Chapter 35 Presentation
Transcript of Chapter 35 Presentation
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Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
PowerPoint® Lecture Presentations for
Biology Eighth Edition
Neil Campbell and Jane Reece
Lectures by Chris Romero, updated by Erin Barley with contributions from Joan Sharp
Chapter 35Chapter 35
Plant Structure, Growth, and Development
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Overview: Plastic Plants?
• To some people, the fanwort is an intrusive weed, but to others it is an attractive aquarium plant
• This plant exhibits developmental plasticity, the ability to alter itself in response to its environment
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Fig. 35-1
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• Developmental plasticity is more marked in plants than in animals
• In addition to plasticity, plant species have by natural selection accumulated characteristics of morphology that vary little within the species
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Concept 35.1: The plant body has a hierarchy of organs, tissues, and cells
• Plants, like multicellular animals, have organs composed of different tissues, which in turn are composed of cells
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The Three Basic Plant Organs: Roots, Stems, and Leaves
• Basic morphology of vascular plants reflects their evolution as organisms that draw nutrients from below ground and above ground
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• Three basic organs evolved: roots, stems, and leaves
• They are organized into a root system and a shoot system
• Roots rely on sugar produced by photosynthesis in the shoot system, and shoots rely on water and minerals absorbed by the root system
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Fig. 35-2Reproductive shoot (flower)
Apical bud
Node
Internode
Apicalbud
Shootsystem
Vegetativeshoot
LeafBlade
Petiole
Axillarybud
Stem
Taproot
Lateralbranchroots
Rootsystem
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Roots
• Roots are multicellular organs with important functions:
– Anchoring the plant
– Absorbing minerals and water
– Storing organic nutrients
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• A taproot system consists of one main vertical root that gives rise to lateral roots, or branch roots
• Adventitious roots arise from stems or leaves
• Seedless vascular plants and monocots have a fibrous root system characterized by thin lateral roots with no main root
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• In most plants, absorption of water and minerals occurs near the root hairs, where vast numbers of tiny root hairs increase the surface area
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Fig. 35-3
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• Many plants have modified roots
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Fig. 35-4
Prop roots
“Strangling”aerial roots
Storage roots
Buttress roots
Pneumatophores
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Fig. 35-4a
Prop roots
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Fig. 35-4b
Storage roots
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Fig. 35-4c
“Strangling” aerial roots
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Fig. 35-4d
Pneumatophores
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Fig. 35-4e
Buttress roots
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Stems
• A stem is an organ consisting of
– An alternating system of nodes, the points at which leaves are attached
– Internodes, the stem segments between nodes
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• An axillary bud is a structure that has the potential to form a lateral shoot, or branch
• An apical bud, or terminal bud, is located near the shoot tip and causes elongation of a young shoot
• Apical dominance helps to maintain dormancy in most nonapical buds
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• Many plants have modified stems
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Fig. 35-5Rhizomes
Bulbs
Storage leaves
Stem
Stolons
Stolon
Tubers
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Fig. 35-5a
Rhizomes
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Fig. 35-5b
Bulb
Storage leaves
Stem
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Fig. 35-5c
Stolons
Stolon
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Fig. 35-5d
Tubers
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Leaves
• The leaf is the main photosynthetic organ of most vascular plants
• Leaves generally consist of a flattened blade and a stalk called the petiole, which joins the leaf to a node of the stem
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• Monocots and eudicots differ in the arrangement of veins, the vascular tissue of leaves
– Most monocots have parallel veins
– Most eudicots have branching veins
• In classifying angiosperms, taxonomists may use leaf morphology as a criterion
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Fig. 35-6
(a) Simple leaf
Compoundleaf
(b)
Doublycompoundleaf
(c)
Petiole
Axillary bud
Leaflet
PetioleAxillary bud
LeafletPetioleAxillary bud
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Fig. 35-6a
(a) Simple leaf
Petiole
Axillary bud
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Fig. 35-6b
Compound leaf
(b)
Leaflet
PetioleAxillary bud
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Fig. 35-6c
Doublycompoundleaf
(c)
LeafletPetioleAxillary bud
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• Some plant species have evolved modified leaves that serve various functions
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Fig. 35-7Tendrils
Spines
Storageleaves
Reproductive leaves
Bracts
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Fig. 35-7a
Tendrils
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Fig. 35-7b
Spines
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Fig. 35-7c
Storage leaves
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Fig. 35-7d
Reproductive leaves
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Fig. 35-7e
Bracts
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Dermal, Vascular, and Ground Tissues
• Each plant organ has dermal, vascular, and ground tissues
• Each of these three categories forms a tissue system
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Fig. 35-8
Dermaltissue
Groundtissue Vascular
tissue
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• In nonwoody plants, the dermal tissue system consists of the epidermis
• A waxy coating called the cuticle helps prevent water loss from the epidermis
• In woody plants, protective tissues called periderm replace the epidermis in older regions of stems and roots
• Trichomes are outgrowths of the shoot epidermis and can help with insect defense
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Fig. 35-9
Very hairy pod(10 trichomes/
mm2)
Slightly hairy pod(2 trichomes/
mm2)
Bald pod(no trichomes)
Very hairy pod:10% damage
Slightly hairy pod:25% damage
Bald pod:40% damage
EXPERIMENT
RESULTS
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• The vascular tissue system carries out long-distance transport of materials between roots and shoots
• The two vascular tissues are xylem and phloem
• Xylem conveys water and dissolved minerals upward from roots into the shoots
• Phloem transports organic nutrients from where they are made to where they are needed
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• The vascular tissue of a stem or root is collectively called the stele
• In angiosperms the stele of the root is a solid central vascular cylinder
• The stele of stems and leaves is divided into vascular bundles, strands of xylem and phloem
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• Tissues that are neither dermal nor vascular are the ground tissue system
• Ground tissue internal to the vascular tissue is pith; ground tissue external to the vascular tissue is cortex
• Ground tissue includes cells specialized for storage, photosynthesis, and support
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Common Types of Plant Cells
• Like any multicellular organism, a plant is characterized by cellular differentiation, the specialization of cells in structure and function
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• Some major types of plant cells:
– Parenchyma
– Collenchyma
– Sclerenchyma
– Water-conducting cells of the xylem
– Sugar-conducting cells of the phloem
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Parenchyma Cells
• Mature parenchyma cells
– Have thin and flexible primary walls
– Lack secondary walls
– Are the least specialized
– Perform the most metabolic functions
– Retain the ability to divide and differentiateBioFlix: Tour of a Plant CellBioFlix: Tour of a Plant Cell
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Fig. 35-10a
Parenchyma cells in Elodea leaf,with chloroplasts (LM) 60 µm
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Collenchyma Cells
• Collenchyma cells are grouped in strands and help support young parts of the plant shoot
• They have thicker and uneven cell walls
• They lack secondary walls
• These cells provide flexible support without restraining growth
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Fig. 35-10b
Collenchyma cells (in Helianthus stem) (LM)
5 µm
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Sclerenchyma Cells
• Sclerenchyma cells are rigid because of thick secondary walls strengthened with lignin
• They are dead at functional maturity
• There are two types:
– Sclereids are short and irregular in shape and have thick lignified secondary walls
– Fibers are long and slender and arranged in threads
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Fig. 35-10c
5 µm
25 µm
Sclereid cells in pear (LM)
Fiber cells (cross section from ash tree) (LM)
Cell wall
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Fig. 35-10d
Perforationplate
Vesselelement
Vessel elements, withperforated end walls Tracheids
Pits
Tracheids and vessels(colorized SEM)
Vessel Tracheids 100 µm
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Fig. 35-10d1
Vessel Tracheids 100 µm
Tracheids and vessels(colorized SEM)
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Fig. 35-10d2
Perforationplate
Vesselelement
Vessel elements, withperforated end walls Tracheids
Pits
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Water-Conducting Cells of the Xylem
• The two types of water-conducting cells, tracheids and vessel elements, are dead at maturity
• Tracheids are found in the xylem of all vascular plants
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• Vessel elements are common to most angiosperms and a few gymnosperms
• Vessel elements align end to end to form long micropipes called vessels
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Fig. 35-10e
Sieve-tube element (left)and companion cell:cross section (TEM)
3 µmSieve-tube elements:longitudinal view (LM)
Sieve plate
Companioncells
Sieve-tubeelements
Plasmodesma
Sieveplate
Nucleus ofcompanioncells
Sieve-tube elements:longitudinal view Sieve plate with pores (SEM)
10 µm
30 µm
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Fig. 35-10e1
Sieve-tube element (left)and companion cell:cross section (TEM)
3 µm
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Sugar-Conducting Cells of the Phloem
• Sieve-tube elements are alive at functional maturity, though they lack organelles
• Sieve plates are the porous end walls that allow fluid to flow between cells along the sieve tube
• Each sieve-tube element has a companion cell whose nucleus and ribosomes serve both cells
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Fig. 35-10e2
Sieve-tube elements:longitudinal view (LM)
Sieve plate
Companioncells
Sieve-tubeelements
30 µm
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Fig. 35-10e3
Sieve-tubeelement
Plasmodesma
Sieveplate
Nucleus ofcompanioncells
Sieve-tube elements:longitudinal view Sieve plate with pores (SEM)
10 µm
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Concept 35.2: Meristems generate cells for new organs
• A plant can grow throughout its life; this is called indeterminate growth
• Some plant organs cease to grow at a certain size; this is called determinate growth
• Annuals complete their life cycle in a year or less
• Biennials require two growing seasons
• Perennials live for many years
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• Meristems are perpetually embryonic tissue and allow for indeterminate growth
• Apical meristems are located at the tips of roots and shoots and at the axillary buds of shoots
• Apical meristems elongate shoots and roots, a process called primary growth
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• Lateral meristems add thickness to woody plants, a process called secondary growth
• There are two lateral meristems: the vascular cambium and the cork cambium
• The vascular cambium adds layers of vascular tissue called secondary xylem (wood) and secondary phloem
• The cork cambium replaces the epidermis with periderm, which is thicker and tougher
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Fig. 35-11
Shoot tip (shootapical meristemand young leaves)
Lateral meristems:
Axillary budmeristem
Vascular cambiumCork cambium
Root apicalmeristems
Primary growth in stems
Epidermis
Cortex
Primary phloem
Primary xylem
Pith
Secondary growth in stems
Periderm
Corkcambium
Cortex
Primaryphloem
Secondaryphloem
Pith
Primaryxylem
Secondaryxylem
Vascular cambium
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• Meristems give rise to initials, which remain in the meristem, and derivatives, which become specialized in developing tissues
• In woody plants, primary and secondary growth occur simultaneously but in different locations
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Fig. 35-12Apical bud
This year’s growth(one year old)
Bud scale
Axillary buds
Leafscar
Budscar
Node
Internode
One-year-old sidebranch formedfrom axillary budnear shoot tip
Last year’s growth(two years old) Leaf scar
Stem
Bud scar left by apicalbud scales of previouswinters
Leaf scar
Growth of twoyears ago(three years old)
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Concept 35.3: Primary growth lengthens roots and shoots
• Primary growth produces the primary plant body, the parts of the root and shoot systems produced by apical meristems
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Primary Growth of Roots
• The root tip is covered by a root cap, which protects the apical meristem as the root pushes through soil
• Growth occurs just behind the root tip, in three zones of cells:
– Zone of cell division
– Zone of elongation
– Zone of maturationVideo: Root Growth in a Radish Seed (Time Lapse)Video: Root Growth in a Radish Seed (Time Lapse)
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Fig. 35-13
Ground
Dermal
Keyto labels
Vascular
Root hair
Epidermis
Cortex Vascular cylinder
Zone ofdifferentiation
Zone ofelongation
Zone of celldivision
Apicalmeristem
Root cap
100 µm
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Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
• The primary growth of roots produces the epidermis, ground tissue, and vascular tissue
• In most roots, the stele is a vascular cylinder
• The ground tissue fills the cortex, the region between the vascular cylinder and epidermis
• The innermost layer of the cortex is called the endodermis
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Fig. 35-14Epidermis
Cortex
Endodermis
Vascularcylinder
Pericycle
Core ofparenchymacells
Xylem
Phloem100 µm
Root with xylem and phloem in the center(typical of eudicots)
(a)
Root with parenchyma in the center (typical ofmonocots)
(b)
100 µm
Endodermis
Pericycle
Xylem
Phloem
50 µm
Keyto labels
Dermal
Ground
Vascular
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Fig. 35-14a1
Root with xylem and phloem in the center(typical of eudicots)
(a)
100 µm
Epidermis
Cortex
Endodermis
Vascularcylinder
Pericycle
Xylem
Phloem
Dermal
Ground
Vascular
Keyto labels
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Fig. 35-14a2
Vascular
Ground
Dermal
Keyto labels
Root with xylem and phloem in the center(typical of eudicots)
(a)
Endodermis
Pericycle
Xylem
Phloem
50 µm
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Fig. 35-14b
Epidermis
Cortex
Endodermis
Vascularcylinder
Pericycle
Core ofparenchymacells
Keyto labels
Dermal
Ground
Vascular
Xylem
Phloem
Root with parenchyma in the center (typical ofmonocots)
(b)
100 µm
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• Lateral roots arise from within the pericycle, the outermost cell layer in the vascular cylinder
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Fig. 35-15-1
1
Cortex
Emerginglateralroot
Vascularcylinder
100 µm
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Fig. 35-15-2
Cortex
Emerginglateralroot
Vascularcylinder
100 µm
2
Epidermis
Lateral root
1
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Fig. 35-15-3
Cortex
Emerginglateralroot
Vascularcylinder
100 µm Epidermis
Lateral root
321
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Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Primary Growth of Shoots
• A shoot apical meristem is a dome-shaped mass of dividing cells at the shoot tip
• Leaves develop from leaf primordia along the sides of the apical meristem
• Axillary buds develop from meristematic cells left at the bases of leaf primordia
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Fig. 35-16
Shoot apical meristem Leaf primordia
Youngleaf
Developingvascularstrand
Axillary budmeristems
0.25 mm
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Tissue Organization of Stems
• Lateral shoots develop from axillary buds on the stem’s surface
• In most eudicots, the vascular tissue consists of vascular bundles that are arranged in a ring
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Fig. 35-17
Phloem Xylem
Sclerenchyma(fiber cells)
Ground tissueconnectingpith to cortex
Pith
Cortex
1 mm
EpidermisVascularbundle
Cross section of stem with vascular bundles forminga ring (typical of eudicots)
(a)
Keyto labels
Dermal
Ground
Vascular
Cross section of stem with scattered vascular bundles(typical of monocots)
(b)
1 mm
Epidermis
Vascularbundles
Groundtissue
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Fig. 35-17a
Sclerenchyma(fiber cells)
Phloem Xylem
Ground tissueconnectingpith to cortex
Pith
CortexEpidermisVascularbundle
1 mm
Cross section of stem with vascular bundles forminga ring (typical of eudicots)
(a)
Dermal
Ground
Vascular
Keyto labels
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Fig. 35-17b
Groundtissue
Epidermis
Keyto labels
Cross section of stem with scattered vascular bundles(typical of monocots)
Dermal
Ground
Vascular
(b)
Vascularbundles
1 mm
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• In most monocot stems, the vascular bundles are scattered throughout the ground tissue, rather than forming a ring
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Tissue Organization of Leaves
• The epidermis in leaves is interrupted by stomata, which allow CO2 exchange between the air and the photosynthetic cells in a leaf
• Each stomatal pore is flanked by two guard cells, which regulate its opening and closing
• The ground tissue in a leaf, called mesophyll, is sandwiched between the upper and lower epidermis
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• Below the palisade mesophyll in the upper part of the leaf is loosely arranged spongy mesophyll, where gas exchange occurs
• The vascular tissue of each leaf is continuous with the vascular tissue of the stem
• Veins are the leaf’s vascular bundles and function as the leaf’s skeleton
• Each vein in a leaf is enclosed by a protective bundle sheath
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Fig. 35-18
Keyto labels
Dermal
Ground
VascularCuticle Sclerenchyma
fibersStoma
Bundle-sheathcell
Xylem
Phloem
(a) Cutaway drawing of leaf tissues
Guardcells
Vein
Cuticle
Lowerepidermis
Spongymesophyll
Palisademesophyll
Upperepidermis
Guardcells
Stomatalpore
Surface view of a spiderwort(Tradescantia) leaf (LM)
Epidermalcell
(b)
50 µ
m10
0 µ
m
Vein Air spaces Guard cells
Cross section of a lilac(Syringa)) leaf (LM)
(c)
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Fig. 35-18a
Keyto labels
Dermal
Ground
VascularCuticle Sclerenchyma
fibersStoma
Bundle-sheathcell
Xylem
Phloem
(a) Cutaway drawing of leaf tissuesGuardcells
Vein
Cuticle
Lowerepidermis
Spongymesophyll
Palisademesophyll
Upperepidermis
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Fig. 35-18b
Guardcells
Stomatalpore
Surface view of a spiderwort(Tradescantia) leaf (LM)
Epidermalcell
(b)
50 µ
m
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Fig. 35-18c
Upperepidermis
Palisademesophyll
Keyto labels
Dermal
Ground
Vascular
Spongymesophyll
Lowerepidermis
Vein Air spaces Guard cells
Cross section of a lilac(Syringa) leaf (LM)
(c)
100
µm
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Concept 35.4: Secondary growth adds girth to stems and roots in woody plants
• Secondary growth occurs in stems and roots of woody plants but rarely in leaves
• The secondary plant body consists of the tissues produced by the vascular cambium and cork cambium
• Secondary growth is characteristic of gymnosperms and many eudicots, but not monocots
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Fig. 35-19
Primary and secondary growthin a two-year-old stem
(a)
Epidermis
Cortex
Primaryphloem
Vascularcambium
Primaryxylem
Pith
Periderm(mainly corkcambiaand cork)
Primaryphloem
Secondaryphloem
Vascularcambium
Secondaryxylem
Primaryxylem
Pith
PithPrimary xylemVascular cambium
Primary phloem
Epidermis
Cortex
Growth
Vascularray
PrimaryxylemSecondary xylem
Vascular cambiumSecondary phloemPrimary phloemFirst cork cambium Cork
SecondaryXylem (twoyears ofproduction)
Vascular cambium
Secondary phloem
Most recentcork cambium Cork
Bark
Layers ofperiderm
Growth
Secondary phloemVascular cambium
Secondary xylem
Bark
Cork
Late woodEarly wood
Corkcambium Periderm
Vascular ray Growth ring
Cross section of a three-year-old Tilia (linden) stem (LM)
(b)
0.5 mm
0.5
mm
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Fig. 35-19a1
Epidermis
Cortex
Primary phloem
Vascular cambium
Primary xylem
Pith
Primary and secondary growthin a two-year-old stem
(a)
Periderm (mainlycork cambiaand cork)
Secondary phloem
Secondaryxylem
Epidermis
Cortex
Primary phloem
Vascular cambiumPrimary xylem
Pith
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Fig. 35-19a2
Epidermis
Cortex
Primary phloem
Vascular cambium
Primary xylem
Pith
Primary and secondary growthin a two-year-old stem
(a)
Periderm (mainlycork cambiaand cork)
Secondary phloem
Secondaryxylem
Epidermis
Cortex
Primary phloem
Vascular cambiumPrimary xylem
Pith
Vascular ray
Secondary xylem
Secondary phloem
First cork cambium
Cork
Growth
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Fig. 35-19a3
Epidermis
Cortex
Primary phloem
Vascular cambium
Primary xylem
Pith
Primary and secondary growthin a two-year-old stem
(a)
Periderm (mainlycork cambiaand cork)
Secondary phloem
Secondaryxylem
Epidermis
Cortex
Primary phloem
Vascular cambiumPrimary xylem
Pith
Vascular ray
Secondary xylem
Secondary phloem
First cork cambium
Cork
Growth
Cork
Bark
Most recent corkcambium
Layers ofperiderm
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Fig. 35-19b
Secondary phloemVascular cambium
Secondary xylem
Bark
Early woodLate wood Cork
cambium
Cork
Periderm
0.5
mm
Vascular ray Growth ring
Cross section of a three-year-old Tilia (linden) stem (LM)
(b)
0.5 mm
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The Vascular Cambium and Secondary Vascular Tissue
• The vascular cambium is a cylinder of meristematic cells one cell layer thick
• It develops from undifferentiated parenchyma cells
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• In cross section, the vascular cambium appears as a ring of initials
• The initials increase the vascular cambium’s circumference and add secondary xylem to the inside and secondary phloem to the outside
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Fig. 35-20
Vascular cambium Growth
Secondaryxylem
After one yearof growth
After two yearsof growth
Secondaryphloem
VascularcambiumX X
X X
X
X
P P
P
P
C
C
C
C
C
C
C C C
C C
CC
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• Secondary xylem accumulates as wood, and consists of tracheids, vessel elements (only in angiosperms), and fibers
• Early wood, formed in the spring, has thin cell walls to maximize water delivery
• Late wood, formed in late summer, has thick-walled cells and contributes more to stem support
• In temperate regions, the vascular cambium of perennials is dormant through the winter
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• Tree rings are visible where late and early wood meet, and can be used to estimate a tree’s age
• Dendrochronology is the analysis of tree ring growth patterns, and can be used to study past climate change
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Fig. 35-21
RESULTS
Rin
g-w
idth
ind
exes
2
1.5
0.5
1
01600 1700 1800 1900 2000
Year
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• As a tree or woody shrub ages, the older layers of secondary xylem, the heartwood, no longer transport water and minerals
• The outer layers, known as sapwood, still transport materials through the xylem
• Older secondary phloem sloughs off and does not accumulate
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Fig. 35-22
Growthring
Vascularray
Secondaryxylem
Heartwood
Sapwood
Bark
Vascular cambium
Secondary phloem
Layers of periderm
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Fig. 35-23
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The Cork Cambium and the Production of Periderm
• The cork cambium gives rise to the secondary plant body’s protective covering, or periderm
• Periderm consists of the cork cambium plus the layers of cork cells it produces
• Bark consists of all the tissues external to the vascular cambium, including secondary phloem and periderm
• Lenticels in the periderm allow for gas exchange between living stem or root cells and the outside air
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Concept 35.5: Growth, morphogenesis, and differentiation produce the plant body
• Morphogenesis is the development of body form and organization
• The three developmental processes of growth, morphogenesis, and cellular differentiation act in concert to transform the fertilized egg into a plant
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• New techniques and model systems are catalyzing explosive progress in our understanding of plants
• Arabidopsis is a model organism, and the first plant to have its entire genome sequenced
• Studying the genes and biochemical pathways of Arabidopsis will provide insights into plant development, a major goal of systems biology
Molecular Biology: Revolutionizing the Study of Plants
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Fig. 35-24
DNA or RNA metabolism (1%)Signal transduction (2%)
Development (2%)Energy pathways (3%)
Cell division andorganization (3%)
Transport (4%)
Transcription(4%)
Response toenvironment(4%)
Proteinmetabolism(7%)
Other biologicalprocesses (11%)
Other cellularprocesses (17%)
Othermetabolism(18%)
Unknown(24%)
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Growth: Cell Division and Cell Expansion
• By increasing cell number, cell division in meristems increases the potential for growth
• Cell expansion accounts for the actual increase in plant size
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The Plane and Symmetry of Cell Division
• The plane (direction) and symmetry of cell division are immensely important in determining plant form
• If the planes of division are parallel to the plane of the first division, a single file of cells is produced
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Fig. 35-25
Plane ofcell division
(a) Planes of cell division
Developingguard cells
Guard cell“mother cell”
Unspecializedepidermal cell
(b) Asymmetrical cell division
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Fig. 35-25a
Plane ofcell division
(a) Planes of cell division
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• If the planes of division vary randomly, asymmetrical cell division occurs
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Fig. 35-25b
Developingguard cells
Guard cell“mother cell”
Unspecializedepidermal cell
(b) Asymmetrical cell division
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• The plane in which a cell divides is determined during late interphase
• Microtubules become concentrated into a ring called the preprophase band that predicts the future plane of cell division
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Fig. 35-26
Preprophase bandsof microtubules
10 µm
Nuclei
Cell plates
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Orientation of Cell Expansion
• Plant cells grow rapidly and “cheaply” by intake and storage of water in vacuoles
• Plant cells expand primarily along the plant’s main axis
• Cellulose microfibrils in the cell wall restrict the direction of cell elongation
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Fig. 35-27
Cellulosemicrofibrils
Nucleus Vacuoles 5 µm
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Microtubules and Plant Growth
• Studies of fass mutants of Arabidopsis have confirmed the importance of cytoplasmic microtubules in cell division and expansion
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Fig. 35-28
(a) Wild-type seedling
(b) fass seedling
(c) Mature fass mutant
2 m
m
2 m
m
0.3
mm
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Morphogenesis and Pattern Formation
• Pattern formation is the development of specific structures in specific locations
• It is determined by positional information in the form of signals indicating to each cell its location
• Positional information may be provided by gradients of molecules
• Polarity, having structural or chemical differences at opposite ends of an organism, provides one type of positional information
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• Polarization is initiated by an asymmetrical first division of the plant zygote
• In the gnom mutant of Arabidopsis, the establishment of polarity is defective
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Fig. 35-29
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• Morphogenesis in plants, as in other multicellular organisms, is often controlled by homeotic genes
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Fig. 35-30
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Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Gene Expression and Control of Cellular Differentiation
• In cellular differentiation, cells of a developing organism synthesize different proteins and diverge in structure and function even though they have a common genome
• Cellular differentiation to a large extent depends on positional information and is affected by homeotic genes
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Fig. 35-31
Corticalcells
20 µ
m
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Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Location and a Cell’s Developmental Fate
• Positional information underlies all the processes of development: growth, morphogenesis, and differentiation
• Cells are not dedicated early to forming specific tissues and organs
• The cell’s final position determines what kind of cell it will become
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Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Shifts in Development: Phase Changes
• Plants pass through developmental phases, called phase changes, developing from a juvenile phase to an adult phase
• Phase changes occur within the shoot apical meristem
• The most obvious morphological changes typically occur in leaf size and shape
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Fig. 35-32
Leaves producedby adult phaseof apical meristem
Leaves producedby juvenile phaseof apical meristem
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Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Genetic Control of Flowering
• Flower formation involves a phase change from vegetative growth to reproductive growth
• It is triggered by a combination of environmental cues and internal signals
• Transition from vegetative growth to flowering is associated with the switching on of floral meristem identity genes
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Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
• Plant biologists have identified several organ identity genes (plant homeotic genes) that regulate the development of floral pattern
• A mutation in a plant organ identity gene can cause abnormal floral development
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Fig. 35-33
(a) Normal Arabidopsis flower
CaSt
Pe
Se
Pe
Pe
Pe
Se
Se
(b) Abnormal Arabidopsis flower
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Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
• Researchers have identified three classes of floral organ identity genes
• The ABC model of flower formation identifies how floral organ identity genes direct the formation of the four types of floral organs
• An understanding of mutants of the organ identity genes depicts how this model accounts for floral phenotypes
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Fig. 35-34Sepals
Petals
Stamens
Carpels (a) A schematic diagram of the ABC hypothesisA
A + Bgene
activity
BC
A geneactivity
B + Cgene
activity
C geneactivity
Carpel
Petal
Stamen
Sepal
Activegenes:
Whorls:
StamenCarpel
Petal
Sepal
Wild type Mutant lacking A Mutant lacking B Mutant lacking C
A A A AB B B B
C C C CB B B B
C C C C C C C C A A A AC C C C A A A AB B B BA A A A
(b) Side view of flowers with organ identity mutations
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Fig. 35-34a
Sepals
Petals
Stamens
CarpelsAB
C
A + Bgene
activity
B + Cgene
activity
C geneactivity
A geneactivity
(a) A schematic diagram of the ABC hypothesis
Carpel
Petal
Stamen
Sepal
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Fig. 35-34b
Activegenes:
Whorls:
StamenCarpel
Petal
Sepal
Wild type Mutant lacking A Mutant lacking B Mutant lacking C
(b) Side view of flowers with organ identity mutations
A A A AC C C CB B B B B B
C C C C C C C C C C C CA A A A A A A AB B B BB A A A AB
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Fig. 35-UN1
Shoot tip(shoot apicalmeristem andyoung leaves)
Axillary budmeristem
Corkcambium
Vascularcambium Lateral
meristems
Root apicalmeristems
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Fig. 35-UN2
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Fig. 35-UN3
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Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
You should now be able to:
1. Compare the following structures or cells:
– Fibrous roots, taproots, root hairs, adventitious roots
– Dermal, vascular, and ground tissues
– Monocot leaves and eudicot leaves
– Parenchyma, collenchyma, sclerenchyma, water-conducting cells of the xylem, and sugar-conducting cells of the phloem
– Sieve-tube element and companion cell
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Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
2. Explain the phenomenon of apical dominance
3. Distinguish between determinate and indeterminate growth
4. Describe in detail the primary and secondary growth of the tissues of roots and shoots
5. Describe the composition of wood and bark
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Copyright © 2008 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
6. Distinguish between morphogenesis, differentiation, and growth
7. Explain how a vegetative shoot tip changes into a floral meristem