty monolith stone pillars. The messages were exhortations to moral conduct. It is in these that the earliest examples of writing are found in India. This writing system is the ancestor to classical Sanskrit and modern Hindi.

Questions:1. How was northern India brought under the control of a single ruler?2. What were the contributions of Asoka to Indian civilization?

The Empire of Asoka

1. As a result of conquests about 500 B.C.E., the Indus valley became a satrapy (province) of the Persian Empire. Alexander's defeat of the Persians was followed by a march through the Hindu Kush into the upper Indus valley in 327-326 B.C.E. He crossed through the Punjab and eventually installed Macedonian officials in the area. The death of Alexander (323 B.C.E.) and the ensuing confusion gave Chandragupta Maurya (332-298 B.C.E.) from the Ganges valley an opportunity to expel the Macedonian officials. He then turned on the Magadha kingdom, defeating and killing its ruler. Proclaiming himself ruler, Chandragupta established his capital at Pataliputra on the Ganges. His army consisted of an infantry of 600,000, a cavalry of 30,000 and 9000 elephants. In 304 B.C.E., this army defeated that of the Seleucus (successor to Alexander in Syria and Persia) and forced cession of Baluchistan and part of Afghanistan. With control over northern India, the Mauryan Empire was created.

2. The greatest of the Mauryan rulers was Chandragupta's grandson Asoka (269-232 B.C.E.). Like his grandfather, Asoka began his career as a warrior. When his father died in 274 B.C.E, Asoka rebelled against his older brother, the rightful ruler. After four years of bloody fighting, Asoka gained the throne in 269 B.C.E. He continued his wars until 260 B.C.E. when he conquered the last independent kingdom in northern India, Kalinga, in a savagely bloody campaign that witnessed the killing of hundreds of thousands of people. The slaughter so appalled Asoka that he forswore violence and embraced Buddhism. The empire was now used to spread Buddhist teachings throughout India and even reached Tamraparni (modern Sri Lanka). Asoka used diplomatic means to win submission from most of the remaining states until his empire extended from Afghanistan to Mysore in the southern Deccan plain.

3. The pious Asoka had inscriptions carved throughout his empire on rocks and on thirty monolith stone pillars. The messages were exhortations to moral conduct. It is in these that the earliest examples of writing are found in India. This writing system is the ancestor to classical Sanskrit and modern Hindi.

Questions:1. How was northern India brought under the control of a single ruler?2. What were the contributions of Asoka to Indian civilization?

The Mauryan Empire Chandragupta Maurya, 313 B.C.E.

Organized and autocratic government Emperor Asoka

Conquest of Kalinga creates remorse Buddhist teachings in law and deeds Culture of the Asokan Age

Stone pillars, stupas, and cave shrinesWriting

Mahabharata Life under the Mauryans

Farmers, herders, and huntersArtisansWater transportation

The Kushan Empire Kingdom of Kanishka Yueh-chih people Northern India to the Caspian Sea King Kanishka, 78-111 Culture

BuddhismGandharanBamiyan valley

The Qin and Han Empires


1. From their position in the valley of the Wei River that controlled access to the Yellow River plain, the Qin launched attacks on other states. By 221 B.C.E., Shih Huang-ti had defeated the states and proclaimed the Qin dynasty (221-206 B.C.E.). He was the first to call himself the equivalent of a western emperor. Having conquered north China and the lands of the Yangtze, the Qin pushed south to the edge of the Red River and southeast to the coast. To tie these lands together, the emperor ordered construction of a system of roads. To this end, carts using the roads were required to have standard length axles so the ruts they made would he uniform. Administratively, the land of the Qin was centralized into thirty-six (later forty-two) commanderies (provinces). These were further divided into districts.

2. In the north and northwest, the Qin faced a nomadic Hun people called the Xiongnu (Hsing-nu) who were troublesome in the lands south of the Gobi Desert where for years the Chinese had been driving out the nomads and taking their pasture lands. In retaliation, the Xiongnu struck back at the Chinese by raiding their towns and farms. Masters at fighting on horseback, the Xiongnu had significant advantages over the Chinese infantry defending the frontier. To stop the raiders, states in the late Chou began erecting walls and fortifications. The Qin emperor had these joined into a single Great Wall that stretched some 1400 miles from the Yellow Sea to central China. The Great Wall would he rebuilt of granite and extended three thousand miles during the Ming dynasty (1368-1644).

3. Near the Chou capital of Hao, a new capital, Hsienyang, was built in the Wei valley where access from the rest of China was limited to the narrow strip of land between river and hills at the great bend of the Yellow River. Productivity of the valley was enhanced by an irrigation and transportation canal.

4. A canal was dug linking a tributary of the Yangtze River with the Pearl River in the extreme south to facilitate bringing supplies to an army campaigning there. Later, the Grand Canal linked the rice-growing Yangtze basin with northern China.

5. The death of the emperor in 210 B.C.E. was followed by factional rivalry and the overthrow of the Qin. The victor was Liu Bang (Liu Pang), a commoner who founded the Han dynasty (202 B.C.E.-221 C.E.). The new capital was built at Ch'ang-an. Like their predecessors, the Han aggressively expanded China's borders, especially Emperor Han Wudi (Han Wu Ti, 141-87 B.C.E.). In the south, Han armies brought the Red River delta under control in 111 B.C.E. The armies similarly swept northeast into southern Manchuria and then to northern Korea in the last half of the second century B.C.E. In the west, the Han armies penetrated as far as the Caspian Sea in 97 C.E. However, it was in central Asia the Han had their most difficulty. The Xiongnu were still troublesome. The Han rulers tried pacification through gifts and titles but these failed as raids continued, almost reaching Ch'ang-an. In 129 B.C.E., Han Wudi ordered armies against the Xiongnu. By 119 B.C.E., Xiongnu power south of the Gobi Desert was broken. To hold the territory, Han Wudi sent 700,000 colonists and extended the Great Wall westward. Later, in 89 C.E., Han armies crossed the Gobi Desert to defeat the northern Xiongnu. This defeat may have caused migration of the Xiongnu to the Russian steppes and eventually to Europe in the fifth century C.E. as the Huns.

6. The Silk Road ran from Ch'ang-an and Luoyang west to Tunhuang (the last Chinese settlement) along the fringes of the Taklamakan Desert, through the Pamir Mountains into the Indus valley, and then to the Arabian Sea. Goods such as silk would travel through the Persian Gulf or Red Sea on its way to Rome. The trade through the desert wastes of Xinjiang province in China was primarily directed by Turkish speaking Uighurs whose caravans of two humped camels carried goods between China, South Asia, and the Middle East. The best route of the Silk Road was north of the Tian Sham (Heavenly Mountains) but because of banditry most of the caravans followed the southern route which passed the fringes of the Taklamakan Desert to Kashgar and down the into northwest India.

Question:1. What was the impact of the Xiongnu on the rulers of China?


1. From their position in the valley of the Wei River that controlled access to the Yellow River plain, the Qin launched attacks on other states. By 221 B.C.E., Shih Huang-ti had defeated the states and proclaimed the Qin dynasty (221-206 B.C.E.). He was the first to call himself the equivalent of a western emperor. Having conquered north China and the lands of the Yangtze, the Qin pushed south to the edge of the Red River and southeast to the coast. To tie these lands together, the emperor ordered construction of a system of roads. To this end, carts using the roads were required to have standard length axles so the ruts they made would he uniform. Administratively, the land of the Qin was centralized into thirty-six (later forty-two) commanderies (provinces). These were further divided into districts.

2. In the north and northwest, the Qin faced a nomadic Hun people called the Xiongnu (Hsing-nu) who were troublesome in the lands south of the Gobi Desert where for years the Chinese had been driving out the nomads and taking their pasture lands. In retaliation, the Xiongnu struck back at the Chinese by raiding their towns and farms. Masters at fighting on horseback, the Xiongnu had significant advantages over the Chinese infantry defending the frontier. To stop the raiders, states in the late Chou began erecting walls and fortifications. The Qin emperor had these joined into a single Great Wall that stretched some 1400 miles from the Yellow Sea to central China. The Great Wall would he rebuilt of granite and extended three thousand miles during the Ming dynasty (1368-1644).

3. Near the Chou capital of Hao, a new capital, Hsienyang, was built in the Wei valley where access from the rest of China was limited to the narrow strip of land between river and hills at the great bend of the Yellow River. Productivity of the valley was enhanced by an irrigation and transportation canal.

4. A canal was dug linking a tributary of the Yangtze River with the Pearl River in the extreme south to facilitate bringing supplies to an army campaigning there. Later, the Grand Canal linked the rice-growing Yangtze basin with northern China.

5. The death of the emperor in 210 B.C.E. was followed by factional rivalry and the overthrow of the Qin. The victor was Liu Bang (Liu Pang), a commoner who founded the Han dynasty (202 B.C.E.-221 C.E.). The new capital was built at Ch'ang-an. Like their predecessors, the Han aggressively expanded China's borders, especially Emperor Han Wudi (Han Wu Ti, 141-87 B.C.E.). In the south, Han armies brought the Red River delta under control in 111 B.C.E. The armies similarly swept northeast into southern Manchuria and then to northern Korea in the last half of the second century B.C.E. In the west, the Han armies penetrated as far as the Caspian Sea in 97 C.E. However, it was in central Asia the Han had their most difficulty. The Xiongnu were still troublesome. The Han rulers tried pacification through gifts and titles but these failed as raids continued, almost reaching Ch'ang-an. In 129 B.C.E., Han Wudi ordered armies against the Xiongnu. By 119 B.C.E., Xiongnu power south of the Gobi Desert was broken. To hold the territory, Han Wudi sent 700,000 colonists and extended the Great Wall westward. Later, in 89 C.E., Han armies crossed the Gobi Desert to defeat the northern Xiongnu. This defeat may have caused migration of the Xiongnu to the Russian steppes and eventually to Europe in the fifth century C.E. as the Huns.

6. The Silk Road ran from Ch'ang-an and Luoyang west to Tunhuang (the last Chinese settlement) along the fringes of the Taklamakan Desert, through the Pamir Mountains into the Indus valley, and then to the Arabian Sea. Goods such as silk would travel through the Persian Gulf or Red Sea on its way to Rome. The trade through the desert wastes of Xinjiang province in China was primarily directed by Turkish speaking Uighurs whose caravans of two humped camels carried goods between China, South Asia, and the Middle East. The best route of the Silk Road was north of the Tian Sham (Heavenly Mountains) but because of banditry most of the caravans followed the southern route which passed the fringes of the Taklamakan Desert to Kashgar and down the into northwest India.

Question:1. What was the impact of the Xiongnu on the rulers of China?

Western Han Dynasty, 202 B.C.E.-9 C.E. Han Kao-tsu, 202-195 B.C.E. Changan Hsiung-nu people Empress Lu, 195-180 B.C.E. Emperor Wu, 141-87 B.C.E.

Chang Ch’ien,138 B.C.E. Eastern Han Dynasty, 23-220 B.C.E.

Power and prosperity restored after weak leaders Peasant revolt, generals seize power, 220 B.C.E.

The Great Wall with tower, north of Beijing

Han Government Centralized, bureaucratic government headed by a prime minister County; 10-20 counties made up a commandery (province) Ambitions of wives, mothers, and in-laws Professional civil service; exams Efficiency rating Military

Land and the People Most Chinese were farmers Agricultural innovations Taxes, corveé labor Difficulties of small farmers

Ruins of Jiaohe, Turphan depression. Han dynasty outpost in Central Asia

The Western terminus of the Great Wall at Jiayugan

Trade Routes of the Ancient World


1. The oceanic trade of Asia was conducted primarily by the Indians who sailed the South China Sea and Gulf of Tonkin. Nevertheless, during the Han the Chinese also became increasingly involved in the ocean trade. Especially important was the invention of the rudder as well as fore and aft sails that permitted Chinese ships to sail into the wind. These vessels carried goods throughout Southeast Asia and into the Indian Ocean. By the first century C.E., Chinese sailors had mastered the monsoon winds of the Indian Ocean that blow from the southwest in the summer and the northeast beginning in October.

2. The conquest of northern Vietnam resulted in Chinese and foreign merchants setting up trading stations. Moreover, new routes were opened from southwestern China to the Bay of Bengal utilizing the river systems of Vietnam and Burma. In this and other trade, the Chinese generally had an advantage due to the high price commanded by the main export, silk. Gold and precious stones were usually used to pay for the silk.

3. The Mauryan road system that ran the length and breadth of India provided a sound base for trade. Both China and Rome had a high demand for such goods as jewels and semiprecious stones, sandlewood and teak, cotton and silk textiles, and spices. Roman trading communities were established in the Tamil south. The demand for the Indian luxury goods by the Romans resulted in the influx of gold coins, silver, perfume, slaves, glass, and Egyptian cloth. In southern India there were small colonies of Romans, Jews, Arabs, and Nestorian Christians from Syria and Persia.

4. The Silk Road ran from Chang'an and Luoyang west along the fringes of the Taklamakan Desert, through the Pamir Mountains into the Indus valley, and then to the ports on the Arabian Sea. Goods such as silk would travel through the Persian Gulf or Red Sea on its way to Rome. The trade through the desert wastes of Xinjiang province in China was primarily directed by the Turkish speaking Uighurs. The Uighur caravans of two humped camels carried goods between China, South Asia, and the Middle East. The best route of the Silk Road was north of the Tian Sham (Heavenly Mountains) but due to banditry, most of the caravans followed the southern route that passed the fringes of the Takiamakan Desert to Kashgar and down the into northwest India.

5. Han emperor Wudi opened the Silk Road to Parthia. An elaborate network of roads linked Parthia to China in the east, eastern India, and southern India. The Roman eastern provinces were tied to this network through Seleucia on the Euphrates River.

Questions:1. What were the implications of the trade along the Silk Road?2. How did the goods traded affect the economies of India, China,Persia, and Rome?


1. The oceanic trade of Asia was conducted primarily by the Indians who sailed the South China Sea and Gulf of Tonkin. Nevertheless, during the Han the Chinese also became increasingly involved in the ocean trade. Especially important was the invention of the rudder as well as fore and aft sails that permitted Chinese ships to sail into the wind. These vessels carried goods throughout Southeast Asia and into the Indian Ocean. By the first century C.E., Chinese sailors had mastered the monsoon winds of the Indian Ocean that blow from the southwest in the summer and the northeast beginning in October.

2. The conquest of northern Vietnam resulted in Chinese and foreign merchants setting up trading stations. Moreover, new routes were opened from southwestern China to the Bay of Bengal utilizing the river systems of Vietnam and Burma. In this and other trade, the Chinese generally had an advantage due to the high price commanded by the main export, silk. Gold and precious stones were usually used to pay for the silk.

3. The Mauryan road system that ran the length and breadth of India provided a sound base for trade. Both China and Rome had a high demand for such goods as jewels and semiprecious stones, sandlewood and teak, cotton and silk textiles, and spices. Roman trading communities were established in the Tamil south. The demand for the Indian luxury goods by the Romans resulted in the influx of gold coins, silver, perfume, slaves, glass, and Egyptian cloth. In southern India there were small colonies of Romans, Jews, Arabs, and Nestorian Christians from Syria and Persia.

4. The Silk Road ran from Chang'an and Luoyang west along the fringes of the Taklamakan Desert, through the Pamir Mountains into the Indus valley, and then to the ports on the Arabian Sea. Goods such as silk would travel through the Persian Gulf or Red Sea on its way to Rome. The trade through the desert wastes of Xinjiang province in China was primarily directed by the Turkish speaking Uighurs. The Uighur caravans of two humped camels carried goods between China, South Asia, and the Middle East. The best route of the Silk Road was north of the Tian Sham (Heavenly Mountains) but due to banditry, most of the caravans followed the southern route that passed the fringes of the Takiamakan Desert to Kashgar and down the into northwest India.

5. Han emperor Wudi opened the Silk Road to Parthia. An elaborate network of roads linked Parthia to China in the east, eastern India, and southern India. The Roman eastern provinces were tied to this network through Seleucia on the Euphrates River.

Questions:1. What were the implications of the trade along the Silk Road?2. How did the goods traded affect the economies of India, China,Persia, and Rome?

Cities, Manufacturing, and Commerce Urban centers Manufacturing and trade flourish The Silk Road

Connected Chinese and Roman Empires in trade only not government communication

Religion and Intellectual Life Emperor Wu declares Confucianism state philosophy, 136 B.C.E. State university established under Wu Tung Chung-shu (c. 179-c. 104 B.C.E.) Taoism Buddhism Writing of history

Buddhist carving on hillside at Hangzhou

Chapter 4 The Age of Great Empires

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Transcript of Chapter 4 The Age of Great Empires