CHAPTER 4 Language of the Plant

8/18/2019 CHAPTER 4 Language of the Plant

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CHAPTER 4: THE LANGUAGE OF THE PLANT:

“There is, apart from mere intellect, in the make-up of every superior human identity, awondrous something that realizes without argument, frequently without what is called education

( though I think it is the goal and apex of all education deserving the name, an intuition of the

a!solute !alance, in time and space, of the whole of this multifariousness, this revel of fools, and incredi!le make-!elieve and general un-settled-ness, we call the world" a soul-sight of that

divine clue and unseen thread which holds the whole congeries of things, all history and time,

and all events, however trivial, however momentous, like a leashed dog in the hand of the hunter#

($f such soul-sight and root-center for the mind, mere optimism explains only the surface%# &

1. INTRODUCTION: The single most important and vital issue that faces our Nation

today is the Production of Food. Hundreds of years of Agriculture have depleted most of our soils. The problem is further compounded by the fact that nutrient inputs are either unavailable,

too expensive or chemically unstable and harmful. When e learn that the nutrients that e are

using are not readily available to the plants! lac" essential trace elements! are sub#ect to

hydrolysis, volatili$ation and leaching and are being used in an inefficient manner. We reali$ethat e are effectively asting our meager cash resources. We must understand that yields per

acre are not increased by adding more and more chemical macro%nutrient fertili$ers. &t isimportant to reali$e that less is more hen availability of nutrients is timed ith actual

re'uirements. We need to completely change our thin"ing and understanding of (rop

)anagement. &n the ords of *erry +toller , -Ta"e solutions to Farmers by understanding the

language of the plant and treating their problems. This strategy effectively solves the problemsof all farmers. Hoever, our main concern is ith the small landholders and contract farmers.

+mall land holdings! expensive inputs and diminishing returns have combined to brea" their

bac"s. /esultant misery and malnutrition is all too ell "non and needs no elaboration.Agriculture contributes about 24 0 of Pa"istan1s GDP, employs about 45 0 of the labor force

and earns roughly 60 0 of the total value of exports. The population of the (ountry stands atabout 234 million souls. (ultivated area is about 56.67 million acres. Thus per capita availabilityis 4.68 acres. About million acres are termed as culturable aste. 9ields per acre are

abysmally lo, hen compared ith other (ountries.

2. DEFINITIONS:

&t is important to clarify a fe terms that ill be used in this paper.

.2 :ssential Nutrient :lements; Plants need at least 27 essential,

naturally occurring elements for groth


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.2.2 )acro%Nutrients;

a= Nitrogen. N

b= Phosphorus. Pc= Potassium. B

.2. +econdary Nutrients;

a= (alcium. (a b= )agnesium. )g

c= +ulfur. +

.2.6 )icro%Nutrients;a= )anganese. )n

b= &ron. Fe

c= Coron. C

d= inc. ne= (opper. (u

f= )olybdenum. )o

g= (hlorine. (l

h= (obalt. (o. (ommon ?eficiency +ymptoms;

..2 (hlorosis; @ac" of green color in leaves, caused by lac" of chlorophyll. There are three types of chlorosis.

a= &nterveinal; Here the veins remain green hile the rest is

chlorotic. b= &ntraveinal; Here the leaf1s veins are chlorotic hile the rest

remains green.

c= Dniform; Here the entire leaf is chlorotic.

.. Necrosis; Tissue dies and usually assumes a bron color...6 +tunting; This is caused by a slodon in metabolism or cell

division. &t can also be caused by shortened internodes due to less

cell elongation...3 ?istortion: Here the leaves become spongy, thic"ened or curled.

..5 +oil Productivity; The capability of a soil to produce a specified plant


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(reated by +ardar Taimur Hyat%Bhan 242


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Figure 2; Plant Food )anufacture.

3. ROLE OF NUTRIENTS IN PLANTS:

6.2 Nitrogen; 6.2.2 Functions;

a= (omponent of all proteins. b= )a#or constituent of chlorophyll.

c= (omponent of nucleotides, coen$ymes, al"aloids and nucleic

acids.

6.2. ?eficiency +ymptoms;a= Dniform (hlorosis, appearing first on loer leaves, hich

may turn yello or bron and die.

b= roth is greatly reduced.

6. Phosphorus;6..2 Functions;

a= &mportant in energy transfer as part of adenosinetriphosphate.

b= Plays a ma#or role in the storage of metabolic energy.

c= (onstituent of many proteins, coen$ymes, nucleic acids andmetabolic substrates.

d= &nvolved in the synthesis and utili$ation of carbohydrates and

proteins.

6.. ?eficiency +ymptoms;a= Purplish color due to the development of anthocyanins from

an accumulation of sugars.

b= Purple veins.c= roth is greatly reduced.

6.6 Potassium;

6.6.2 Functions;a= Functions in regulatory mechanisms; Photosynthesis,

(arbohydrate Translocation and Protein +ynthesis.

b= Functions as an en$yme co%factor.

6.6. ?eficiency +ymptoms;a= ?ying of tissue beginning at tip and margin of loer leaf and

progresses throughout the entire leaf.

6.3 (alcium;6.3.2 Functions;

a= (ell all component and plays role in the structure and

permeability of membranes. b= Dtili$ed for continuous cell division and formation.

c= &nvolved in Nitrogen metabolism.

d= /educes plant respiration.



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e= Aids translocation of photosynthates from leaves to fruiting

organs.

f= &ncreases fruit set.g= (ontrols ater upta"e by cell colloids.

h= Plays significant role in vegetative habits of the crop.

i= Abundance of (alcium results in production of smaller plants but stimulates early and abundant fruiting.

#= Acts as protective sieve for nutrients to seep through in

passing into cells"= Neutrali$es Grganic Acid by%products formed during plant

groth by forming (alcium Gxalates.

l= Alters availability of some nutrients and prevents toxic effect

of others.6.3. ?eficiency +ymptoms;

a= Dniform chlorosis appearing first on young leaves.

b= roing tips of roots and shoots may die.

c= Plants appear stunted.6.3.6 Factors (ontributing to ?eficiency;

a= @o pH soils


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h= &ncreases plant1s ability to ithstand unfavorable conditions

and disease.

i= &nfluences earliness and uniformity of maturity. #= Dpta"e and utili$ation usually occurs in the first 5 to E ee"s

after emergence. /o crops utili$e )g mostly in first 34

days. +mall grain crops need most during early grothseason. Tree crops need )g hen they ma"e their first

vegetative flush. @egumes generally contain more

magnesium then phosphates. +ugar producing crops, li"e beets, corn, potatoes and fruit, re'uire more magnesium than

grain crops li"e heat, rye and barley, hich also benefit

from this element.

6.5. ?eficiency +ymptoms;a= &nterveinal chlorosis on older leaves.

b= (hlorotic areas may die.

6.5.6 Factors (ontributing to ?eficiency;

a= @o levels of )agnesium in the soil. b= High levels of (alcium


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d= Formation of plant hormones.

e= Promotes plant maturity by increasing cellular activity.

f= &ncreases set of floers and fruit and yield and 'uality.g= Water relations in the plant.

6.7. ?eficiency +ymptoms;

a= (hlorosis of younger leaves. b= &nternal broning of stems and fruit.

c= +hortening of upper internodes.

d= roing points can become brittle.6.7.6 Factors (ontributing to ?eficiency;

a= &mmobile in the plant.

b= +oil pH E.8 or higher


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i= Not readily trans%located from old to ne leaves, thus a

constantly available source is needed throughout the groing

season. #= /eactions involving cell division and groth.

6.> )anganese;

6.>.2 Functions;a= (ontrols several oxidation%reduction systems, formation of

G in photosynthesis.

b= Predominant metal ion in metabolism of Grganic Acids.c= &n higher plants, activates reduction of nitrite and hydroxyl

amine to ammonia.

d= Part of important en$ymes involved in respiration and protein

synthesis.e= +erves as activator for a variety of en$yme reactions such as

oxidationI reduction, hydrolysis and group transfer.

f= )ay have direct or indirect influence on chloroplasts and

their conversion of sunlight to chemical energy.6.>. ?eficiency +ymptoms;

a= &nterveinal chlorosis of younger leaves.6.>.6 Factors (ontributing to ?eficiency;

a= +oil pH above E.5


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6.24.6 Factors (ontributing to ?eficiency;

a= High Grganic soils


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6.2 )olybdenum;

6.2.2 Functions;

a= &n Nitrogenase, needed for Nitrogen fixation. b= &n high Nitrogen using plants, essential for nitrate reduction

to protein through the amino acid state.

c= :ssential for groth


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fertili$ers in the hope of increasing yields, e ill be causing unbalanced

groth leading to ea"ness and conse'uent lodging and susceptibility to

diseases. A properly balanced fertili$ation program ill save on inputs andyield better harvests. This proper balancing means providing those elements

only hen they are needed by the plant. &n case elements are provided too

early they ill become unavailable to the plant either due to leaching or conversion to immobile or non%soluble compounds. The period of critical

need by plants for 2 soil, or foliar applied, nutrients are illustrated belo,

by division into three stages.

Table ; Plants (ritical Needs for Nutrients by roth Period.

+r. 4 %34 ?ays after Planting /apid roth Period Fruiting PeriodI/eproductive +tage

2 Phosphorus Nitrogen (alcium

inc Potassium Coron

6 &ron +ulfur (obalt

3 )anganese5 (opper

E )agnesium

:lements under the first 34%day period, are not re'uired in large'uantities. Hoever, they are not mobile, or in other ords, they do not flo

ith the soil ater. /oot hairs need to come into direct contact ith them for

effective upta"e. &n case the root hairs are filled ith mobile elements, suchas those of the rapid groth period, they ill be unable to ma"e space for

the nutrients that they actually re'uire at that particular time. )oreover,

since high levels of Potassium, (alcium and +odium salts are 'uite mobile,

this leads to more micro%nutrient deficiency in the first 34 days, hen theultimate character of the plant is being formed. Thus the closer these micro%

nutrients are placed to the seed, the more li"elihood of their being used

effectively by the plant. This can be done by one of the folloing methods;a= (oating the seed.

b= Canding non%mobile nutrients close to the seed.

c= +praying them on the plant hen it reaches 3 leaf stage.This introduces three important concepts e.g. +eed (oating! Canding

and Foliar Application. Croadcast Application of nutrients, as presently

being practiced, is the least effective and most asteful method of application.

3.2 +eed (oating; +eed can be coated ith micro%nutrients! hormones!fungicides and pesticides. &n Pa"istan, e are using some pesticide coating.

Hoever, this only protects the seed during storage. &f nutrient and hormonecoated seed are introduced, e ill have found an effective method of

providing essential nutrients and compounds in the least expensive and least

laborious manner, that re'uires the least technical "noledge on the part of the farmer. Hoever, this is true only for the initial groth period. +econdly,

(reated by +ardar Taimur Hyat%Bhan 24>


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not enough additives can be coated on the seed. Thus Canding and Foliar

+pray are used to supplement nutrient availability. +eed coating can either be

done by the farmer, #ust before planting, or by the +eed (ompany. The latter method re'uires Polymer coating to preserve the additives. +ince Polymers

are obtained by using Drea as a ra material the method can easily be

adopted in Pa"istan.3. Canding; Application of nutrients, for ro cultivated crops, is a much

more cost effective, as ell as efficient method of providing nutrients.

Croadcast application leads to uneven distribution and is more easilyavailable to eeds here there are no crop seeds to compete ith them.

+econdly, more than tice the amount of fertili$er is re'uired. This system

lends even more credence to drill placement of seed combined ith drill

banding in a single operation. The actual practice is to place the nutrients 6to 3 inches aay from the seed in continuos flo form.

3.6 Foliar Application; /oots are fed from the leaves even though they

are presently the ma#or source of nutrient upta"e. Hoever, they merely ta"e

up the nutrients to transport them to the leaves here they are converted intofood and redirected to the roots. /adio (hemical Analysis has amply proved

that Foliar Application is much more efficient that soil upta"e. &n clay loamsand organic soils it as E times more efficient. &n sandy loams efficiency

increased to 4 times. This is 'uite significant and needs to be adopted.

Availability of lo%cost bac"pac" sprayers for pesticides ma"es this method practicable for small farmers.

5. THE LANGUAGE OF THE PLANT:

&f e had the ability, as did many of our old farmers, to -listen to hat the

plant as -saying e ould be able to cater to it1s needs as and hen

re'uired. &n an uneducated and unsophisticated environment, it ould proveto be too difficult to educate the /ural )asses regarding Plant Nutrition.

Hoever, our (ulture ill readily adopt Gfficially endorsed (rop and +oil

)anagement +ystems. Gnce the re'uisite "noledge or -Will is either lac"ing or suppressed for hatever reasons, the effect is disastrous. We have

reached a stage here faith in Gfficial Policies are gauged as inconsistent

ith the elfare of the farmers. This needs to be overcome by effecting an

immediate and positive change. &t is 'uite obvious that if the plant and the planter are spea"ing different languages, there ill be a failure in

production. Thus e need to understand the language of the plant. reater

understanding of the plant1s language ill result in higher and sustainableyields that are consistent ith sound environmental practices

5.2 Five (ategories of Hormones;

5.2.2 Auxins; )ostly in the leaf tips and control the groing point to light.&AA is the ma#or Auxin, it influences the rate of cell division and

enlargement. @o rates increase hile high rates retard. /oots are

most sensitive at 4.4 ppb, buds follo in sensitivity at 4.2 ppm,

hile stems are least sensitive at 4.4 ppm. &AA regulates pholem(reated by +ardar Taimur Hyat%Bhan 224


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transport as higher &AA attracts more pholem flo. Auxins move

only in one direction, i.e. from the tips don and from the roots

toards the tip. Auxin concentration is diluted hen it moves fromthe groing point donards.

5.2. ibberellins; ibberellins cause enlargement of cell alls,

particularly internode cells and some fruit cells. They cause brea"ingof dormancy, move freely in the plant and are produced in the roots

and ne leaves.

5.2.6 (yto"inins; (yto"inins are produced in the root tips and are carriedupards in the xylem tissue. They loose concentration as they move

toards the leaves. (yto"inins effect cell division.

5.2.3 :thylene; :thylene is stimulated by Auxins and can cause -Auxin

li"e effects. :thylene stimulates floering and abscission of floers, fruit and leaves. This hormone is produced in fleshy fruit

and increases ripening. :thylene is a gas and causes senescence. &t is

called the aging hormone.

5.2.5 Abscisic Acid... ACA; This hormone is a groth inhibitor and promotes senescence, bud dormancy and seed dormancy. &t is

produced in the leaves.Hormones are produced in some organs and move to other organs to change

their characteristics. For instance, in heat early groth is dominated by

ibberellins, the middle stage by (yto"inins and the later stages by Auxins.There is groing evidence that hormone regulation in plants is controlled by

a central mechanism. This is distribution of (alcium in the protoplasm.

5. HG/)GN: &NT:/A(T&GN;

5..2 +tem :longation; Here Auxin K &AA is necessary, ibberellins caninterfere ith this.

5.. Apical ?ominance; Whenever Auxins and &AA are produced in large

'uantities, stem groth is greater but bud groth is stronglyinhibited. Further aay from the groing tip the bud groth is

ea"ly inhibited. When plants are pruned, ne buds ill form above

the apex. Cud groth can be prevented by :thylene, hich is caused by too much Auxin causing :thylene to be produced in cells.

(yto"inins can release bud groth from the effects of Auxins K &AA.

5..6 /oot &nitiation; High (yto"ininI Auxin rates develop shoot groth. &t

reduces the AuxinK &AA effect. The above ratios inhibit shoot grothof roots toards the tip. When (yto"inins are loer bac" from the

root tip, branch roots ill gro. When Auxin rates get really high,

adventitious roots ill appear from the stem.5..3 +enescence and Abscission; When floers are fertili$ed they ma"e

Auxins hich prevent abscission. Fruit abscission develops hen

Auxin is reduced in the floer. &t may be that Auxins attac" (yto"inins from the roots, hich prevent abscission and senescence.

:vidently ACA reduces Auxin in floers or fruit. This ould

increase abscission.



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5..5 ?ormancy; Abscisic Acid


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roots, as e have seen, are primarily developed, mostly during the

vegetative stage. Thus a plant1s disease resistance is at its greatest

during this stage. &n case there is insufficient usable (alcium in thesoil, the cell alls of the roots ill be ea" and result in lea"ing.

+oil borne disease vectors ill use this lea"ing as a -(hemical Taxi


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no effectively in control of the plant such as :thylene and

Putrescine. These cause the folloing problems;

a= )ore disease problems. b= )ore physiological problems.

c= )ore stress problems.

d= )ore aborting of floers and fruit.e= Premature ripening.

f= :arly death of plants.

These all effect the hormone balance and cause early death of the plant hich in turn effects yields. When yields are high the

observation is that stal"s andI or stems are still green. This shos

that the plant as still alive. &f e can slo don the shift in

(arbohydrate flo from the roots to the reproductive tissue, e canelongate the life of the plant. This ill allo greater time for the

grain to fill, or fruit to develop, as the case may be. Thus, the lessons

learnt so far are that in the egetative stage e should help the roots

to gro vigorously and in the /eproductive stage e must elongatethe roots life. This is done by hormones. :very day that a plant1s life

is extended results in 3 0 additional yield.5.6.3 )ovement of (arbohydrates; (arbohydrates and Proteins are

produced in the leaves of the plant and then transferred to stal"s,

stems or branches. From here they are used by the vegetativegroing points, such as roots and shoots. &n order to replenish the

(arbohydrate supply the leaf must have ade'uate Potassium,

)agnesium and ACA


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out, cause this and result in (hemitaxi route into the plant for these

diseases. Thus there is a re'uirement of avoiding this and also

healing the plant if it is effected.5.3.6 Foliar ?iseases; These are more severe during the reproductive stage.

This is caused by :thylene and Putrescine accumulation in the plant.

The plant can fight these ith hormones produced in the roots and(alcium stored in the (ytosol.

5.3.3 Nematodes; Nematodes attac" plant roots and introduce toxins into

the plant. These can be controlled by hormones.5.3.5 +tress; Hot and dry climate conditions cause stress in the plant. This

causes;

a= ?isease.

b= :arly dying.c= Premature ripening.

d= Abortion of fruit or seed.

e= Poor storage or shelf life.

5.5 Hormone (ontrol; All of the above negative groth factors arehormone related and are not related to nutrients. Nutrients can effect the

hormones, e.g. (alcium has a positive effect and Nitrogen has a negativeeffect. Hormones can speed up a plant1s metabolism and result in more

efficient use of chemical fertili$ers. Thus ith the addition of hormones, less

fertili$ers need to be used. +econdly, ith a more complete -?iet in so far as nutrients are concerned, e can achieve much better results. Hormone

treatment of seed and plants, therefore is perhaps even more important than

hybrid seed development. The full genetic potential of existing seed is

achieved and yields are vastly improved. &t is important to note that thecutting don of )acro Nutrients, as presently being used, ill result in

savings that offset the expense incurred in Hormone Treatment and )icro%

Nutrient +upply. +econdly, improved yields ill more than compensate for the money and efforts expended. Thirdly, )icro%Nutrients and Hormones are

naturally occurring elements and compounds. Thus, the use of these

elements and compounds are environmentally safe and highly desirable. &t isimportant to note that hormone use in plants is noise similar to

indiscriminate hormones use in Poultry Production. The hormones suggested

for use ith plants are only those that ould be normally produced by the

plant itself if it ere healthy or ere to receive a balanced -?iet. Thesehormone Products should be registered ith the :PA and must be natural.

6 PEST CONTROL ITH NUTRIENTS:

E.2 +uc"ing &nsects; Aphids! )ites! White Fly! Thrips! Gthers;

+uc"ing insects feed upon amines and amino acids in order to form their

on proteins. Plant proteins are of no use to these insects. +ince the insects(reated by +ardar Taimur Hyat%Bhan 225


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life cycle is short it needs massive 'uantities of proteins in order to lay eggs.

+uc"ing insects usually attac" and feed upon ne leaves. Ne leaves have

only pholem and no xylem tissue. As such, organic compounds are not beingmanufactured in the ne leaves, they rely upon the compounds made in old

leaves. Plant sugar can give these insects diarrhea, causing stic"y plants.

Amines and amino acids move freely in pholem tissue. They are lo on(alcium, Coron and other nutrients as they are not mobile or only sloly

mobile in ne tissue. When suc"ing insects destroy ne leaves or vector in

a virus the hormone balance of the plant is disrupted. This causes a ma#or change in the older leaves. Proteins hydroly$e to amines and amino acids

and become available to the suc"ing insects as food. Nitrogen also causes

higher amines and amino acid levels in the plant. The more the nitrogen used

the greater the threat. inc ill loer the level of amines and amino acids inthe ne leaves. Thus, during critical periods, a foliar application of inc ill

treat the leaves. /epeat applications are re'uired every 23 days.

. THE LANGUAGE OF THE SOIL:

As ith the plant, the soil too has a particular expression of its on. Thecondition of the soil ill determine the plant1s ability to upta"e nutrients in

order to go about its business of groth and reproduction. @imiting factors

can only be overcome if they are understood and steps are ta"en to preclude

their inhibiting characteristics. +oil content, condition and pH determine the plant1s ability to upta"e nutrition. +ophisticated soil, leaf tissue and sap

analysis ill provide exact data on available nutrients in the soil at the time

that the sample as ta"en. Hoever, delays in providing results ill result inchanges that might have occurred since that time. +econdly, these tests need

to be carried out ith every crop, as each preceding crop ill have removed

so much nutrition. The expenses involved are too high to be used tooptimum advantage. This is particularly true for small and subsistence

farmers. The parent material, out of hich the soil is derived, indicates the

presence or chronic absence of nutrients. For example, al"aline soils ith pH

of 8.4 and above are deficient in &ron. :xcessive atering, needed to leach+odium salts, results in further depletion. &ncorrect Agricultural practices

can also result in depletion of nutrients. For example (opper availability in

poorly aerated and drained soils is very lo. The interaction of variousnutrients also determine their availability. For example, high levels of

available Phosphate in soils can decrease inc upta"e by plants. This results

from heavy use of Phosphate Fertili$ers in crops. The interaction beteen

nutrients can either be antagonistic or stimulating. )ulder1s chart is agraphic illustration of this complexity. +oil pH is a ma#or factor hich

determines micro%nutrient availability and utili$ation. For example, the previously mentioned inc deficiency, due to excessive Phosphate, is

increased hen air and root temperatures are lo. @ight intensity is also an

effecting factor. For instance, high light intensity and long days loer a

plant1s re'uirement for )anganese. &n short, the complex +oil%Plant%

(reated by +ardar Taimur Hyat%Bhan 22E


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% #t)#t! &#%#9!)+ 8 N#t)t! NO38<


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NH3 GH


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Negative (harge


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NO38

N#t)t!<

2. (G


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HG

Ammonia from

?eamination of Amino Acids

Figure 7; (hloride Fertili$er +ources :ffect on /educing Ammonia

olatali$ation from Drea Fertili$er;


F/:: A))GN&A

D/:A NH6 K HG K &G


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Figure 8; The Nitrogen (ycle;

N K H

@i6N NH3K +alt

Na6n


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H6NCF6


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?eath O ?ecay

8. Nitrogen is 78 0 by volume of dry air. &t is an essential element in

all living things. Nitrogen is a constituent of proteins and nucleicacids. +ome Nitrogen is mined as Nitrate ores such as (hilenitre

NaNG6

?initrogen consists of diatomic molecules

(reated by +ardar Taimur Hyat%Bhan 2E

Cacteria in

nodules on theroots of legumes


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N N

@o reactivity of Nitrogen attributable to strength of triple bond.

N


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Figure 24; +chematic Nitrogen (ycle;


P@ANT TG&(&T9

A+:GD+ @G++:+


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Figure 22; +chematic Pathay of Nitrogen in the Plant.

(reated by +ardar Taimur Hyat%Bhan 2>

Amino Acids NG6

/eductase en$ymes

)oly NeededAnd For +ulfur N%Dse

R

@ight (arbohydrates

Nitrate


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Figure 2; )ulder1s (hart; &nteraction Ceteen Nutrients;

)ulder1s (hart is a graphic illustration of the complexity of interaction beteen nutrients. Antagonism is illustrated by a solid lineand stimulation by a dotted line.

)ANFAN:+:

PGTA+H

&/GN

HG+PHAT:

CG/GN

N&T/GF:N &N(

)G@9C?:ND)

)AFN:+&D)

(GPP:/

(A@(&D)


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8.3 Table E; Nitrogen O Phosphorus /eactants;

/:A(TANT N&T/G:N PHG+PHG/D+)etals &onic or interstitial Phosphides formed

Nitrides formed

Gxygen +ome NG formed &gnites, hite at 65 (

At high temp. O in red at E4o(, to form

:lectric discharge PG6 K PG5

+ulphur No reaction )ixture of sulphides

formed

Halogens No reaction P6 K P5 formed

Hydrogen +ome NH6 formed No reactionAt high pressure

Al"ali No reaction White P


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Four pairs of electrons around the central atom. Whether they are bonding pairs or lone pairs, they experience mutual repulsion. To minimi$e this, the four

electron pairs orbitally adopt the spatial arrangement that maximi$es the angle

beteen orbitals. four electron pairs adopt a tetrahedral configuration.

K

H H

N H H N H

H H

NH6 K HG H6 G K GH%

The lone pair enables ammonia to act as a base, accepting a proton to form the ammonia ion

NH3K

Ammonia is a @eis base able to use its lone pair to form a coordinate bond to another

molecule



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?. ORGANICS:

Cefore going into details about Grganics, e must examine Nitrogen a little closer.

>.2 N&T/G:N +GD/(:; Nitrogen is the most abundant element in Nature, it is an essentialelement in all living things, being present in proteins and nucleic acids. Nitrogen constitutes 78

0 by volume of dry air. There are three types of Nitrogen that are applied to crops.

a. Ammonium .5. :) Technology;



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a= :) Technology should be adopted for use in composting.

>.5.6 +econdary O Trace :lements; &t is a mista"e to believe that Cacteria ill ma"e traceelements available in the soil. &f there is an absence of a trace material it ill not appear

due to the action of Cacteria or any other element. &t needs to be inculcated. This too is

much more efficient if (helated +econdary and )icro%Nutrients are used. This is aspecial process herein the positively charged, pure divalent metals are covered by inert

organic matter to promote bonding to the plant and restrict leaching.

>.E Grganic Fertili$er; The present times have, fortunately, revealed to us the importance of Grganic content in our soils. The practices of the recent past, as related to (hemical Fertili$ers,

have brought about an :cological (risis in the ma"ing. There is no real antagonism beteen

mineral .7 Grganic )atter; Grganic matter acts as a biological buffer ensuring that balanced supplies

of nutrients are available to the plant roots. +oils that are poor in organic matter loose this

buffering capacity and their fertili$er efficiency ill decrease in N O P fertili$ers.>.7.2 Cenefits;

a= +erves as the principal storehouse for anions such as nitrates, sulfates, borates,

molybdates and chlorides that are essential for plant groth.

b= &ncreases (:( .7. &n short organic matter greatly enhances nutrient availability, improves the biological

functioning of the soil and the efficiency of chemical fertili$ers


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and reduced tillage and even no%till be encouraged. This can only be done ith increased organic

matter in the soil. The best Technical and Financial option is often to use both organic andinorganic fertili$ers. +tudies have shon rice production of 7 tons per hectare using chemical

fertili$ers in traditional broadcast and 24 tons per hectare using bio%mass, safe and stabili$ed

chemical fertili$ers, li'uid primary, chelated secondary and micro%nutrients, natural hormonesand foliar applications. 9ields of 5 to E tons ere harvested per hectare using Grganic fertili$er

and some 23%23%23 chemical fertili$er. Grganic fertili$er alone produced 3.5 to 5 tons per

hectare. Where producing for the organic mar"et, organic fertili$ers and natural hormones can beused. Where producing for the conventional mar"et, organic fertili$er, natural hormones, li'uid

primary, chelated secondary and micronutrients through split foliar and banding applications

should be encouraged. +eed treatment, deep banding and good cultural practices ill ma"e all

the difference in sustainability.>.> Humus; The decayed Grganic )aterial such as plant and animal tissue constitutes humus.

The chemical constituents of Grganic residue decompose separately into cellulose!

hemicellulose! strartches! sugars! oils! fatsI Proteins! amino%acids! amides! @ignin andundecomposed residues. The first group is attac"ed by microorganisms, releasing carbon dioxide

and ater, yielding intermediary substances! organic acids! alcohols and microbial cell

substances! fats! axes! hemicellulose etc. The second group .24 /ecycling Waste; )unicipal aste! Fruit O egetable )ar"et aste! Animal manure!

Ashes and ra seage not mixed ith detergents and HouseholdI (ommercial chemicals aregenerated in large 'uantities. &t is estimated that a community of 24,444 people can generate 34%

acre inches of seage effluent per day or an e'uivalent of 2 million gallons of asteater. This

aste is extremely rich in nutrients especially Nitrogen. @arge 'uantities of carbonaceousmaterials are present in Fruit and egetable )ar"et aste. Fish )undies and +laughterHouse

astes are also valuable nutrient sources. The exchange of nutrients beteen living and non%

living parts of the :co%system is called Nutrient (ycling. When based upon human! animal and

vegetable aste it is Nutrient re%cycling at pea" efficiency rather than merely creating anuisance! pollution and source of disease. The act of composting consists of to processes!

)inerali$ation and &mmobili$ation. )inerali$ation occurs hen microbial decomposers convert

the nutrients in Grganic matter into inorganic ions. &mmobili$ation is the upta"e of inorganicnutrient ions by organisms. Thus nutrient cycling conserves the nutrient supply and results in

repeated use of these nutrients. Grganic matter added to the soil consists of many compounds.

These are fats! carbohydrates! proteins and lignins. The process of )inerali$ation and

immobili$ation eventually brea"s don the most resistant elements for use of food. The neteffect is the release of energy as heat! formation of carbon dioxide and ater! and the appearance

of Nitrogen as Ammonium


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>.22.2 )ixture of Plant and Animal )aterial; The animal material supplies the Nitrogen,

hich is needed by bacteria. The (arbon component is supplied mostly from plantresidue. The (arbon;Nitrogen ratio should be 4;2 for satisfactory decomposition. This

balance can be struc" by a rule of thumb of 2;64 ratio beteen manure to other organic

materials.>.22. +i$e of )aterial; The smaller the particles the faster the decomposition process as it

yields greater surface area for bacteria. This is achieved by chopping and shredding.

>.22.6 AerobicI Anaerobic; This means in the presence of Gxygen and in its absence.Anaerobic decomposition "ills pathogens! &nsect eggs and seeds. &t prevents creation of

odor. Gpen air composting is 'uite the opposite.

>.22.3 Water; The decomposing materials should be et li"e a sponge yet not dripping. This is

achieved by 54 0 of the solid volume being supplied as ater.>.22.5 Temperature; At first the temperature of the material should rise to 55%E4 (, ithin a

fe days and then subse'uently drop. This process results from correct mixing and is

used as an indicator.>.2 (onstituents; The folloing material can be used for composting.

>.2.2 rass other clippings.

>.2. egetable! Fruit! Bitchen aste.>.2.6 Paper.

>.2.3 /a +eage.

>.2.5 Animal )anureI Drine.

>.2.E )unicipal astes .2.7 Fine silt.

>.2.8 Ashes.

>.2.> ?olomite.>.2.24 (rushed @imestone.

>.2.22 (ompost activator Herbs .2.2 Cacteria.>.2.26 :) M Cio Aab. (ontaining;

a= Photosynthetic Cacteria.

'hodopseudomonos spp#

b= @actic Acid Cacteria. acta!acillus spp#

c= 9east.

)acchoromyces spp#>.2.23 Cio%Post. (arrying N fixing;

a= Pectionalytic.

b= @igninolyutic.

c= (ellulolyticd= Trace elements


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>.26 +tatistics;

>.26.2 /a +eage; 24 acre inches.>.26. reen Waste; 25 trolleys.

>.26.6 Animal aste. 24 trolleys.

>.26.3 )unicipal aste. 25 trolleys.>.26.5 +ilt. acre inches.

>.26.E Ashes. acre inches.

>.26.7 ?olomite. U acre inch.>.26.8 (rushed @imestone. acre inches.

>.26.> Activator Herbs. 2 trolley.

>.26.24 Cacteria.

a= :)% Cio%Aab. 25 @ base. b= Cio Post. 24 bags .26.2 to sr. >.26.24, in half 'uantities each and then

repeated till all the material is used. +erial a= is introduced along ith ater! sugar source for theCio Aab Case and 2,544 @ of ater. This material is placed in tan"s covering 2 acre and

covered by blac" plastic. The process is repeated every day for 25 days in ad#oining acres toma"e a total of 25 acres. :ach filled acre is turned over after 7 days and re%covered. After 25

days

CHAPTER 4 Language of the Plant

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Transcript of CHAPTER 4 Language of the Plant