CHAPTER 3 Water Resources in Saudi...

CHAPTER 3

Water Resources in Saudi Arabia

Water is the most splendid substance on the earth. It governs the climate, life, food

cycle and many others. In many instances the way of development and the quality

of life of people in different countries determined by available water resources.

Water profile of any country shows the strategic significance and plays an extensive

role in the development of human society. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has

comprised a vast area of Arabian Peninsula and almost of semi-arid and arid type.

The terrain of the country has a slight variation in the topography, but, on the whole,

it is an unbroken expanse of gravel plains, salt flats, and sand dunes with few lakes

or ephemeral streams.

The Empty Quarter1, one of the largest continuous sand deserts in the world,

extended in the south of the country while another large sandy desert, the Nafud,

located in the northern part. The South-West area of the country contains a

mountainous region with a few peaks rising to over 9,000 feet2. Whereas, the vast

extent of the desert, covers almost 80 Percent of the Arabian Peninsula, confine with

the occasional rain that entails their no substantial permanent lakes and streams.

However, few lakes did exist but located far in the southwest of the country that are

subtle and impermanent. The ephemeral streams have not had significant flow.

However, these pop up in the desert after rains from time to time. This arid

condition marked by scarce and infrequent rainfall and long summer with high

temperature. The available surface water and groundwater resources are limited,

precipitation rates are low, and evaporation is high. The long-term average annual

1 Also known as Rub al Khali (in Arabic).

2 Fisher, W. B. (1971). The Middle East: a Physical, Social and Regional Geography

(Sixth ed.). London, Great Britain: Methuen and Co. Ltd.

Chapter 3 Water resources in Saudi Arabia

118 | P a g e

precipitation has been estimated at 114 mm per year3 (FAO, 2008), which is equal to

245.5 km3/year over the whole country. This average of rainfall, however,

significantly varies from region to region in the study area. In the north, it is

between 100-200 mm and drop below 100 mm in the south except near the coast4.

The elevated region of the west and south do, however, experience appreciable

rainfall and 500 mm/year is not uncommon in some areas5. Apart from that, oases

and widyan systems are quite visible in the whole of the desert region and provide

elixir to the sustainability and life. According to Falkenmark’s scarcity index6, Saudi

Arabia faces extreme water shortage. The average water share from renewable

sources was about 281 and 248.7 cubic meters per person in the year 2005 and 2009

respectively. In terms of daily per capita water consumption, Saudi Arabia ranks the

third biggest consumer of water in the world after United States of America and

Canada7.

It is, further, expected that the demand for potable water will increase about 10

MCM per day during the next twenty years, if the daily per capita consumption rates

continue at its current level, and creating a large gap between the available water

supply and demand8 (SAMA, 2011 47

th report).

3 Estimates shows large variation in the volume of rainfall as it depends on the area

covered by rain during the rain event within the watershed.

FAO estimated, for 114 mm average annual rainfall, 245.5 km3/year (FAO, 2008) while

ASCAD calculated 158.47 km3/year over the whole country (ASCAD, 1997). See ref:

FAO. (2008). Aquastate Survey: Saudi Arabia. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization.

Retrieved from http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries_regions/sau/SAU-CP_eng

.pdf 4 Critchfield, HJ. 2002. General Climatology, Prentice-Hall of India. New Delhi.

5 Al-Ghobari, H. M. (2000). Estimation of reference evapotranspiration for southern

region of Saudi Arabia. Irrigation Science, 19(2), 81-86. 6 Note: it is a measure of per capita of water resource describe by Falkenmark et al., 1989.

Falkenmark M, Lundqvist J, Widstrand C. 1989. Macro-Scale Water Scarcity Requires

Micro- Scale Approaches - Aspects of Vulnerability in Semi-Arid Development. Natural

Resources Forum, 13, 258-267. 7 SAMA. 2015. Saudi Arabian Monetary Agency, (50

th Annual Report) 1435 H (2014 G).

Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. 8SAMA. 2011. Saudi Arabian Monetary Agency, (47

th Annual report). Kingdom of Saudi

Arabia.

http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries_regions/sau/SAU-CP_eng%20.pdf

http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/countries_regions/sau/SAU-CP_eng%20.pdf


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3.1 Hydrology and Water Resources

Estimates of water resources through different calculation methods have produced

varied results. Both availability and quality of water vary enormously in time and

space. Several accounts have been registered to assess the resource base and

availabilities for proper distribution. It was estimated that the Kingdom of Saudi

Arabia had total 2277333.3 MCM water including renewable, non-renewable,

desalinated, and treated wastewater while 2272880 MCM water was registered for

potable use (Table 3.1).

Table 3.1: Available Water Resources by Source in Saudi Arabia (MCM)

Sources of Water Estimated

Water

Available

for Use

% of Total

Available

Surface Water 6500 2230 0.10

Groundwater (Non-renewable in

deep aquifer)

2185000 2185000 96.13

Groundwater (Renewable in

shallow aquifer)

84000 84000 3.70

Desalination Water 1103.3 1103.3 0.05

Wastewater 730 547.5 0.02

Total 2277333.3 2272881 100.00

Estimated

Recharge

Non-Renewable 2762 … 0.12

Renewable 1196 … 0.05

Source: Various Publications9: Various Sources

9 Authman, M. N., 1983, Water and Development Processes in Saudi Arabia, Tihama

Press, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia.

Ministry of Agriculture and Water (MAW), 1984, Water Atlas of Saudi Arabia.

Department of Water Resource Development, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

King Fahad University of Petrolium and Minerals, Research Institute (KFUPM/RI), 1988,

“Groundwater Resources Condition in the Eastern Province of Saudi Arabia,” Research

report, KFUPM, Saudi Arabia. p.61.

Alawi, J and Abdulrazzak, M., 1993, Water in Arabian Peninsula: Problems and

Prospective. In P.Rogers, and P. Lydon (eds), Water in the Arab World Prospective and

Prognoses, Division of Applied Sciences, Harvard Univ. 171-202.

Abdulrazzak, M., 1994, Review and assessment of water resources in Gulf Coopration

Council Countries, Water Resource Development. 10, 23-37.

Abdullah E. Dabbagh and Walid. A. Abderrehman, 1996, “Management of groundwater

resources in Saudi Arabia under various irrigation water use scenarios in Saudi Arabia,”

In Arabian Journal of Science and Engineering 22(special theme issue on water resources

in Arabian Peninsula), KFUPM, Saudi Arabia. 47-64.


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Though, the estimates of surface water are not clear so far because of not availability

of data and method of estimation, but it ranges 5000 to 8000 MCM. In the present

study, the average value has been utilized for the precise demarcation of the

situation of surface water. Groundwater found 2269000 MCM; this amount includes

deep and shallow aquifer storage while desalinated and treated wastewater

constituted the amount of 1103.3 MCM and 547 MCM respectively.

It is clearly evident from the Figure 3.1 that renewable groundwater in the shallow

aquifer has the second largest share of 3.70 Percent after non-renewable

groundwater in deep aquifer (96.13 percent) of total available water for use. The

Share of surface water is subtle and adds only 0.1 Percent (2230 MCM) of the total

available water that seems the lowest share around the world regarding total area

Sagga, A.M., 1998, Physical Geography of Saudi Arabia, Sagga, Dar Kunoz Press,

Jeddah, Saudi Arabia.

Muhammad F. Al-Rashed and Mohsen M.Sherif, 2000, Water Resources in the GCC

Countries: An Overview, Water Resources Management, 14, 59-75.

Ministry of Agriculture and Water (MAW), 2002, Agricultural statistics yearbook.

Department of Economic Studies and Statistics, 14th Issue, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

Abdulrazzak, M., 1994, “Water supply versus demand in countries of Arabian Peninsula”

Water Resource Planning and Management, 121, 227-234.

FAO, AQUASTAT Survey, 2008, Irrigation in the Middle East region in figure: profile

of Saudi Arabia. UN FAO, Rome.

Saline Water Conversion Corporation, (SWCC), 2002. Annual report. Riyadh, Saudi

Arabia.

Saline Water Conversion Corporation, (SWCC), 2003. Annual report, Riyadh, Saudi

Arabia.

UNESCWA, 2006, Country fact sheet, Water Resource Issue in the ESCWA region,

United Nation Economic and Social Commission for West Asia, Beirut, Lebanon.

UNSCWA, 2009, Country fact sheets, Water Resource Issue in the ESCWA region,

United Nation Economic and Social Commission for West Asia,

E/ESCWA/SDPD/Technical paper-2, Dec. 2009. Beirut, Lebanon.

Abderrahman, Walid A. 2001, “Water demand management in Saudi Arabia”, In Naser I.

Faruqui, Asit K. Biswas, and Murad J. Bino; (et al), Water Management In Islam. The

United Nation University Press.

Abderrahman, Walid A. 2006, Groundwater Resources management in Saudi Arabia,

Special presentation at Water Conservation Workshop, Khober, Saudi Arabia.

Abderrahman, Walid A. 2006, Assessment of Climate Change on Water Resources in

Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran,

Saudi Arabia.


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concern. Therefore, groundwater has the biggest share of total available water

resources but its non-extractable nature profound, the great difficulty for use in the

easiest way.

Desalinated water plays a significant role to meet domestic demand, but its per unit

cost makes the water very expensive and subsequently scarce. Ultimately, Saudi

Arabia reaches in the category of water scarce countries. However, when the non-

renewable groundwater is taking into account, the situation of the available water

becomes different. In addition, the estimated recharge of renewable and non-

renewable water marks 1196 and 2762 MCM respectively. This is only 1.7 Percent

of total water, that of 177.48 folds of surface water. However, during the last twenty

years, the Kingdom has experienced comprehensive development in all sectors

coupled with high growth rates in population and living standards10

. Therefore, the

question of availability of water resources has become more significant.

Figure 3.1: Total Available Water Resource in Saudi Arabia (Percentage)

Source: Based on Table 3.1

10

SAMA. 2010. Saudi Arabian Monetary Agency (46th Annual report). Kingdom of Saudi

Arabia.

3.7

0.1

0.05 0.02

96.13

3.87

Percentage of Total Water Available

Groundwater (Non-renewable)

Others

Groundwater (Renewable)

Surface Water

Desalinated Water

Treated Wastewater


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Detailed assessment of water resources in Saudi Arabia can be carried out under

following sectors:

Groundwater

Surface Water

Desalinated water

Treated Wastewater

Water Pipelines and Distribution Network

3.1.1 Groundwater

A Large amount of water is stored under the surface of the earth, under continents

and oceans, sometimes at greater depth. Apart from wells, human beings had

extensively used the water that saturated into the soil layers since the ancient times.

Underground water is stored in permeable rock or unconsolidated material (gravel,

sand, and silt) at a greater thickness of sedimentary, granite and basaltic zones of the

earth’s crust. Such formations of water are known as aquifer and play a significant

role in artesian, Piedmont and arid region of the world. Groundwater resources are

finite and limited, especially in arid and semi-arid regions. Underground water, like

surface water, also flows along water-bearing layers from higher to lower places, but

the speed of the movement is slow. In many instances where deep water percolate

on the surface had made torrent springs and fountains. Such foundation of water

plays an important role in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia.

Groundwater resource had been categorised into renewable and non-renewable

water resources, renewable water is stored in shallow or alluvial aquifers and

depends upon rainfall-runoff for recharge, whereas, non-renewable water resources

are found in sandstone strata under deep formation, also known as fossil aquifers

where water was accumulated nearly 10 to 32 thousand years ago11

. These, fossil

aquifers have been classified as either primary or secondary, based on their volume;

quality; development potential; and areal extent (Figure 3.2 Aquifer map).

11




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Table 3.2: Groundwater reserves in the deep aquifers, estimated annual

recharge, and total dissolved solids.

Aquifers Name Total

Reserve,

MCM

%of

Total

Annual

Recharge

%of

Total

Total TDS

mg/l

Principal Aquifer

+Main Aquifers Saq 277000 11.89 310 11.52 300-1500

Tabuk 205000 8.80 455 16.90 200-3500

Wajid 255000 10.94 104 3.86 500-1200

Minjur-Dhruma 182000 7.81 80 2.97 1100-20000

Wasia-Biyadh 740000 31.76 480 17.83 900-10000

Um Er Radhuma 188000 8.07 406 15.08 2500-15000

Damman 25000 1.07 200 7.43 2600-60000

Neogene 130000 5.58 290 10.77 3700-4000

Secondary Aquifers

Khuff and Tuwail 30000 1.29 132 4.90 3800-6000

Aruma 85000 3.65 80 2.97 1600-2000

Jauf and Sakaka 100000 4.29 95 3.53 400-5000

Jilh 113000 4.85 60 2.23 3800-5000

Total 2330000 100 2692 100 Source: Various Publications12

12



Khouri, J., Agha, W., & AlDeroubi, A. (1986). Water resources in the Arab World and

future perspectives. Proc. Symposium on Water Resources and Uses in the Arab World.

Kuwait: Gulf Studies Center.

deJong, R. L., Al-Layla, R. I., & Selen, W. J. (1989). Alternative water management

scenarios for Saudi Arabia. International Journal of Water Resources Development , 5

(1), 56-62.

Lloyd, J., & Rim, R. (1990). The hydrogeology of groundwater resources development of

the CambioOrdovician sandstone aquifers in Saudi Arabia and Jordan. Journal of

Hydrology , 121, 1-20.

Danish, S., Khater, A., & AlAnsari, M. (1992). Options in water reuse in Bahrain,. 1st

Gulf Water Conference. Dubai.

Abdulrazzak, M., 1994, Review and assessment of water resources in Gulf Coopration

Council Countries, Water Resource Development. 10, 23-37.

Abderrahman, W. A. (2000). Water demand management and Islamic water management

principles: A case study. International Journal of Water Resource Development , 16 (4),

465-473.

Muhammad F. Al-Rashed and Mohsen M.Sherif, 2000, Water Resources in the GCC

Countries: An Overview, Water Resources Management, 14, 59-75.


124 | P a g e

Figure 3.2: Principal Aquifers in Saudi Arabia

Source: Droogers, et al. 200913

Abderrahman, Walid A. 2001, “Water demand management in Saudi Arabia”, In Naser I.

Faruqui, Asit K. Biswas, and Murad J. Bino; (et al), Water Management In Islam. The

United Nation University Press.

Abderrahman, Walid A. 2006, Groundwater Resources management in Saudi Arabia,


Abderrahman, Walid A. 2006, Assessment of Climate Change on Water Resources in


Saudi Arabia.


of Saudi Arabia. UN FAO, Rome.

FAO, AQUASTAT, 2009, Saudi Arabia, FAO Water report, 34, Rome.

Chowdhury, S., & Al-Zahrani, M. (2013). Characterizing water resources and trends of

sector wise water consumption in Saudi Arabia. Journal of King Saud University -

Engineering Sciences , In Press.

13 Droogers, P., Immerzeel, W., & Perry, C. (2009). Application of Remote Sensing in

National Water Plans: Demonstration cases for Egypt, Saudi-Arabia and Tunisia. The

Netherlands: Future Water.


125 | P a g e

Primary aquifers found in Saudi Arabia are Saq, Tabuk, Wajid, Minjur, Dhruma,

Wasia, Biyadh, Umm Er Radhuma, Dammam, and Neogene while secondary

aquifers constitute Khuff, Tuwail, Aruma, Jauf, Sakaka, Jilh, the upper Jurassic. The

lower Cretaceous, Basalts, and Wadi Sediments are the places where Jilh, the

upper Jurassic aquifers are renewable in nature. Details of aquifers are summarized

in Table 3.2 together with the amount of their total reserve, recharge, and total

dissolved solids.

The estimates of groundwater, stored in the aquifers, are controversial in Saudi

Arabia. According to both Dr. Bushnak and Al-Hussayen, minister of water of

Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, ‘there has been no proper survey done of the kingdom’s

water reserves for 20 years’14

. Previous studies have been reported various estimates

of the availability of groundwater reserves in Saudi Arabia. FAO report (2008)

shows that the amount of groundwater stored in fossil aquifer (non-renewable)

found 253.2 BCM as proven reserve. While 405 BCM and 705 BCM were probable

and possible reserves respectively15

. While, the Ministry of Planning (MOP)

confirmed that the reserves of groundwater were approximately 338 BCM with the

potable amount, and it further may reach 500 BCM as quoted by FAO16

. Another

inventory made by Scientific Research Institute’s water resource division at Dhahran

City shows that the total groundwater reserves constitute almost 36000 BCM17

,

which is more than seventy times as MOP estimates. In addition, the report also

suggested 870 BCM amount of water as economically extractable. Furthermore, the

Suadi Arabia Engineering Consult, an engineering firm, provides an estimate of

about 2175 BCM18

.

14

Harryson, Roger, 2004, A Problem With Liquidity: The Challenges of Water in Saudi

Arabia, Washington Report on Middle East Affairs, (WRMEA) July/Aug., 2004. p. 44-45. 15


of Saudi Arabia. UN FAO, Rome. 16

FAO, AQUASTAT Survey, 2008, Irrigation in the Middle East region in figure:

profile of Saudi Arabia. UN FAO, Rome. 17

FAO, AQUASTAT Survey, 2008, Irrigation in the Middle East region in figure:

profile of Saudi Arabia. UN FAO, Rome. 18

Al-Mogrin, S. (2001). Treatment and reuse of wastewater in Saudi Arabia. Expert

Consultation for Launching the Regional Network on Wastewater in the Near East.

London.


126 | P a g e

However, the amounts of renewable water, primarily accumulated in the shallow

aquifer, were 85 BCM. While, it stored into the recent alluvium, Neogene,

Dammam, Kharj, Hufuf, Dam, Sakaka, and of the type of quaternary deposits. It is

relatively of low potential because of dependency on rainfall and surface runoff.

Simultaneously, total reported non-renewable groundwater reserves of the Arabian

Peninsula were estimated about 2330 BCM (2008), (Table 3.2) with the average

recharge rate of 2.7 BCM per annum. Though the figures of the Arabian Peninsula

includes some part of Yemen and Oman, however, the figures for Saudi Arabia are

estimated about 2185 BCM at a depth of 300 meters from the surface (Table 3.1

above). This estimate is also verified by the other hydrological studies (BAAC,

1980; MAW, 1984; KFUMP/RI, 1988; Abderrehman, 2000 and 2006)19

. Ongoing

research on Water reserves assessment are expected to provide a proper assessment

of the volume of water left in each aquifer, and estimates of the portion of that

volume which can be extracted on a sustainable basis.

It is apparent from the Table 3.2 that over 32 percent (740 BCM) of groundwater

reserves comprises by Wasia-Biyadh aquifer while Saq and Wajid aquifer

collectively contributed almost 23 percent of the total non-renewable reserves.

These three aquifers comprise nearly 55 percent of the total peninsular water

reserves (non-renewable) while other aquifers contribute remaining 45 percent,

ranges from 1 to 9 percent of the total (see: Table 3.2). In addition, the available

information on water reserves in shallow and deep aquifers shows that there are

more than twenty layered principle and secondary aquifers (Table 3.3) of different

geological ages20

(Powers, et al., 1966; MAW, 1984; Abdulrazzak, M. 1994 and

MAW, 2002). These aquifers encompass from Precambrian shield, which is

composed of igneous and metamorphic rocks and covers most of Western part of the

19

British Arabian Advisory Company, (BAAC), 1980, “Water Resources of Saudi

Arabia”, Vol. 1, Prepared for Ministry of Agriculture and Water, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

KFUMP/RI, 1988, “Groundwater Resources Condition in the Eastern Province of Saudi

Arabia”, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Research Institute, Dhahran,

Saudi Arabia.

20 Powers, R W, L F Ramirez, C D Redmon, and E L Elberg. Geology of the Arabian

Peninsula: Sedimentary Geology of Saudi Arabia. Professional Paper, 560-D,

Washington: United States Geological Survey, 1966.


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country, to another stable shield, Cretaceous to Pliocene and Aeolian sand21

,

comprises of sedimentary formations and covers almost eastern Saudi Arabia. In

addition, Rub-al-Khali and part of An-Nafud are formed of Paleozoic sandstone

material22

. A general overview of the formation of aquifers along with their

respective sequences, which varies in various geological ages, has been presented in

Table 3.3. The total thickness of the aquifer systems varies from few hundred to

more than 900 meters (Table 3.3).

Table 3.3: Succession of Groundwater Aquifers in Saudi Arabia

Age Formation Member Lithology Hydrogeologic

Unit

Thickness

(Meter)

Quaternary

and Recent Surficial Deposits Gravel. Sand and Silt

Aquifers with Variable

Productivity

Small

Miocene and Pliocene

Kharj Limestone, gypsum, and Gravels Aquifer 28

Hufuf Sandy Marl and Sandy Limestone Aquifer 95

Dam Marl and Shale Aquitard 90.8

Hadrukh Silty Limestone Aquifer 84

Eocene Dammam

Alat Limestone Aquifer 9

Marl Aquitard 6

Khobar Limestone Aquifer 9.3

Alveolina Limestone Limestone

Aquitard

1

Sheila Shale Shale 4.2

Midra Shale Shale 3

Rus Marl, Chalky limestone, Gypsum 56

Paleocene Umm Er Radhuma Limestone, Dolomite limestone Aquifer 243.1

Cretaceous

Aruma Shale, Limestone Aquifer (Poor) 141.5

Wasia Sakaka (in

Northwest) Sandstone Aquifer ± 42

Biyadh Sandstone Aquifer 425

Buwaib Biogenic- calcarenite limestone Aquitard

23

Yamama Biogenic- pellet calcarenite 45.5

Sulaiy Chalky aphanitic limestone Aquifer (Local) 170.2

Jurassic

Hith Anhydrite Aquitard to poor Aquifer (Local)

90.3

Arab Calcerenite, Aphanitic limestone 124

Jubaila Aphanitic limestone, calcarenite 118.3

Hanifa Aphanitic limestone, calcarenite Aquifer (Local) 113

Tuwaiq Aphanitic limestone Aquitard 203

Dhurma Aphanitic Limestone, Sandstone Aquifer 375

21

Missimer, T. M., Drewes, J. E., Amy, G., Maliva, R. G., & Keller, S. (2012).

Restoration of Wadi Aquifers by Artificial Recharge with Treated Waste Water.

Groundwater , 50 (4), 514-527.

USGS. (2015, August 07). The World's Water: "Water, Water, Everywhere....". Retrieved

from The USGS Water Science School: http://water.usgs.gov/edu/earthwherewater.html

22 Powers, R. W. (1968). Saudi Arabia (excluding the Arabian Shield). Lexique

Stratigraphique International , III (Asie).

Edgell, H Stewart. Arabian Deserts: Nature, Origin and Evolution. The Netherlands:

Springer, 2006.

Al-Tokhais, Ali Saad, 1992, “Grounwater management strategies for Saudi Arabia”,

P.h.D. Thesis (pub.), Earth Resource Department, Colorado State University, Colorado,

U.S.A.

http://water.usgs.gov/edu/earthwherewater.html


128 | P a g e

Marrat Shale, Aphanitic limestone Aquitard 103

Triassic

Minjur Sandstone Aquifer 315

Jilh Sandstone, Aphanitic limestone Aquifer (Poor) ± 326

Sudair Shale (Red and Green) Aquitard 116

Permian Khuff calcarenite, Aphanitic Limestone Aquifer 99.3

Unyzah (FAW) Limestone, Dolomite Aquifer (Poor) 33.7

Lower

Permian or Carboniferous

Berwath Dolomite, Shale Aquitard 38.4

Wajid Argillaceous Sandstone Aquifer 950 +

Devonian Jauf (299.2) Upper Limestone Aquifer 133.4

Shubbat Shale and limestone Aquitard 165.8

Silurian

Tabuk (1072)

Tawil Sandstone Aquifer 463.4

Qusayba Shale Aquitard 290.5

Middle Tabuk Sandstone Aquifer 104.9

Ordovician

Ra’an Shale Aquitard 70.7

Lower Tabuk Sandstone Aquifer 129.8

Hanadir Shale Aquitard 12.2

Saq Sandstone Aquifer + 600 Cambrian

Pre-Cambrian Basement Complex

Source: Hydrogeologic Units and Lithostratigraphic succession of groundwater aquifer in Saudi

Arabia (modified after Powers et al., 1966; Burdan, D J, 1973 table 5, p.4; MAW, 1984 and Edgell,

1997; Makkawi, M ).

A comprehensive analysis of the Table 3.2 shows that Wajid and Saq aquifers are

the thickest deposit of Saudi Arabia with an average depth of 1000 meters, and make

sandstone and carbonate type lithology. On the contrary, Quaternary alluvium and

Neogene aquifer stand to newest deposit with different and small thickness. In brief,

central and northern parts of Saudi Arabia are dominated by sandstone type

lithology while carbonate prevails in the eastern part of the study area. Further, the

age and lithology of the aquifers are shown in Table 3.3 with the depth of deposits.

However, the quality and quantity of water depend on several features such as the

nature and thickness of sediments, permeability, porosity, the frequency and

intensity of rainfall and others. The quality, quantity and depth of ground water

varies considerably from one aquifer to another, especially in the western and

central part of Saudi Arabia. The Saq and Wajid aquifers consist the best water

quality of total dissolved solid (TDS) less than 1500 ppm as compared to other

aquifers. In contrast, the carbonate aquifers are poor in quality where the TDS may

reach 15000 particle per million (ppm) in Um Er Radhuma to 60000 ppm in

Dammam in the eastern part of the Arabian Gulf.

Extensive details of water quality and quantity have been presented in Table 3.2.

The study of Abderrehman stated that the high rate of groundwater extraction


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contributing to increasing sharply in TDS23

. In addition, Dhahran area had 2750 mg

per liter TDS in 1980, and it reached 4000 TDS in 2000 with a growth rate of 22

percent. Concurrently, Hofuf and Abqaiq TDS were as good as1000 to 2000 mg per

litre whereas eastern and northwestern part of the eastern province have a poor

quality of water with 4000 to 7000 mg per litre TDS amount24

.

Furthermore, the TDS value of Alat and Neogene aquifers ranges from 2000 to 9000

and 1500 to 2000 mg per liter, respectively. One of the main reasons for the increase

in TDS is the decline in the water table that creates a barrier for the abstraction of

water. For example, the water table in Minjur aquifer fell by 170m from 45m from

1956 to 198025

and a similar reduction is also reported in Wasia aquifer. The Eastern

part of Arabia has experienced more exploitation of water as compared to western

region due to social and physical conditions. Eastern part of Saudi Arabia is densely

populated and agriculturally productive in comparison to the western side of the

Peninsula and, therefore, more susceptible to water availability. Further, growing

units of industries and mega-projects have also been created a hurdle to the

availability of fresh water resources at a rapid rate.

Finally, groundwater is the only source for extensive uses in various activities,

therefore, heavily pumped from clustered wells. During 1987-2000 in more than 200

km2 area of Al-Hasa only, the rate of decline in (the Neogene aquifer) water table

was more than 10 cm per year due to extensive pumping of water from wells.

Moreover, the Alat aquifer extending from Qatif to the North of Ras Tanaurah of

eastern province faces greater cone of depression and decline of more than 14

meters of the water table from 1987 to 2000.

23

Abderrahman, W. A. (2000). Water demand management and Islamic water

management principles: A case study. International Journal of Water Resource

Development , 16 (4), 465-473. 24




in Arabian Peninsula), KFUPM, Saudi Arabia. 47-64. 25




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The maximum decline of about 40 meter has been expected at Abqaiq in the Khobar

aquifer due to low transitivity values and the small thickness (in 2000). Along the

coastal belt around the Qatif, decline level was expected to be about 5 meters by the

year 2000. Umm Er radhuma aquifer extending in Dharan and Al-Khobar areas

experienced a 6-meter decline of the water table and developed a cone of depression

due to the contribution of groundwater from UER aquifer to the overlying Khobar

and Alat aquifers by vertical flows26

.

However, groundwater extraction is mainly dependent upon shallow wells

comprised in alluvial aquifers except few deep wells located in deep aquifers. The

irrigated agriculture relies primarily on groundwater, the number of private wells

used for agriculture increased to 52,327 in 1990 as compared to 26,000 in 1982. In

1988, there were 4,667 multi-purpose government wells and 44,080 private wells. It

is interesting to note that more than 1,500 wells are pumping about 2,300 MCM per

year of groundwater with a salinity level of fewer than 400 TDS since 1986.

One estimate showed that about 48 BCM of groundwater had been pumped after

1984; it is equivalent to 305 times the local production of the desalinated water since

the early seventies27

. The total annual recharge in all aquifers has estimated to be

about 3,958 MCM, of which 2,762 and 1,196 MCM to deep and shallow aquifers

respectively. (see: Table 3.1). Moreover, the total annual estimated recharge in

principle and secondary aquifers is less than 1 percent of the total reserves (2,692

MCM). The highest rechargeable aquifer is Wasia-Biyadh with18 percent of the

total recharge amount while the Jilh is the lowest recharge Aquifer.

The Um Er Radhuma contributed 15 percent of the total recharge while Tabuk

comes second after Wasia-Biyadh with 17 per cent amount of the total recharge in

2000. Minor annual rechargeable aquifers are Jilh, Jauf and Sakaka, Aruma, Khuff

and Tuwail, Minjur-Dhruma and Wajid where the recharge rate varies from two to

26




in Arabian Peninsula), KFUPM, Saudi Arabia. 47-64. 27

Abderrahman, Walid A. 2006. Groundwater Resources management in Saudi Arabia,



131 | P a g e

five percent to the total. Moreover, Saq, Tuwail and Neogene aquifers annual

estimated recharge were 290, 52 and 391 MCM per year respectively.

3.1.2 Surface water:

The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has a vast region characterized by its aridity,

deficiency of fresh water resources and intensifying demand on fresh water supplies.

It is believed that it is the amplest surface area (about 2.25 million Km2) on the earth

not ascertained by a perennial river system. However, numerous ephemeral streams

or widyan intersected the land except those areas adjoined by moving sands-dunes.

Vast areas in the region may not receive any rainfall for several successive years and

leads to the development of dry ravines and watercourse. However, rainfall produces

substantial volumes of surface water in a relatively short span, which may cause

severe damage to life and properties in the form of a flash flood28

for example on 5th

January 1998 and 7th

january 1999, the rain event in Qasim area had delivered about

1274 MCM and 252 MCM water within 6 hours and impacts to the infrastruce and

human lives loss greatly29

.

Water resources are scarce to absent, except in the mountainous region of the

southwestern part of Saudi Arabia. The prominent source of surface water is the

volume of runoff, which produced by torrential rainfall or precipitation. It is affected

by paradoxical climate system as characterized by cyclonic activities in the north

during winter while southwest region experience Monsoon with convectional

thunderstorms during the summer season30

. Furthermore, both have considerable

variation in the duration and relative strength within two successive periods. It is

interesting to note that about 70-80 percent amount of summer rainfall (during

28

Sorman, A., & Abdulrazzak, M. (1993). Infiltration- recharge through wadi beds in arid

regions. Hydrological Science Journal , 38, 173-186. 29

El-Bastawesy, M., & Al-Ghamdi, K. (2013). Assessment and Management of the Flash

Floods in Al Qaseem Area, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. International Journal of Water

Resources and Arid Environments , 2 (3), 146-157. 30

Al-Jerash, M. A. (1985). Climatic Subdivisions in Saudi Arabia: An application of

Principle Component Analysis. Journal of CLimatology , 5 (3), 307-323.

Almazroui, M., Abid, M. A., Athar, H., Islam, M. N., & Ehsan, M. A. (2012). Interannual

variability of rainfall over the Arabian Peninsula using the IPCC AR4 Global Climate

Models. International Journal of Climatology , 33 (10), 2328-2340.


132 | P a g e

Monsoon period), is received by highlands and mountainous region of west and

southwest and remaining 20-30 percent occur in the coastal plains of Arabian

Peninsula. Moreover, the rainfall from frontal cyclone during winter season

decreased towards the east while the amount received by coastal and highlands in

the vice-versa pattern. The average precipitation is around 114 mm per year31

,the

variation of rainfall is as high as 100-200 mm in the north and decreased below to

the level of 100 mm in the south except near the coastline32

.

Variation of evaporation rate is as high as 17 mm during July-August to 2.5 mm in

December-January33

. The annual evaporation varies between 2,500 mm per year in

the coastal areas to about 4,500 mm in the central parts towards the desert in Saudi

Arabia. Low amount of rainfall in most of the Kingdom resulted in limited surface

runoff. Southwestern part, extended between Red Sea coast and adjacent Sarawat

mountain covers 10 percent of total surface area, alone receive almost 60 percent

(1,450 MCM) of the total runoff. The remaining 40 percent of the total runoff occurs

in the far south of the western coast near Tihama plain that covers only 2 percent

area of the country34

. The flat terrain of most of the land creates a barrier to direct

use of rainfall and water harvesting. Therefore, A limited amount of rain, less than

20 percent, percolates into the aquifer as recharge and used for irrigation purpose

while the rest of water goes out as an outflow or evaporated.

31

FAO. (2008). Aquastate Survey: Saudi Arabia. Rome: Food and Agriculture

Organization. 32

Almazroui, M., Abid, M. A., Athar, H., Islam, M. N., & Ehsan, M. A. (2012).

Interannual variability of rainfall over the Arabian Peninsula using the IPCC AR4 Global

Climate Models. International Journal of Climatology , 33 (10), 2328-2340. 33

Al-Rashed, Muhammad F., Sherif, Mohsen M. 2000, Water Resources in the GCC

Countries: An Overview, Water Resources Management, 14, 59-75. 34

Nasrallah, H. A., & Balling, R. C. (1993). Spatial and temporal analysis of Middle

Eastern temperature changes. Climate Change , 25 (2), 153-161.

Wang, P., Clemens, S., Beaufort, L., Braconnot, P., Ganssen, G., Jian, Z., et al. (2005).

Evolution and variability of the Asian monsoon system: State of the art and outstanding

issues. Quaternary Science Reviews , 24 (1), 595-629.

Nouh, M. (2006). Wadi flow in Arabian Gulf states. Hydrological Processes , 20 (1),

2393-2413.



133 | P a g e

It is pertinent to note that surface water constitute, with such vast areal extent of the

country, only 0.1 percent (2,230 MCM or 2.2 BCM) water available for use as of

total amount (varies from 5-8 BCM) existed in Saudi Arabia (Table 3.1). The average

annual volume of rainwater in Saudi Arabia is estimated at 158.47 BCM35

. Total

surface runoff generated from rainfall is estimated 3.21 BCM per year36

. Surface

water budget can be understood as37

:

Total estimated surface water = Runoff + Recharge Eqn…1

6.5 BCM (Total water From Table) = 3.21 BCM (Runoff) + 2.76 BCM (groundwater

recharge to deep aquifer) + 1.19 BCM (groundwater recharge to shallow aquifer)38

Eqn…2.

Out of total available water (6.5 BCM), only a fraction (2,230 MCM) is available for

direct use, this amount has been confirmed by various studies including the

hydrological studies39

performed by MAW, Abderrehman, Ali Saad. The studies

35

(ASCAD, 1997 as quoted by Al-Rashed and Sherif, 2000) ACSAD. (1997). Water

resources in the Arab World and their utilization (Arabic). 2nd Arab Workshop on Water

Resources in the Arab World (8-10 March, 1997). Kuwait: The Arab Center for the

Studies of Arid Zones and Dry Lands. 36

Khouri, J., Agha, W., & AlDeroubi, A. (1986). Water resources in the Arab World and

future perspectives. Proc. Symposium on Water Resources and Uses in the Arab World.

Kuwait: Gulf Studies Center.

Al-Zubari, W. (1997). Towards the establishment of a total water cycle management and

reuse program in the GCC countries. 3rd Gulf Water Conference. Muscat, Sultanate of

Oman. 37

It is mere a representation. It does not claim as standard equation of water balance

model. The estimated volume of rainfall is 158.47 BCM which includes loss of water due

to evapo-transpiration, water stored in soil capillary as soil moisture, groundwater

recharge, and surface runoff. 38

Total amount of available surface water varies to 5 – 8 BCM as presented in Table 4.1

whereas equation 2 estimated total amount of surface water as 7.16 BCM, which is near to

above figures. 39

Al-Tokhais, Ali Saad, 1992, “Groundwater management strategies for Saudi Arabia”,

P.h.D. Thesis (pub.), Earth Resource Department, Colorado State University, Colorado,

U.S.A.



465-473.


134 | P a g e

also show that about 30 percent (669 MCM) water diverted for agriculture while 45

percent (1,003.5 MCM) thrived to recharge of alluvial aquifers, and about 25

percent (5,57.5 MCM) lost by evaporation. However, researchers on the reliable

estimates of total surface water still going on, that will provide consistent figures in

near future. Other important aspects include widyan system and construction of dams

for proper water management in Saudi Arabia.

3.1.2.1 Widyan40

in Saudi Arabia

Wadi is an ephemeral stream of some specific characteristic. It has an irregular

shape and dry watercourse that filled by alluvium and pebbles materials. In spite of

fertility of water-borne deposits and availability of water, agriculture and human

settlement often inhabited in the Widyan. It is well-known fact that Wadi flow

should be viewed as a precious surface water resource for an arid region like Saudi

Arabia. Efficient use of Wadi flow requires certain management practices, if

efficiently managed, and can fulfill domestic water requirement of a year.

The major widyan of Saudi Arabia are Wadi Bisha, Wadi Ad-Dawasir, Wadi Najran,

Tathlieth, Turabah, Al-Laith, Baysh, Hanifa, Nisah, Usfan, Fatima, Khulays,

Qudaid, Thamarah, Rabigh, Mastorah, Marij, Safra Fara’a and others. Spatial

extent varies from Wadi Fatima (East of Jeddah), Wadi Khulais (North of Jeddah),

Rumah in the central near Buraydah, Wadi Al-Sirhan41

in the north stretching from

Sakaka up to Jordan, Wadi Najran situated in southernmost of the country.

However, acknowledgment of accurate details, runoff and numbers of the widyan

Ministry of Agriculture and Water (MAW), 2002, Agricultural Statistics Yearbook.

Department of Economic Studies and Statistics, 14th Issue, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.

Abderrehman, Walid A. 2006, Assessment of Climate Change on Water Resources in


Saudi Arabia. 40

Widyan (Wadies in English) is an Arabic word used for plural of Wadi.

41 It is a depression rather than a true wadi situated in northern Arabia, and runs nearly

200 miles long and 1,000 feet below the neighboring plateau. Whole basin encircled by

Al-Nafūd escarpments in north, Anizah Wadis towards the Euphrates valley. Most

important tributaries of As-Sirhan include Wadi ʿArʿar and Wadi Al-Khurr. NASA, 2012,

http://earth shots.usgs.gov/earthshots/node/51#ad-image-10 ; (Encyc. Britannica (Online),

2015 written by Basheer K Nijim http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic

/31551/Arabia/45281/Najd #ref484864)

http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic%20/31551/Arabia/45281/Najd#ref484864

http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic%20/31551/Arabia/45281/Najd#ref484864


135 | P a g e

system are not clear so far. Although, the largest number of widyan flow in Asir

mountain range, Tihama plain, and Red Sea coastal belt region. The density of these

widyan is very high as compared to other region of the country. In the Tihama plain

alone, there are 90 Widyan of which 36 have significant importance while runoff

flows towards the interior drainage system and east of Asir Mountain are less as

compared to west of the mountain.

The average surface flow into the Red Sea zone is 39.8 cubic meters per second.

About 70 percent of this (27 cubic meters per second) occurs south of Jeddah, 21

percent (8.2 cubic meters per second) north of Jeddah and remaining 9 percent (4.60

cubic meters per second) around Jeddah city itself42

. Recently, a scientific

investigation has been carried out by Noah with the help of stochastic model to assess

‘wadi flow in the Arabian Gulf states’ shows some reliable estimates of wadi’s

runoff43

. Details of runoff occur in the main widyan along with their respected areas

extent is given in Table 3.4. It is noteworthy that total widyan runoff alone constitutes

more than 2.0 BCM water that is equal to water withdrawal (2.1 BCM) for domestic

purpose in the year of 2006.

Table 3.4: Estimated runoff of the main widyan in Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

Region Surface Area

(1000 Km2)

Main Widyan Runoff (MCM

/ Year)

The Red Sea coastal

belt 241.6

Jizan, Damage, Baysh, Hali, Yiba, Qanonah,

Al-Laith 1265

Wadi Dawasir 180 Turabah, Ranya, Bishah, Tathlieth, Dawasir 330

Wadi Najran 38.4 Najran 135

Wadi Birk Nisah 162.3 Nawtah, Nisah, Hanifa 100

North Tuwayq 152.8 Sudair, Meshgar, Namil 95

Taif, FadatAl-Misbah 43.2 Jadwal 55

Ar-Rimah Al-Batin 174.4 Wajj, Liyyah, Aqiq, Awali 25

An Nafud 161 20

Al-Jawf 192 As-Sirhan, Rabigh 35

Total 1345.7 2060

Source: ASCAD/AFESD/KFAED, 1986 as quoted by Nouh (2006).

42

Ali, M. Subyani. (2009). Hydrologic behavior and flood probability for selected arid

basins in Makkah area, Saudi Arabia. Arabian Journal of Geosciences, 4(5-6), 817-824. 43

Nouh, M. (2006). Wadi flow in Arabian Gulf states. Hydrological Processes , 20 (1),

2393-2413.

http://link.springer.com/journal/12517


136 | P a g e

3.1.2.2 Dams and Reservoirs in Saudi Arabia

Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has a large number of dams for various purposes ranging

from irrigation, control of rainwater and harvesting, aquifer recharge, flood control,

recreational, water supply, and others. In the first appearance, it seems superfluous

undertaking to construct a dam in such harsh climate where no or little rain occurs.

But the kingdom started, erstwhile, benefitting from seasonal rainfall and runoff

through the construction of the dam and consequently first dam, Ekremah, was

commissioned in 1956 (1376H) on the upstream of Wadi Almathanah in Taif44

. Till

then, various projects and hydraulic structure of different shape and size have been

installed by the ministry of agriculture and water (MAW) now replaced with the

ministry of water and electricity (MOWE).

The development of dams and storage capacity has significant importance especially

for irrigation and controlling of rainwater for urban use. The growth of dams and

storage capacity has been discussed in Table 3.5 that represents rapid growth since

1996 with storage capacity 774 MCM. There were 185 dams with a collective

storage capacity of 475 MCM, and 45 dams had been under construction in 1993.

Moreover, a large dam on Wadi Baysh with capacity 325 MCM was constructed in

the year 1997. In the year of 2000, a total of 187 dams were recorded with various

capacities. Structurally, out of them, 65 were earth fill, 37 rock fill, and 85 concrete

fill with the storage capacity of 775 MCM along with several recharge schemes. In

2002, the storage capacity of 215 constructed dams was 832 MCM. The development

of dams and storage capacity in the next four-year had increased significantly.

Between 2000-04, almost 20 per cent and 7 per cent growth have been recorded in

some dam improvement and storage capacity respectively.

In 2008 and 2009, there were 258 and 302 dams respectively while no significant

increase registered in storage capacity as 907.8 MCM in both years. Moreover, 147

dams were under construction in 2008. By the end of 2010, the number of

constructed dams reached to 351, with 50 per cent growth since 2004, in a different

region of the country while storage capacity of these dams exceeded 1.2 BCM. The

annual surface water quantity has increased about three times (almost 300 percent)

44

Yusif, A. (1974). A Dam In Saudi. Saudi Aramco World , 25 (2), 4-9.


137 | P a g e

since 1993 to 2010. It is important to note that the available surface water resources

in Saudi Arabia have the greatest significance due to its good quality, but it is so

scarcer. Only few dams were under the use of drinking purpose in 2010 including

Al-Aqiq (Al-Baha City), Aridah (Taif), Turabah (Taif), Maraba (Asir), Itwas (Asir),

Abha (Abha).

Table 3.5: Development of Dams and their storage capacity in Saudi Arabia

Year Commissioned Dams Under Construction Dams

No of Dams Storage Capacity (MCM) No of Dams Estimated (MCM)

1957 1 0.50

1966 6 61.77

1970 14 77.90

1976 26 189.70

1980 41 346.82

1984 140 428.19

1988 179 435.93

1993 183 473.55 45 325

1996 184 768.30

1999 195 822.85

2002 209 828.74

2005 225 836.27 27 1064

2007 230 850.33

2008 237 863.46

2009 258 907.80 147 1.86

2010 302 908.00 147 1.35

2011 351 1157.86 103 1.64 Source: Various Publications

45

45

Panikkar, A. K. (2008, February 25). Water profile of Saudi Arabia. Retrieved March

13, 2015, from The Encyclopedia of Earth: http://www.eoearth.org/view/article

/51cbef317896b b431f69cfff/

Al-Motairi, H. (2002). Water quality regulations and wastewater treatment and reuse in

Saudi Arabia. Report on the joint WHO/UNEP first regional conference on Water

Demand Management, Conservation and Pollution Control (7-10 October, 2001) (pp. 44-

47). Amman, Jordan: World Health Organization.



465-473.

Sen, Z., & Al-Suba'i, K. (2002). Hydrological considerations for dam siting in arid

regions: a Saudi Arabian study. Hydrological Sciences-Joumal-des Sciences

Hydrologiques , 42 (2), 173-186.


http://www.eoearth.org/view/article%20/51cbef317896b%20b431f69cfff/

http://www.eoearth.org/view/article%20/51cbef317896b%20b431f69cfff/


138 | P a g e

The tremendous increase in some dams and storage capacity is the result of water

conservation policy of Saudi Arabia. Kingdom constructs not only single purpose

dam but also large and multipurpose dams. A brief description has been presented in

Table 3.6 along with region and use of dams.

It is discernible from the Table 3.6 that maximum numbers of dams are constructed

in Asir Province. In 2009, total 77 dams were in Asir with a storage capacity of

411.39 MCM; out of this, more than 20 percent dams were used for drinking water

supply. Asir has highest water harvesting potential as compared to another part of

the country. Due to substantial runoff, Largest and multipurpose dams have been

installed in Asir province that includes King Fahad dam, Wadi Baysh, Jazan and

others. While, Riyadh coupled with small-scale water projects as evident from the

table that it has 67 Dams of various capacities and size, but collective storage

capacity contributes only 91.99 MCM.

Second largest water holding capacity in Dams was in Mecca province. It

contributes almost 336.15 MCM capacity of water storage with 36 Dams including 2

Dam for drinking purpose. Similarly, Baha, Hail, Medina, Tabouk, Qassim, and

Najran provinces contribute a good amount of water storage with 31, 25, 20, 8, 9

and 12 Dams respectively.

SAMA. (2009). Saudi Arabian Monetary Agency: 45

th Annual report. Riyadh, Saudi

Arabia, p193.

SAMA. (2010). Saudi Arabian Monetary Agency: 45th Annual report. Riyadh, Saudi

Arabia, p177.


Arabia, p163.


Arabia.


Arabia.


Arabia.


Arabia.


139 | P a g e

Figure 3.3: Dams and Storage capacity in Saudi Arabia


Figure 3.4: Total (Cumulative) Storage Capacity of the Dams by year


However, a high percentage of dams constructed by concrete material while earthy

and rock fill type of dam collectively constitute almost 70 percent of the total dams.

Nevertheless, in terms of storage capacity, the situation is vice versa as concrete

dams have a high potential of water holding as compared to rock fill. Until 2009,

1 6 14 26

41

140

179 183 184 195

209 225 230 237

258

302

351 No. of Dams 0

.50

61

.77

77

.90

18

9.7

0

34

6.8

2

42

8.1

9

43

5.9

2

47

3.5

5

76

8.3

0

82

2.8

4

82

8.7

4

83

6.2

7

85

0.3

3

86

3.4

6

90

7.8

0

90

8.0

0 11

57

.86

Total Storage Capacity (MCM)


140 | P a g e

there were more than 210 Dams were constructed, with a storage capacity of 567

MCM, for recharge of the groundwater aquifer. Furthermore, flood control and

prevention of the cities managed by 65 large and small hydraulic structures.

Currently, more than 25 Dams are providing drinking water in which potable water

obtained by rainfall and retained on the ground at the surface. Total storage capacity

of dams used for drinking water and irrigation purpose is more than 303 MCM and

52 MCM respectively.

Table 3.6: Brief details of available statistics on Dams and storage capacity

(MCM) by region and use, 2009

Region/

Purpose

Storage Control Drinking Irrigation Total

No of

dams

Storage No of

dams

No of

dams

No of

dams

No of

dams

Capacity

Riyadh 48 72.87 19 19.12 67 91.99

Asir 43 358.81 17 16.59 17 35.99 77 411.39

Mecca 27 58.60 7 234.75 2 42.80 36 336.15

Baha 25 9.62 3 0.14 2 30.50 1 0.50 31 40.76

Hail 22 11.05 3 1.76 25 12.81

Medina 14 20.70 6 64.45 20 85.15

Tabuk 8 6.63 8 6.63

Qassim 8 5.16 1 1.30 9 6.46

Najran 8 2.98 4 87.08 12 90.06

Northern

Borders

6 20.65 6 20.65

Jazan 1 0.25 1 0.15 4 194.17 1 51.0 7 245.57

Jouf 4 4

Total 210 567.32 65 425.34 25 303.46 2 51.50 302 1347.62

Source46

: (MOWE, 2009, 2011; Aquastat, 2011; Chowdhury et al., 2013)

Apart from storage, Jazan dam only provides irrigation facility to more than 60

thousand hectares. Presently, constructions of multipurpose dams are a new

46

MOWE. (2009). Annual Report 2009. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Ministry of Water and

Electricity.

MOWE. (2011, March 12). The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia: Dams. Retrieved December

24, 2014, from Ministry of Water and Electricity: http://intranet.mowe.gov.sa/Dams/

Aquastat. (2011). Geo-referanced database of Dams in the Middle East. Rome: Food and

Agriculture Organization (FAO).



Engineering Sciences , In Press.


141 | P a g e

phenomenon in Saudi Arabia as most of construction activities following a

particular type of pattern. For example, Abha dam was constructed for storage,

recharge of aquifers, irrigation, flood control and recreational purpose. In the same

way, King Fahd large dam was built for storage and recharge of aquifer, but later on,

it started to give a supply of potable water through 40 km pipeline to Bishah City47

.

It also includes a water treatment plant with a capacity of 40 000 cubic meters per

day for potable water production. Further, the development agenda for dams

multipurpose used in terms of entertainment and tourist attraction sites benefiting

the purpose in more than one way. The International Commission on Large Dams,

responsible for maintaining statistics on large dams, states that the Dams

corresponding height of 15 m or more or less than 15 m but 1 MCM storage or rate

of the flow 2000 CM per second or more will come under the category of large

dams48

. According to this definition, there are more than 58 000 Dams in the world,

while half of the numbers contributed by China (23,842) alone.

In Saudi Arabia, more than 100 Dams arises under the category of large dams. A

concise description of major dams has been presented in Annexure-II along with

height and storage capacity. Construction of large numbers of hydraulic structures

reflects pioneer achievements of Saudi Arabia in the direction of water resource

management of conservation. It has also proved the dependence on the renewable

water as an important source of supply in near future. Brief discussions on

significant hydraulic structure are as follows:

47

Saudi Embassy. (1998, October 05). Crown Prince Abdullah visits Bisha, opens dam.

Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Retrieved from http://www.saudiembassy.net/_Preview/archive/

1998/news/page309.aspx

48 ICOLD. (2006). General Synthesis: Circular no. 1443. Retrieved Jan 24, 2015, from

The International Commission on Large Dams: http://www.icold-cigb.org/GB/World

_register /general_synthesis.asp

http://www.saudiembassy.net/_Preview/archive/%201998/news/page309.aspx

http://www.saudiembassy.net/_Preview/archive/%201998/news/page309.aspx

http://www.icold-cigb.org/GB/World%20_register%20/general_synthesis.asp

http://www.icold-cigb.org/GB/World%20_register%20/general_synthesis.asp


142 | P a g e

(A) King Fahd Dam

King Fahd Dam, one of the most important hydraulic structure and multipurpose

project, was constructed in 1997. A royal order was issued on 21st Rajab 1407 H

49,

corresponding to 21 March 1987 CE, for the construction of the dam. The projects

finished by 1418 H (1997 CE) and official opening ceremony followed on 13th

Muharram, 1419 H, corresponding to 10 May 1998. The total cost of construction

was 246 million Saudi Riyals. It has highest storage capacity until now among all

the projects in Saudi Arabia and second in height after Jazan (Wadi Baysh) Dam.

Its’ reservoir capacity represents about 25 percent of the total storage capacity until

2010. It could be considered a milestone in the history of Saudi Arabia of large

dams, often, constructed on rivers rather than widyan.

The dam was constructed on Wadi Bishah about 40 km south of Bishah in Asir

province of southwestern Saudi Arabia. Wadi is one of the biggest valleys in

Arabian Peninsula as its length extended more than 250 km from a height of Asir to

Foothill basin. The whole valley flourished by more than hundred tributaries. It

receives water flow from those tributaries that stored into underground reservoir,

and provides elixir during summer season. Khamis Mushayt, Wadi Abha, Wadi

Hurgab, Tabalah, Dawasir and others are important tributaries that maintain constant

water flow into dam reservoir. Wadi Bishah extended towards the north from the

dam and ran almost 200 km where it meets with Tathlith and formed a large Wadi

known as Wadi-Ad-Dawasir. Wadi Ad-Dawasir extends again as far as 200 km

towards Rab-Al-Khali before disappearing in Rumeila. The catchment of the dam is

about 7,600 km2 that extended from Ubaidah plateau in the north of the dam.

Precipitation rate in upper reaches of the Wadi is about 600 mm while it decreases

toward the lower end of Wadi Bishah at the rate of 100 mm.

It is a concrete gravity dam with a base width of 80 m while the top width of the

dam is 8 m along with a 5 m wide road. The height of the dam is about 103 m from

the foundation and 68 m from the Wadi bed while the length of the dam is 507 m at

the top, which divided into 34 blocks of 15 m each.

49

Saudi Embassy. (1998, October 05). Crown Prince Abdullah visits Bisha, opens dam.

Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Retrieved from http://www.saudiembassy.net/_Preview/archive

/1998 /news/page309.aspx

http://www.saudiembassy.net/_Preview/archive%20/1998%20/news/page309.aspx

http://www.saudiembassy.net/_Preview/archive%20/1998%20/news/page309.aspx


143 | P a g e

The capacity of the storage is about 325 MCM with Reservoir Lake of 18 km while

the dam is also supporting flood control and prevention from damage to the city

through the spillway. Spillway designed to ascertain the flow rate of 5,338 cubic

meters per second by a 60.5 m, above wadi bed, a crest that has a length of 225 m.

Other technical systems are also supporting to the dam for proper monitoring,

maintenance and operation that includes six galleries with a total length 3,280 m for

water diversion, eight pendulums for monitoring of horizontal and vertical pressure

and temperature, and six piezometers for measuring uplift water pressure. Dam is

beneficial more than one ways as it has many purposes from recharge of aquifers,

flood control, irrigation, to the municipal water supply through 40 km long pipeline

towards Bisha city, and a water treatment plant with a capacity of 40 000 cubic

meters per day.

(B) Baysh Dam

Baysh dam is another important multipurpose project in Saudi Arabia. It is tallest

dam in the kingdom with a height of 106 m from the foundation. The main purpose

of the dam was the protection from flood and supply of water for irrigation while

others purpose adjoined later on. The Contract of construction was signed between

Yuksel Insaat A. S. and MOWE on 14 April 2003 that ends on 14 May 2009 after

successful completion of the project50

. It is located about 0.5 km far from the

confluence of Wadi Yakhrup and Wadi Baysh in the southeast of Baysh Town at a

distance of 33 km in Jazan province.

The catchment of Wadi Byash is about 5,000 km2 that starts from the west of Asir

Mountains to the northwest of Dhran Aljenub and then turns toward the southwest

and finally flows into the Red Sea. Upstream of Wadi Baysh converts rainfall into a

runoff in a very short time due to highly undulated terrain and the absence of

vegetation cover. The downstream area of Wadi Byash is a fertile plain, which has

plenty of agriculture. Baysh receives runoff from several small tributaries that

include Wadi Yakhrup, Wadi Raha, wadi Qaha, wadi Atf and Wadi Al-Awar.

50

Yuksel Insaat AS. (2011). Baysh Dam. Retrieved June 14, 2015, from Yuksel:

http://www.yuksel.net/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=568%3Abaysh-

baraji&catid=78%3Abarajlar-ve-hes&Itemid=348&lang=en

http://www.yuksel.net/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=568%3Abaysh-baraji&catid=78%3Abarajlar-ve-hes&Itemid=348&lang=en

http://www.yuksel.net/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=568%3Abaysh-baraji&catid=78%3Abarajlar-ve-hes&Itemid=348&lang=en


144 | P a g e

Annual precipitation rate varies from 250 mm near Dam up to 600 m in the

highlands with an average of 391 mm for the whole of the catchment area. It is

concrete gravity dam with 79.50 m base width at the foundation. The height of the

dam is 160 m from the foundation and 74 m from wadi bed. It is designed to control

a large volume of flood water of about 118 MCM with flow rate up to 8,186 cubic

meters per second by reservoir storage. The maximum capacity of the dam is around

192.75 MCM. Spillway of the dam is about 112 m that is almost 62 m long above

the wadi bed with lake reservoir area of 8.09 km2. Other technical configurations

include eight opening gates separated through 1 m column, four outlets to maintain

flow diversion, and a numbers of galleries.

(C) Hali Dam

Hali Dam is a multipurpose and significant project in Saudi Arabia. The dam is

constructed to protect from flash floods; the supply of water for irrigation; domestic

sector; and recharge of aquifers. The dam was constructed by Al-Dakheel

contracting company, a Riyadh-based company, in Safar 1424 H, corresponding to

April 2003, and completed in 200951

. It has second largest reservoir capacity after

King Fahd in Saudi Arabia. The Dam is located on Wadi Hali, East of Red Sea and

Kiat town by the distance of 35 km and 18 km respectively. It is situated southwest

in Makkah province of Saudi Arabia.

The total catchment area of Wadi Hali is 5,600 Km2 and, out of which, 4,843 km

2

area occupied by Dam catchment. It runs from Asir Mountain north of Rejalalma

toward the south of Mahail city and continues parallel to the west of Wadi Tih near

Kiat town before flows into the Red Sea. Wadi Hali also is one of the largest

watershed after Bishah, where the King Fahd Dam was built, with the length of 155

Km. Major tributaries of Wadi Hali includes Wadi Qad, Wadi Dufah, and Wadi

Baqarah those contributing into Wadi total runoff significantly. While the annual

rainfall of Wadi Hali varies from 500 mm on the high slope to 150 mm near the dam

with an average value of 375 mm as a whole basin.

51

Fosroc. 2015. Hali Dam, Saudi Arabia. Retrieved 13 March, 2015 from

http://www.fosroc.com/case-studies/hali-dam-qunfuda-saudi-arabia/

http://www.fosroc.com/case-studies/hali-dam-qunfuda-saudi-arabia/


145 | P a g e

Structurally, Wadi Hali dam is a concrete gravity. Its height from the foundation is

95 m and 57 m from Wadi bed. Furthermore, the width of the dam is 71 m at the

foundation and 8 m on the top from which a road has been constructed with a width

of 4.5 m. Moreover, the length of the Dam is about 384 meter that divided into 25

blocks. The whole structure is capable to store nearly 249.86 MCM water, out of

that, 153 MCM flood control reservoir that can hold 9000 cubic meter flow per

second through four outlets52

. Lake area of the dam is 15 Sq Km while the crest of

the spillway is divided into 12 openings with a combined length of 179 m. Operation

and management of dam assisted by six galleries on a different level for

multipurpose use.

(D) Rabigh Dam

It is the third largest dam, in terms of storage capacity, and one of the paramount

hydraulic projects in Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Total storage capacity of the dam is

220 MCM. Apart from domestic supply, it serves flood control and groundwater

recharge. Contract of construction was signed by the ministry of water and

electricity on behalf of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in Safar, 1424 H corresponding

to April-May, 2003. In 2008, Construction of Dam completed on the confluence of

Wadi Haya, Wadi Tiyama and upstream of Wadi Marr along with Wadi Rabigh

catchment itself. The dam is situated 35 km east of Rabigh Town on the eastern

coast of Red Sea and in Makkah province of Saudi Arabia.

Nevertheless, the total catchment of Wadi Rabigh is near about 4,800 Km2 out of

which 3,456 Km2 covers by dam catchment. Wadi also obtains little flows from

Wadi Mwebah and Wadi Khams in the north. The source of the flow is rainfall that

varies from 40 mm per year at the dam to 120 mm on the upper part of the wadi with

the average of 98 mm for the whole basin. Dam is a concrete gravity type with 60 m

and 5 m width at the foundation and on the top respectively while a road has also

been built on the upper part with a width of 4.5 m out of 5 meters. The dam has a

height of 80.5 m from the foundation and 59.5 m from the wadi bed.

52



http://intranet.mowe.gov.sa/Dams/


146 | P a g e

Moreover, it has a length of 381 m at the top with spillway length of 179 m from

wadi bed and 50.5 m on the top. Spillway supported by 12 openings that separated

through 1 m piers. Apart from the spillway, it has four outlets and Lake area of

13.58 Km2. Being a recharge dam, it supported flood control and damage protection

of Rabigh town and ensured domestic water supply. A water treatment plant has also

been installed along with irrigation facility to nearby agricultural fields. It has a total

220.35 MCM reservoir capacity that includes flood control reservoir of 140 MCM

along with the safety from flow intensity of 7,856 cubic meters per second53

.

Management and operation work supported by six galleries on different levels.

Apart from the large hydraulic structures, Saudi Arabia has several small and

multipurpose projects to conserve water and maintain its distribution to the people as

much as possible. A collection of field photographs of some important Dams has

been presented in Annexure III. It was collected through primary field survey by the

ministry of water and electricity, Saudi Arabia54

.

3.1.3 Desalinization of water in Saudi Arabia

Scarcity and shortage of commodities compel to the people to consume non-

conventional or polluted stuff either it is water or anything else. To cope up with

such crisis, the ministry of water and electricity, Saudi Arabia take the initiative to

built large structure for desalinization of sea water. Despite the fact that

desalinization has the higher production cost as compared to other conventional

water resource, Saudi Arabia constructed a number of plants since the early

seventies. Now, Saudi Arabia stands first in the production of desalinated water in

the world. Saline water conversion Corporation (SWCC) has the sole responsibilities

of production, operation and management of desalinization plants in Saudi Arabia.

These facilities were constructed to bridge the gap between freshwater availability

and water demands. These desalination plants consume an enormous amount of

fossil energy, mostly natural gas and release huge quantities of carbon dioxide.

53


24, 2014, from Ministry of Water and Electricity: http://intranet.mowe.gov.sa/Dams/ 54






147 | P a g e

However, the release of carbon dioxide has some adverse effect on the environment.

Some studies predict that the amount of excessive release of Carbon dioxide could

increase average temperature and decrease participation amount significantly55

.

Nonetheless, Saudi Arabia had produced 1,055.16 MCM desalinated water in 2013;

that is equal to half of its domestic water supply, 67 percent of industrial water

supply, and 60 percent of the GCC countries.

In 1980, Saudi Arabia had produced almost 90 percent of total desalinated water of

the world with the amount of 7.65 MCM56

. Currently, it has 30 desalination plants in

operation, out of them, 24 were along the coast of Red Sea and remaining six plants

on Persian/Arabian Gulf coast57

. Development of desalination facilities and

production of water has also been presented in Table 3.7 along with plants actual

production since 1990.

55

Andersson, L., Samuelsson, P., & Kjellstrom. (2011). Assessment of climate change

impact on water resources in the Pungwe river basin. Tellus A: International

Meteorological Institute (Stockholm) , 63 (A), 138-157.

ESCWA. (2011). Assessing the impact of climate change on water resources and socio-

economic vulnerability in the Arab Region: A Methodological framework for pursuing an

integrated assessment. New York: Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia

(ESCWA): The United Nations.

Brekke, L. D., Kiang, J. E., Rolf, O. J., Pulwarty, R. S., Raff, D. A., Turnipseed, D. P., et

al. (2009). Climate Change and Water Resources Management: A Federal Perspective.

Virginia: US Department of Interior, United States Geological Survey.

SMHI. (2014, April 23). Hydrology: Assessment of Climate Change Impacts on Water

Resources in the Luni River Basin, Rajasthan, India, using CORDEX results. Retrieved

July 12, 2015, from Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute (SMHI):

http://www.smhi.se/en/research/research-departments/hydrology/assessment-of-climate-

change-impacts-on-water-resources-in-the-luni-river-basin-1.34211 56

SWCC. (2011). General Organization of Water Desalinization. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia:

Saline Water Conversion Corporation. 57


Arabia.


Arabia.

http://www.smhi.se/en/research/research-departments/hydrology/assessment-of-climate-change-impacts-on-water-resources-in-the-luni-river-basin-1.34211

http://www.smhi.se/en/research/research-departments/hydrology/assessment-of-climate-change-impacts-on-water-resources-in-the-luni-river-basin-1.34211


148 | P a g e

Table 3.7: Total Water (Desalinated) Produced by Plants in Saudi Arabia

since 1990 (MCM)

Greg Hijri AL-

Shoqiq

AL-

Shuaiba

Al-

Khafji Jeddah Yenbu

Al-

Khobar

Al-

Jubail

Other

* Total

1990 1410 15.56 51.96 4.81 133.06 33.84 88.23 301.50 6.23 635.18

1991 1411 16.54 62.45 3.64 131.01 34.12 77.47 321.75 6.32 653.29

1992 1412 19.20 69.01 4.55 134.86 34.15 73.35 331.27 6.71 673.10

1993 1413 21.43 71.49 5.34 134.82 35.12 73.43 342.22 7.33 691.17

1994 1414 23.85 71.12 5.92 143.47 34.70 73.77 353.11 8.27 714.22

1995 1415 28.75 70.51 5.80 154.34 34.43 72.98 340.61 8.19 715.61

1996 1416 31.07 72.42 5.64 152.55 33.38 71.00 343.14 8.23 717.42

1997 1417 30.79 76.82 5.94 153.03 35.01 72.81 353.19 7.88 735.49

1998 1418 30.60 75.00 5.84 154.27 35.30 69.04 355.44 8.29 733.78

1999 1419 29.86 77.46 6.18 150.10 69.11 66.90 349.65 8.30 757.64

2000 1420 33.02 90.38 5.77 157.70 9.60 89.24 346.09 8.68 740.48

2001 1421 31.81 92.20 5.40 151.78 94.91 93.66 335.57 8.47 813.80

2002 1422 34.30 132.40 5.49 147.29 107.79 108.82 340.94 8.70 885.73

2003 1423 35.61 211.36 6.59 141.97 125.26 131.32 362.85 8.86 1023.82

2004 1424 36.85 222.58 6.81 139.73 107.10 132.45 385.85 8.98 1040.34

2005 1425 36.85 219.99 6.93 141.74 111.51 140.48 383.00 9.28 1049.77

2006 1426 36.83 228.44 6.96 132.98 113.84 143.85 364.85 9.18 1036.93

2007 1427 36.69 223.59 7.26 136.12 111.28 146.48 361.25 9.03 1031.69

2008 1428 36.40 232.07 7.63 151.23 119.49 146.88 398.95 9.46 1102.12

2009 1429 41.91 148.78 7.17 135.38 119.12 148.69 404.72 16.45 1022.21

2010 1430 15.00 100.18 7.82 132.73 118.41 152.14 334.43 23.05 883.75

2011 1431 2.21 131.74 7.75 136.24 113.24 141.86 375.85 23.81 932.72

2012 1432 15.13 170.27 8.02 132.23 122.77 144.51 380.99 23.31 997.23

2013 1433 28.58 176.70 8.03 163.64 136.19 129.70 388.03 24.30 1055.16

CAGR -0.75 5.89 2.54 0.00 8.09 4.00 0.76 5.27 2.38

Source: SSYB58

, Since 1990 to 2014; Note: Other plants include Hakel, Deba, Al-Wajh, Umlujj,

Rabeigh, Al-Birk, Farasan and Al-Aziziyah

It is evident from Table 3.7 that Saudi Arabia had produced 635.18, 715.61, 740.48,

1049.47 and 833.75 MCM desalinated water in 1990, 1995, 2000, 2005 and 2010

respectively. While before 1990, production of desalination had been 194.56,

488.66, 515.73 and 1224.43 MCM in 1970, 1975, 1980 and posted 1980

58

SSYB. (2014). Saudi Statistical Year Book. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Central Department

of Statistics and Information. (Various issues from 1990 to 2014)


149 | P a g e

respectively59

. Data in Table 3.7 also represent significant fluctuation throughout the

year in the production of desalinated water. It is coupled with maintenance and

rehabilitation of desalination plants that required proper shut down of some

operational units for a time being.

Figure 3.5: Total Desalinated water production by plants

Source: From Table 3.7

Moreover, individual desalinization production of plants ranges 1000 cubic meter to

815 thousand cubic meters per day. After proper desalinization produced water

mixed with small amount of groundwater to achieve the required level of total

dissolved solids (TDS).

In terms of production, average annual growth rate varies from 2 to 6 percent except

Jeddah with more or less constant production throughout the years while a decrease

in Al-Shoqiq plant, both installed on the east coast of Red Sea. Plants specific

properties along with desalinization approach, production, service, and operation

years has been presented in Table 3.7. In the year 2013, statistics of table 3.7 and 3.8

has a slight variation in terms of plant wise production due to two reason, that is the

source of data origin and year of conversion from Hijri to Gregorian while total

production figure has no variation.

59

Saudi Arabia Central Planning Organization (1975), and Beaumont, P; Water and

Development in Saudi Arabia, The Geographical Journal, Vol. 143, No. 1 (Mar., 1977),

pp. 42-60.

0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2013

Des

ali

nate

d W

ate

r (M

CM

)

AL-Shoqiq

AL-Shuaibah

Al-Khafji

Jeddah

Yanbu

Al-Khobar

Al-Jubail

Other*


150 | P a g e

Table 3.8: Desalinization plants in 2013, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

Sr.

No Plant

Year Water (MCM/Year) Stage

Electricity

(MW) Start End Supply Production

1 Jubail 1 1982 *2007

369.31

43.23 1st 238

2 Jubail 2 1983 *2008 297.54 2nd

762

3 Jubail RO 2000 2025 28.54 RO

4 Khobar 2 1983 *2008 157.89

70 2nd

500

5 Khobar 3 2000 2025 87.89 3rd

311

6 Khafji 1986 *2011 7.18 7.18 2nd

7 Jeddah 3 1979 *2004

132.95

27.74 3rd

200

8 Jeddah 4 1982 *2007 69.55 4th

500

9 Jeddah RO1 1989 2014 17.83

10 Jeddah RO2 1994 2019 17.83

11 Shoaiba 1 1989 2014 212.68

70 1st 157

12 Shoaiba 2 2001 2026 142.68 2nd

340

13 Yanbu 1981 *2006

117.4

34.54 1st 250

14 Yanbu 1 1998 2023 43.84 2nd

35

15 Yanbu RO 1998 2023 39.02 RO

16 Shoqaqia 1989 2014 30.45 30.45 1st 62

17 Haql RO 1990 2015 1.38 1.38 2nd

18 Duba RO 1989 2014 1.38 1.38 3rd

19 Al-Wajh 2009 *2034 3.29 3.29 3rd

, MED

20 Umlajj RO 1986 *2011 1.38 1.38 RO

21 Umlajj 3 2009 2034 3.29 3.29 3rd

, MED

22 Rabigh 1 1982 *2007 0.44 0.44 1st

23 Rabigh Extn1 1979 *2004 0.28 0.28 Redeployed 1

24 Rabigh 2 2009 2034 6.57 6.57 2nd

, MED

25 Alaziziza 1987 2012 1.41 1.41 1st

26 Albirk RO 1983 *2008 0.71 0.71 1st, RO

27 Farasan 1 1979 *2004 0.16 0.16 1st

28 Farasan Extn1 1978 *2003 0.39 0.39 Redeployed 1

29 Al-Laith 2009 2034 3.29 3.29 1st, MED

30 Al-Qunfudah 2008 2033 3.29 3.29 1st, MED

31 Total 2013 1055.12 1055.12

3355

Source: SWCC, 2014; Note: * Plants have more than 25 years life span; RO: Reverse Osmosis;

MED: Multi-Effect Distillation.

In Addition, the plants installed on the East coast along Arabian Gulf has higher

production as compared to plant installed towards the west of the country along Red

Sea coast. Total six plants in the East have produced 534.38 MCM desalinated water

while on the western total 24 plants contributes 520.74 MCM water collectively in

the year of 2013. Former plants supplied desalinated water as far as 400 Km inland to

Riyadh city, and Khobar and Dammam city while western plants provide water to

Jeddah, Mecca, Medina, Taif, Yenbu and many small towns.

In Table 3.8, the life span of 13 plants out of 30 has more than 25 years, e.g. Jubail 2

along the Arabian Gulf produced almost 28 percent (297.54 MCM per year) of total


151 | P a g e

production and largest among all the plants installed in Saudi Arabia. Consequently,

hindrance or reduction in production capacity due to life span is not implausible from

these plants. However, SWCC executed construction of few new plants near Rabigh,

Jeddah, and Ras Al-Zour to compete with future domestic water demands (MOEP,

2010; SWCC, 2011). Apart from that SWCC also constructed several pipelines

under the ground for proper and constant distribution of water. Such pipes facilitate

from water loss through evaporation and other leakages and also reduces

maintenance cost. It is pertinent to note that Riyadh, Mecca, Medina, and Eastern

Province collectively consumed almost 90 percent of total desalinated water.

Overall, 50 per cent demand of domestic water have supplied, after blended with

groundwater, by desalinated water as refer above while remaining amount of demand

extracted through groundwater directly60

. Unlike many regions of the world and

Arab region particularly, Saudi Arabia successfully installed several projects, and

water distribution networks to fulfill its domestic water needs through desalinated

water.

3.1.4 Reclaimed Wastewater

The use of reclaimed wastewater has long been recognized as a potential strategy to

cope up with water scarcity, although, the lack of policies and strategies obstacles

reclamation of wastewater. The practice of treated wastewater uses quite evident

from many countries in the world, despite, with the consideration of pricing,

efficient reuse in the absent of inefficient irrigation and water management systems.

It is used for irrigation, landscape and scenic modification, roadside afforestation,

and industrial purpose.

In Saudi Arabia, this issue is imperative as Reclaimed wastewater (RWW) used

many purposes including irrigation and industrial needs. Although, the use of such

water was forbidden for domestic and potable purpose in Saudi Arabia being an

Islamic country. However, a royal decree, fatwa, came into existence, after lengthy

and deep investigations and discussions with leading Islamic scholars and scientists,

on wastewater reclamation. It was issued under judgment no 64 on 25 Shawwal,

60

MOWE. (2009). Annual Report 2009. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Ministry of Water and

Electricity.


152 | P a g e

1398 H, corresponding to 28 September1978, concerning the conversion of impure

water (wastewater) into pure water.

It stated that “impure wastewater can be considered as pure water and similar to the

original pure water, if its treatment using advanced technical procedures is capable

of removing its impurities concerning taste, color, and smell, as witnessed by honest

specialized and experts. Then this cleaned water can be used to remove body

impurities and for purifying and drinking. If there are adverse impacts on human

health from its direct use, then it is better to avoid its use, not because it is impure

but to avoid harming human beings. The CLIS61

prefers to avoid using it for

drinking (as far as possible) to protect the health and not to contradict human

habits62

”.

It was the accomplishment in the use of wastewater either in irrigation or domestic

need. One estimate shows that about 9000 ha near Riyadh was cultivated in 2002

with date palm and forage crops using about 146 MCM of wastewater effluent63

. It

is reported that there is absolute absent of data availability on treated wastewater in

the public domain. Present estimates have been taken from various research papers

and reports though it has uncertainties and variations. In 2003, total 70 sewage

treatment plants reported by FAO64

while the same figure listed out in 2013

61

CLIS: Council of Leading Islamic Scholars 62

CLIS. 1978. Judgment Regarding Purifying Wastewater, Judgment No. 64 on 25

Shawwal, 1398 H., Thirteen Meeting of the Council of Leading Islamic Scholars (CLIS)

during the Second Half of the Arabic Month of Shawwal, 1398 H (1978 CE), Taif, Journal

of Islamic Research, 17, pp. 40-41. 63



Development , 16 (4), 465-473.

Abdulrazzak, M. J., Jurdi, M., & Basma, S. (2002). The Role of Desalination in Meeting

Water Supply Demands in Western Asia. Water International , 27 (3), 395-406.

Abu-Rizaiza, O. S., & Allam, M. N. (1989). Water Requirements versus Water

Availability in Saudi Arabia. Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management ,

115 (1), 64-74. 64


Organization.


153 | P a g e

Chowdhury65

et al., 2013. Despite the increase in number and capacity of treatment

plants, few reports presented declining figures in this respect. However, a brief,

reliable, estimates has been presented in Table 3.9 and 3.10 along with total

wastewater generated, treatment/not treated, water reuse/unuse, plants properties,

and disposals.

Table 3.9: Wastewater generation, treatment and use in Saudi Arabia

(MCM)

Year Production (MCM/year) Treated Untreated Reuse Treated Unused

2008 730 547.5 182.5 166 564

2009 840 670 170 120 720

2010 6.67 MCM/Day 33% 16% 51%

2010 1546 1063 483 1003 533

Source: Aquastat (FAO) 2008 (for 2008), Kajenthira et al., 2012 ((for 2009), Drewes et al.,

2012 (for 2010), and FAO, 201066

.

As per data available, the annual wastewater treatment capacity of the main plants

was 601.8 MCM/year (Table 3.10), but the actually treated water was only 567.1

MCM/year. Two plants situated in Riyadh (North and South) had treated largest

amount with the amount of 146 MCM/year. Moreover, a significant amount of

treated wastewater remained unused and discharged into the Widyan, the Arabian

Gulf, and the Red Sea. Both, Reuse and treatment of wastewater have uncertainties

in terms of quantity and treatment process and removal of impurities.

65



Engineering Sciences , In Press. 66


Organization.

Kajenthira, A., Siddiqi, A., & Anadona, L. D. (2012). A new case for promoting

wastewater reuse in Saudi Arabia: Bringing energy into the water equation. Journal of

Environmental Management , 102, 184-192.

Missimer, T. M., Drewes, J. E., Amy, G., Maliva, R. G., & Keller, S. (2012). Restoration

of Wadi Aquifers by Artificial Recharge with Treated Waste Water. Groundwater , 50 (4),

514-527.

FAO, AQUASTAT, 2010, Saudi Arabia, FAO Water report, 34, Rome. Retrieved from:

http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/data/query/results.html



154 | P a g e

Table 3.10: Some major wastewater treatment plants in Saudi Arabia

Sr.

N. City Plant Name

Treatment (m3 per Day)

Disposal Actual Design

1 Buraidah Buraidah 13000 11000 Sand Dunes

2 Unaizah Unaizah 9900 7080 Wadi

3 Al-Kharj Al-Kharj 21600 21000 Wadi

4 Qatif Sanabis 22195 8340 Gulf

5 Qatif Gesh 15930 8990 Gulf

6 Qatif Awamia 13430 9260 Gulf

7 Qatif Qatif 35000 21000 Gulf + L I

8 Al-Hassa Oyoon 17100 6310 Lagoon

9 Al-Hassa Emran 22100 13320 Lagoon

10 Al-Hassa Hufuf-Mubarraz 136780 29500 Lagoon

11 Khafji Khafji 5190 25000 Gulf

12 Jeddah Al-Khorma 66000 36000 Red Sea

13 Jeddah Plant C 63000 40000 L I + Lagoon

14 Jeddah Plant A 55000 32000 Red Sea + L I

15 Jeddah Bani Malik 6500 8000 L I

16 Jeddah Al-Jamia 7000 8000 The Red Sea + L I

17 Jeddah Al-Khorma III 20000 30000 Red Sea + L I

18 Jeddah Al-Iskan 3500 3000

19 Makkah Old 65000 24000 Wadi + A I

20 Makkah New 50000

21 Riyadh Al-Hayer Old 200000 200000 Wadi + A I +Refinery

22 Riyadh Al-Hayer New 200000 200000 Wadi + A I +Refinery

23 Riyadh Refinery 13500 20000

24 KSU KSU 8000 8000 L I + Cooling

25 Riyadh Diplomatic Quarter 9500 9300 L I

26 Dammam Dammam 140000 208000 Gulf + L I

27 Al-Khobar Al-Khobar 100000 133000 Gulf

28 Madinah New 100000 120000 Wadi + L I + A I

29 Safwa Safwa 8600 7570 Gulf

30 Khamis-Mushait Al-Dhoba 10000 7500 Wadi + L I + A I

31 Abha Abha 11500 9000 Wadi

32 Taif Taif 34000 67000 L I + A I

33 Jubail Jubail Industrial 38630 12500 A I

34 Saihat Saihat 15717

35 Aramco* Aramco 66000 66000 A I + Sea

Total 1459670 1553672

Note:* Aramco operates total nine plants at different locations, L I: Landscape Irrigation, A I:

Agriculture Irrigation. The table was generated using data from Chowdhury et al., 2013.

However, treatment criteria are another issue in this respect. For instances,

Abderrehman estimated that treated wastewater accounts were 110 MCM in 1990,

185 MCM in 1992 and 185 MCM in 199767

.

67



Development , 16 (4), 465-473.


155 | P a g e

Pipelines for Water Transport

Table 3.11: Total Length of Pipelines and Water Reservoirs in 2015

Project Name Length of Pipeline (km) Reservoirs

Numbers Capacity (TCM)

Jubail-Riyadh 932.0 18 3300.0

Jubail-Riyadh III 375.0 6 300.0

Riyadh Feeding 132.5

Riyadh-Qassim 884.8 17 520.0

Shuaiba-Taif 388.4 12 860.0

Shuaiba-Jeddah 353.3 7 900.0

Yenbu-Medina I 226.0 2 40.0

Yenbu-Medina II 371.6 22 1256.0

Brotherly I 215.0 4 178.0

Khobar-Ras Tanura 101.9 60 0.6

Khobar-Safwa 125.3 10 2000.0

News Station-Hufuf 135.0 2 45.0

Jubail-Royal Commission 87.6 9 0.4

Khafji 10.0 2 0.1

Qunfudah 64.0 4 4.0

Rabigh 130.0 6 18.0

Laith 6.0 2 9.0

Knights 2.0 1 9.0

Buraidah feeding 14.5

Total 4554.9 184 9440.1

Pipelines Under Construction

Brotherly II 829.0 58 565.0

Ras-AlKhair-Riyadh 914.1 13 2000.0

Ras-AlKhair-Hafar-AlBatin 354.3 11 126.0

Taif-Baha 227.4 8 316.5

News Station* 43.0

Ballit 97.7 6 8.0

Yenbu-Medina 604.7 16 1145.5

Total 3070.2 112 4161.0

Source: SWCC, 201568

; Note: * represent the supply of gas through the pipeline for

desalination process.

In 2004, Elhadj accounted approximately 475 MCM wastewater treatments at

secondary and tertiary level69

while FAO estimates support 547.5 MCM wastewater

68

SWCC. (2015). General Organization of Water Desalinization. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia:

Saline Water Conversion Corporation. Retrieved from http://www.swcc.gov.sa/print

.asp?pid=155 and http://www.swcc.gov.sa/print.asp?pid=69 69

Elhadj, E. (2004). Camels Don’t Fly, Deserts Don’t Bloom: an Assessment of Saudi

Arabia’s Experiment in Desert Agriculture. Occasional Paper No. 48, Water Issues Study

Group, School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS)/King’s College London , 1-38.

http://www.swcc.gov.sa/print%20.asp?pid=155

http://www.swcc.gov.sa/print%20.asp?pid=155

http://www.swcc.gov.sa/print.asp?pid=69


156 | P a g e

treatments in 200270

. Again, in the year of 2010, FAO shows one BCM treated

wastewater71

; it is just doubled and much higher as compared to its previous

estimates. While Ministry of Economy and Planning72

are estimated, 730 MCM

treated wastewater in 2010. However, the Kingdom heavily relies on groundwater

resources but wastewater has good potential to develop as a future option for water

supply. It might fulfil half of the domestic water need if properly manage and

distilled in an efficient way. In addition, there are almost 45 hundred km pipelines

constructed for water distribution while 30 hundred km pipeline were under

construction (Table 3.11).

70


Organization. 71

FAO, AQUASTAT, 2010, Saudi Arabia, FAO Water report, 34, Rome. Retrieved from:

http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/data/query/results.html 72

MOP. (2010). Ninth Development Plan 2010-2014. Riyadh, Saudi Arabia: Ministry of

Planning.


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