Chapter 30

Suicide

Objectives

• Outline the prevalence of suicide in the United States and its prison populations

• Explain the correlation between social and individual characteristics and suicide

• Describe the steps needed to construct a proper correctional suicide prevention and treatment program

Social and Individual Considerations

• Demographic factors cause people to experience life differently, leading to different stressors and coping skills

• Men constitute 80% of completed suicides, while women self-report three times more attempts

• Men are more likely to use a firearm• Caucasians are twice as likely to commit suicide as

African Americans• Third leading killer of young people 15-24

Social and Individual Considerations (cont.)

• Individual risk factors– History of mental illness– Substance abuse– Previous suicide attempts– Isolation– Relationship loss– Feelings of hopelessness– Physical illness

Social and Individual Considerations (cont.)

• Protective factors– Family and community support– Interpersonal coping skills– Cultural or religious beliefs that suicide is wrong

Stigma

• Some religions state that suicide leads to eternal damnation

• Others are more respectful of deceased and family

• Some people shun family or blame them• Correctional officers must value the lives of

suicidal inmates to ensure that prevention programs work

Correlates of Suicide

• Small jails have rates 5 times that of large ones

• Whites and males are most likely to kill themselves

• Jail suicide was concentrated in first week• Hanging was most common method

Legal Considerations

• Legal responsibility depends on concept of deliberate indifference

• Corrections workers must have known that a person was suicidal and did nothing about it

Attitudes and Training

• Staff members ask about suicidal risk factors such as previous suicide attempts

• May refer at-risk inmates to mental health or substance abuse professionals

Attitudes and Training (cont.)

• Six-point framework for written policy– Training– Identification and Assessment– Housing– Levels of Supervision– Intervention– Follow-Up Administrative Reviews

Program Example

• High rate of suicide in Kentucky lead to creation of Jail Mental Health Crisis Network

• Provides following services:– Training on signs of suicide and mental illness– Screening instruments identify risk and needs– Assessment via phone– Management protocols for each level– Mental Health follow-up by trained professionals

Community Health Workers

• Many rural areas have services provided by private psychiatrists, psychologists, and social workers.

• Often have standing contracts with community mental health centers

Conclusion

• Suicide rates in correctional setting have decreased since 1980s

• Suicide prevention programs have been advanced to focus on first week of incarceration as well as inmates with mental health and substance abuse issues

Chapter 31

The Death Penalty

Objectives• Describe the role of religious and activist

groups in the capital punishment debate• Explain why the death penalty has become

such an emotional topic in the administration of justice in the United States

• Examine how states differ in their capital punishment laws

A Brief History• Capital punishment goes back to earliest

human cultures• Methods were cruel and the goal of

punishment was to create a painful experience

• Some states abolished death penalty in early 1900s; others reinstated it later

• Supreme Court ruled in Furman v. Georgia that the use of the death penalty was cruel and unusual punishment because it was not applied fairly to all defendants

A Brief History (cont.)

• In Gregg v. Georgia, the Supreme Court approved guidelines for a jury to follow in determining the death penalty

• Ruled against mandating the death penalty for certain crimes

• States returned to greater use of the death penalty following these rulings

Arguments Against the Death Penalty

• Long waits on death row– Few individuals are actually executed– Between 1973 and 1995, only 5% of inmates on

death row nationwide were executed• Unclear qualifications– Inconsistency in sentencing guidelines comes from

ambiguous standards in the law– Inmates find myriad loopholes to prolong their

stay on death row– Interpretations vary widely among judges and

juries due to loosely defined guidelines

Arguments Against the Death Penalty (cont.)

• Complexity of appeals– Complexity of appeals contributes to significant

time delays– Estimated 40% of decisions are reversed on

appeal

• High financial cost– Capital punishment is actually more costly than

life in prison without parole

Arguments Against the Death Penalty (cont.)

• Racial discrimination– Some argue that the process discriminates against

some races and ethnicities– Offenders with Caucasian victims are more likely

to be sentenced to death– African Americans are overrepresented on death

row– Those with low socioeconomic status are also

disproportionately given death sentences

Arguments Against the Death Penalty (cont.)

• Limited effect on deterrence– Infrequency with which capital punishment is

imposed can hardly be expected to deter others– Irregularity and inconsistency of dispensing the

death penalty is its greatest weakness

• Failure of legal representation– ABA voted to halt the death penalty due to

concern over the inconsistent quality of legal representation

Arguments Against the Death Penalty (cont.)

• Unfair application based on location of the crime– Prosecutors in urban areas seek the death penalty

five times more than those in rural areas• Wrongful execution– Possibility of executing an innocent person is a

major weakness– Over 115 people have been proven innocent and

released from death row in the past 30 years

Support for Capital Punishment

• Death penalty advocates argue that costs would be significantly lowered in capital punishment cases without prolonging trials and appeals – Constitution does not guarantee them “super due process”

• Some argue the death penalty deters others from crime

• Greatest support is simply retribution – death penalty is deserved punishment for some crimes

• May offer comfort to families of the victims

Death Row Operations

• Average inmate spends 12.25 years on death row before execution

• Some states mainstream death-sentenced inmates

• Most states have separate death row operations

• Inmates spend most of their time in secure cells and are out minimal time for recreation and showers

Emotional Ordeal of an Execution

• Traumatic for staff• Institutions are careful to protect the identity

of those who participate• AMA prohibits participation of physicians• Nurses or emergency medical technicians are

often responsible for inserting the needles

Special Exemptions

• Roper v. Simmons – Supreme Court ruled that offenders under the age of 18 when they committed the crime cannot be executed

• Atkins v. Virginia – Supreme Court ruled it cruel and unusual punishment to execute mentally handicapped persons

Conclusion

• Whether one invokes economic, moral, social, or legal reasoning, it is not enough to convince the other side of the rightfulness or wrongfulness of the death penalty

Chapter 32

Gang Management

Objectives

• Describe which criteria distinguish prison and street gangs in a correctional institution

• Examine management dilemmas that prison and street gangs pose to the safe and orderly operation of prisons

• Outline how unmonitored communication networks can create prison security problems

Defining a Gang

• Traditional prison gangs of 1960s and 1970s consisted of adult criminals who were organized into hierarchies with rank differentiation

• These prison gangs were efficient criminal organizations

• Street gangs were social groups whose members were younger inmates, with simple hierarchies, less status differentiation, and less defined leadership

• Street gangs were less efficient criminal organizations

Defining a Gang (cont.)

• Today, the term security threat group (STG) is used more often and applies to groups in which:– Affiliation is based on race, ethnicity, geography,

ideology, or a combination – Members seek one another’s protection– Economic objective, such as drug distribution, that

is linked to violence or threats of violence• Power of STGs has been stifled in recent years

Gang Management Program

• Requires a comprehensive and holistic policy that specifies legal precedents, procedures, and guidelines

• Strong policy should include:– Statement of institution’s philosophy on gang

management– Operational definition of STG that fits institution’s

management plan, culture, and climate– Established list of ground rules in gang

investigations and prosecutions

Gang Management Program (cont.)

• Well-managed program links gang classification and intelligence gathering to institution security and inmate programs

• Identify strategies to prevent new inmates from participating in gang activities

• Allow current members a way out of STGs• Develop zero tolerance culture for gang

activity• Encourage participation in other activities

Gang Management Program (cont.)

• Role of Prison Staff– Paperwork and procedures are straightforward– Staff become “gang detectives” while trying to

deal with human resources of gangs– Selecting qualified personnel is most important

step– Need to carefully screen all potential applicants to

the institution for gang ties

Gang Management Program (cont.)

• Curbing Communication Networks– Keep logs of STG members’ visitors, monitor

telephone calls and mail, stay in touch with local police agencies

– Require inmates to obtain permission to send letters to inmates at different correctional institutions

Social Control

• Ensure that minor problems are addressed appropriately

• Social and physical environment can influence inmates’ behavior

• Withdrawing inmate incentives and using lockdown is a gamble

• Super-maximum facilities can be effective with the most violent offenders

• Housing can play an important role in controlling STGs

Intelligence and Data Collection

• Improved surveillance, improved layout, and sophisticated intelligence-gathering strategies have curtailed prison gangs’ rackets

• Key to gang intelligence is continuously updating data

• Staff should maintain local and national ties with gang units and attend training on gang intelligence

Intelligence and Data Collection (cont.)

• STG management is job of all employees• Gangs are social groups• Staff must be familiar with gang tattoos,

graffiti, and symbols• Data must be well-organized and carefully

analyzed once gathered

Conclusion

• Proactive defense against gang expansion will include the development of a comprehensive institution management system to encourage inmates’ cooperation and participation in programs

• Challenge of curbing STG growth will best be met with modern crime intelligence techniques and good planning

Chapter 33

Special Needs Offenders

Objectives

• Describe the variety and prevalence of physical and mental health issues present in a prison population

• Outline the challenges posed by inmates with disabilities or special needs

• Identify some of the measures that institutions must take to manage inmates with special needs effectively

Introduction

• Special needs offenders are those with unusual or unique requirements stemming from– Physical or mental age– Physical impairment– Terminal illness– Chronic medical condition– Mental illness– Mental retardation

Special Needs Classification

• Physical impairments are defined as severe mobility, visual, hearing, and speech limitations

• Mentally ill are those with any diagnosed disorder in DSM

• Mental retardation is having less than normal intelligence, usually IQ < 70

• Terminally ill have a fatal illness and less than 6 months to live

• Geriatric offenders are those over the age of 65, although some institutions use 50 as the cut off

Prevalence

• Midyear 2005, more than 50% of state and federal inmates suffered from a mental health problem

• Estimates are that the number of mentally retarded persons in prison is two or three times greater than in the community

Identifying Those with Special Needs

• Intake is often conducted at a separate facility with a reception and diagnostic unit

• Medical screening should identify any medical or mental health concerns that need immediate attention

Protocols for Care

• Each correctional facility should develop written policies and procedures that are consistent with the ADA

• ADA does provide for exclusion from a program if a disabled inmate presents a direct threat to the health and safety of others

Segregation or Mainstreaming?

• Reasons for separating special needs offenders– Cost containment– Managed care– Concentration of resources

• Mainstreaming is basic premise of ADA• Combination of mainstreaming and

segregation should provide services well for inmates with disabilities

Access and Communication

• ADA does not require that all existing facilities be modified to new standards, although new construction should definitely conform to ADA standards

• Alternate methods of program delivery satisfies “access” requirement

• Communication with special needs offenders should be as effective as with other inmates

Access and Communication (cont.)

• Program and Activity Availability– Some prison industry tasks can be brought to the

housing unit– Tutors can come to the living unit– Mentally ill and mentally retarded inmates may

require segregation in specialized unit– Major focus of units is therapy– Partnerships with community agencies will help

supply services for offenders.

Classification Considerations

• Most classification systems consider risk factors such as prior convictions, current convictions, escapes or attempted escapes, length of sentence, institutional adjustment, age, education level, history of substance abuse, history of violence

• Provision for override allows staff to factor in information on medical and mental health conditions

• Disability should be among many factors considered in classification decisions

Housing Accommodations

• Should be housed on ground level near the officers’ stations

• In a monitored observation cell• Alternate types of aids may be provided

Special Facilities

• Physical plant modifications may be needed with older construction

• Distinct colors between floors and walls will assist visually impaired

• Separate meal shift can be established for special needs inmates who need more time or assistance

Special Support

• Assistance may be required with activities of daily living

• Inmates can be trained as caregivers• Training should be provided prior to beginning

work and should be offered on a scheduled basis

Hospice and Palliative Care

• Usually terminally ill inmates are placed in a facility with the highest level of medical care available

• Treatment concentrates on palliative care• Hospice programs may utilize other offenders

Reentry

• Reentry should begin the day the offender enters the correctional system

• Community agencies should serve as partners to provide services during incarceration and after release

• Detailed planning should start 6-8 months before the special needs offender is released

Staff Development

• All staff should be provided with relevant training and development

• Staff should be encouraged to participate in professional and special interest groups in the community for education and professional growth

• Partnerships should be developed with community service providers

Tips for Working with Special Needs Offenders

• Move more slowly than normal• Talk directly to the inmates• Address conversation to the inmates• Talk at face level• Speak clearly in a low tone• Use terms that the inmate can understand• Simplify instructions• Establish and maintain a familiar routine

Tips for Working with Special Needs Offenders (cont.)

• Talk in positive terms• Be patient• Be flexible and creative in programming• Use large type• Utilize the public address system for

announcing changes and to read memoranda concerning changes

• Ensure that inmates eat properly

Conclusion

• Growing number of special needs inmates are having an impact on US correctional system

• Administrators need to ensure they meet relevant laws and ADA standards

• Staff should partner with local service providers

Chapter 34

Sex Offenders

Objectives

• Provide examples of different types of sex offenders

• Explain why the identification of sex offenders is often a difficult task

• Outline components of a viable sex offender treatment program

Magnitude of the Problem• Many factors contribute to lack of reliable data:– Embarrassment, fear, or self-blame from victims

may deter reporting– Authorities overlook sexual behavior that the public

seems to condone– Large number of offenders are not convicted or

plead guilty to a lesser charge– Only convicted sex offenders appear in sex crime

statistics

Magnitude of the Problem (cont.)

• Definition of sexual offenses changes in different states

• As of 2005, there were over 600,000 registered sex offenders

• Rapists were 10.5 times more likely to be rearrested for rape than other released prisoners

• Many sex offenders repeat their behavior upon release from custody

Basic Approach to Sex Offender Management

• Institutions must focus on correctly identifying sex offenders as soon as possible after incarceration

• Should be separated from general population as soon as possible

• Special housing unit should be placed in an institution with a progressive, open-minded administration

Classification• Sex offenders frequently attempt to hide their

offense• Classification staff need to convince offenders

that a complete reporting of activities is beneficial

• Should schedule a follow-up interview if offender is not providing necessary information

• Staff should not condone behavior, but acknowledge its occurrence

Staff Issues• Should have staff trained in dealing with sex offenders

who are realistic and mature• Enough personnel should be available to give

individual attention to program participants• Total communication and cooperation are needed to

monitor progress and make important decisions• If professionals trained in sex offender treatment are

not available, it may be best to defer implementation of the program

Evaluating and Admitting Sex Offenders

• All identified sex offenders should be given the opportunity to participate in the program

• Must volunteer for treatment• Offender must complete very extensive

questionnaires regarding their background and sexual behavior

• Psychological tests vary, but include assessment of personality, cognitive ability, social attitudes, and sexual thoughts

Treatment Program

• Combination of cognitive behavior treatment and relapse prevention

• Many programs include anger management and social and interpersonal skill development

• Participants should accept that their deviant sexual behavior is inappropriate

• Offender should be assigned a lead therapist to coordinate the treatment plan

Treatment Program (cont.)

• Key groups include:– Focus on basic deviant behavior, including

offenses, victims, background, sexual thoughts and actions

– Abuse and its ramifications on offenders’ lives– Anger management– Social skills– Sex education– Substance abuse– Final mandatory part is relapse prevention

Transition to the Community

• Regardless of success in treatment, staff must also prepare for reentry

• Offenders should seek out socially approved support groups, positive recreational activities, other community assistance

• Staff should ensure they are aware of required sex offender registration

Conclusion

• Sex offenders who take responsibility for their behavior, discuss their past offenses openly, understand why their deviant acts were wrong, exhibit genuine remorse, and actively work in the treatment programs to acquire relapse prevention skills will pose less of a danger to the community than they did before their arrival

Chapter 35

Visitation

Objectives

• Explain the benefits and drawbacks of visitation in a prison setting

• Identify the challenges presented to institution security by the inmate visiting program

• Outline the role that visitations play in successful prison and jail administration

Benefits

• Prisoners who have maintained contact with supportive individuals have a safety net upon release

• Incentive for good behavior• Bonding experience with children can help

continue a healthy relationship

Potential Risks

• Visitors are a primary pipeline for smuggling drugs and contraband

• Significant numbers of staff are needed to supervise visits and search visitors

• May attempt to use visiting program to make contact with new crime partners

• Sensitivity training and professionalism are essential for staff

Rules and Regulations

• Detailed visiting information should be sent to visitors in advance

• Searches are imposed to protect against introduction of contraband to facility

• May include body cavity searches, strip search, pat down, metal detectors, x-ray

• Violations of rules may result in termination of visit, suspension, and/or removal from approved visiting list

Visitation List

• Prohibitions from visiting list include known felons, former inmates, parolees, probationers, vendors, and volunteers

• Number, frequency, and duration of visits are limited by space, personnel, security

• Only 6 states allow conjugal visits• Some agencies attempt to make the visitation

area child-friendly• A positive visit with a child can facilitate

bonding and parenting

Visitation List (cont.)

• In determining appropriateness of including children, one should consider:– Effects of visit on mother and child when visit

ends– Feelings of other inmates– Effects on child of prison environment– Effects of separating children from their mother

while they are in prison

Visitation List (cont.)

• ACA requires that provisions be made to ensure attorney-client confidentiality

• Includes telephone communication, correspondence, and visits

• High risk prisoners are often restricted to non contact visits, handcuffs, etc.

Role of the Community

• Specialized bus companies may offer regular charters to prisons from large cities

• Motels, restaurants, and gas stations benefit from patronage of visitors

Facility Design

• Visiting room should be neat and clean, have adequate light and ventilation, and separate lavatories for inmates and visitors

Conclusion• Regular contact with visitors significantly

enhances an inmate’s quality of life and establishes a lifeline with the free community

• Ties with family members, friends, and other loved ones are critical to an inmates’ successful return to the community.