Chapter 3: Reviewing Paragraph Essentials From this chapter, youll learn how to identify the key...

Chapter 3: Reviewing Paragraph EssentialsChapter 3: Reviewing Paragraph EssentialsFrom this chapter, you’ll learn how to• identify the key elements of paragraph• use repetition and reference in a paragraph

to figure out which words are central to the author’s message.

• paraphrase topic sentences that sum up, in general terms, the overall main idea, or point, of the paragraph.

Copyright © 2012 Laraine Flemming


Key Term: TopicKey Term: Topic

The topic of a paragraph • is the subject under discussion.• answers the question: What person, place, event, or

thing is the author discussing?• is the starting point for figuring out the reading’s main

idea, or central thought.• is repeated or referred to throughout

the paragraph.• does not appear once and disappear; there are references

to it throughout the paragraph.• can be expressed in single words or phrases.

e.g., Wikileaks, faking Facebook profiles, bird flu vaccines, tax revolts, and cross word puzzles

Spot Quiz: Identifying the TopicSpot Quiz: Identifying the Topic

Based on the previous list of topic characteristics, what would you say is the topic of the following paragraph

1Throughout their lives, human beings are bound to undergo periods of psychological crisis.2 However, according to Erik Erikson’s theory of psychological development, the threat of death brings about the most profound form of psychological crisis. 3The threat or possibility of death causes people to evaluate their lives and accomplishments and affirm them as meaningful (leading to a feeling of integrity) or meaningless (leading to a feeling of despair).4 They also tend to become more philosophical and reflective, attempting to put their lives into perspective. 5They reminisce, resolve past conflicts, and integrate past events. 6They may also become more interested in the religious and spiritual side of life. 7This “life review” may trigger anxiety, regret, guilt, and despair, or it may allow people to face their own death and the deaths of friends and relatives with a feeling of peace and acceptance. (Adapted from Douglas A. Bernstein et al., Psychology. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1997, p. 425.)


What’s the Best Answer?What’s the Best Answer?

a) Erik Eriksonb) psychological crisisc) threat of deathd) theories of psychological developmente) life review before death


Explaining the correct answerExplaining the correct answer

If you chose c, you were right on target. The “threat of death” is the only subject that appears throughout the paragraph. In fact, after sentence 2, it is mentioned or referred to in every sentence. Sentence 3 repeats the word but sentences 4 through 7 all imply, or suggest, it. When you have a chain of repetition and reference attached to a word or phrase, you know it’s important. In this case, the numerous references to the “threat of death” identify it as the topic and a key element of the main idea, which is the term up next.


Key Term: Main IdeaKey Term: Main IdeaThe main idea

• is the underlying thought that generally sums up the point or message of a paragraph.

• can be stated or implied by the paragraph.

• answers the question: What does the author want to say about the topic?

• includes the topic and a general comment about the topic.

• is developed, explained, or proven by almost all the sentences in the paragraph.

• has to be expressed in a sentence, rather than single words or phrases.


Spot Quiz: What’s the main idea of the following paragraph?Spot Quiz: What’s the main idea of the following paragraph?

• 1Otitis externa, also called swimmer’s ear, is an inflammation of the external ear canal. 2This disease commonly affects swimmers who spend many hours in the water. 3Other causes include trauma to the ear canal and swimming in contaminated water. 4 Often the condition is due to bacterial or fungal infection. 5Wearing headphones also makes a favorable environment for the growth of microorganisms. 6Symptoms of otitis externa include an inflamed ear canal with extreme pain, fever, pruritis ( intense itching), and hearing loss. 7The ear may also drain clear or pus-filled fluid. 8Diagnosis is made on the basis of examination.



What’s the Best Answer?What’s the Best Answer?

a) Otitis externa commonly affects swimmers.

b) Otitis externa typically afflicts people who wear ear phones a lot.

c) An inflamed ear canal, fever, and intense itching are the main symptoms of otitis externa.

d) An inflammation of the external ear canal is called otitis externa, also known as swimmer’s ear.

Key Term: Topic SentencesKey Term: Topic SentencesThe topic sentence• mentions or refers to the topic and comments on it.

• expresses the main idea in words chosen by the author.• sums up the point of the paragraph in a complete sentence.• is used by the author to give the reader a direct statement of

the paragraph’s point.• usually appears at the beginning rather than the end of a

paragraph but can appear anywhere. • is explained or made convincing by most of the other

sentences in the paragraph.• can be turned into a question that can be answered by other

sentences in the paragraph.Copyright © 2012 Laraine Flemming

Spot Quiz: Which Sentence is the Topic Sentence? Sentence 1, 2, or 3?Spot Quiz: Which Sentence is the Topic Sentence? Sentence 1, 2, or 3?

• It’s sad but true that D.W. Griffith’s Birth of a Nation helped revive what had been a dying Ku Klux Klan (KKK). Still, Griffith’s film alone was not what brought the Klan back to life. Like other, more respectable organizations of the time, the KKK had learned that public relations techniques could improve its image. In 1920, the Klan signed a contract with a public relations firm, the Southern Publicity Association. The contract guaranteed Southern Publicity a healthy percentage of all new membership fees. Inspired by the lure of fat commissions, Southern Publicity’s sales force fanned out across the country promoting Klan membership. Within a year, membership had practically doubled. But it wasn’t just the commission-hungry sales force that did the trick. In an effort to give its image a positive spin, the Klan distributed newsletters, staged pageants, and sold custom-made sheets. This continued until 1944, when the government sued the Klan for back taxes. As a result, the organization was forced to go underground and had to give up on polishing its public image. From that point on, publicity was the last thing the Klan wanted.


Analyzing the AnswerAnalyzing the AnswerIf you guessed sentence 3, you were correct. Sentence 3• appears at the beginning of the paragraph. • is one of the most general sentences in the paragraph.• could be used to sum up, in general, the message of the

entire paragraph.• is developed by the remaining sentences in the paragraph.• could be turned into a question—What public relations

techniques did the KKK use to improve its image?—that the remaining sentences answer.


What Do You Think? The Ku Klux Klan is still in existence today and some people think it should be declared a terrorist organization with members treated as terrorists. What are your thoughts on that idea?

What Do You Think? The Ku Klux Klan is still in existence today and some people think it should be declared a terrorist organization with members treated as terrorists. What are your thoughts on that idea?


A Word to the Wise

Notice that the topic sentence was not the first sentence in theparagraph about the Klan. While some textbook authors make it a point to introduce the topic sentence right off, for instance, in business texts, this is not true for all textbook writers. So don’t fall into the trap of reading the first sentence and automatically expecting the rest of the paragraph to follow up on it. The rest of the paragraph might not fulfill those expectations. And then again it might. What do you say about the paragraph that follows, is the first sentence the topic sentence or not?


There’s one common element in shark attacks: They almost always attack silently, without warning. However, they don’t always strike in the exact same way. On the contrary, marine biologists have identified three different ways that sharks mount an attack: the hit-and-run, the bump-and-bite and the coincidence attack. The hit-and-run is the most common. The shark may see the sole of a swimmer's foot, think it's a fish and take a bite before realizing this isn't its usual prey. It swims away, leaving the bleeding victim in need of stitches. The bump-and-bite is far more serious. Last year Chuck Anderson was training for a triathlon off Gulf Shores, Ala., when he was bumped by a bull shark, testing whether he was a worthy target of prey. It decided that he was and then repeatedly attacked Anderson, who lost an arm. There's also the coincidence attack. The shark is on the lookout for prey; it is the right time to feed, and a target just happens on the scene. At that point, the shark sees an opportunity and moves in, quite literally, for the kill. Adapted from http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1000420,00.html#ixzz17j7wAsqW

Spot Quiz: What’s Your Guess? Is the First Sentence the Topic Sentence?Spot Quiz: What’s Your Guess? Is the First Sentence the Topic Sentence?


Signs of the Topic SentenceSigns of the Topic Sentence

The topic sentence of the paragraph is sentence 3 because

• it’s one of the most general sentences in the paragraph.

• it can be used to sum up the general point of the paragraph.

• it is developed by the rest of the sentences in the paragraph.

• if you turned sentence 3 into a question, the rest of the sentences would answer that question.

• it appears at the beginning of the paragraph.Copyright © 2012 Laraine Flemming

Now what about this paragraph?Now what about this paragraph?• Were a narcissism epidemic truly striking the United States,

as is so often claimed, we ought to be seeing signs of it, but we're not. Violence among young people is at the lowest levels since the late 1960s. Rates of teen pregnancy, substance abuse, smoking, and dropping out of high school are all down as well. According to the National Center for Education Statistics, more high-school students are taking difficult courses like calculus and advanced science. According to national statistics, achievement in reading and math among schoolchildren has either remained stable or improved in recent years (and that is on standardized exams, so grade inflation is not the issue). And, as far as selfishness goes, evidence suggests that young people are engaged in community service and other civic activities more than before. Adapted from Christopher J. Ferguson, Chronicle of Higher Ed, April 2010


Signs of the Topic SentenceSigns of the Topic SentenceThe topic sentence of the paragraph is sentence 1 because• it’s one of the most general sentences in the

paragraph.• it can be used to sum up the general point of the

paragraph.• it is developed by the rest of the sentences in the

paragraph.• if you turned sentence 3 into a question, the rest of

the sentences would answer that question.• it appears at the beginning of the paragraph.


A Word to the WiseA Word to the Wise

When you start to read, pay close attention to whether or not the second sentence fulfills the promise of the first. If the first sentence sets up expectations not met by the second, then the chances are very good that the topic sentence is not the first sentence.


For an illustration, compare the opening sentences of the two sample paragraphs.For an illustration, compare the opening sentences of the two sample paragraphs.• There’s one common element in shark attacks: They almost always attack

silently, without warning. However, they don’t always strike in the exact same way. On the contrary, marine biologists have identified three different ways that sharks mount an attack: the hit-and-run, the bump-and-bite and the coincidence attack. The hit-and-run is the most common.

In the above paragraph, sentence 2 doesn’t continue the point of sentence 1. Opening with the transitional word “however “ it introduces a new idea, which right away suggests that the topic sentence is not the first sentence of the paragraph.

• Were a narcissism epidemic truly striking the United States, as is so often claimed, we ought to be seeing signs of it, but we're not. Violence among young people is at the lowest levels since the late 1960s.

In the above paragraph, the second sentence offers proof of the first, which right away should suggest that the first sentence is the topic sentence.


Key Term: TransitionKey Term: TransitionTransitions• are words, phrases, or sentences announcing or signaling the direction a

writer’s thought will take in the sentences that follow.• can signal addition, modification, reversal, concession (I agree in part but

still differ on this key point), similarity, and consequence. • frequently appear at the beginnings of sentences although they don’t

have to be the first word in the sentence.• can take many different forms.• can be standard words and phrases like however, similarly, and in

contrast.• can also be created by the author i.e. Transitions are verbal bridges that

can take a traditional form or be invented to suit the material.


Spot Quiz: Where’s the Transitional Sentence in this paragraph?Spot Quiz: Where’s the Transitional Sentence in this paragraph?

1While Alexander the Great is normally viewed as a hero of Greek civilization, some modern historians consider him to be a murderous tyrant, in the same category with Adolf Hitler.2 But this comparison seems extreme. 3Likening Alexander to Hitler ignores fundamental differences between the two leaders.4 Alexander desired to explore the world, and while he fought to assert his dominance over other cultures, he never attempted mass murder as Hitler did.5 Alexander was also content to leave a city or town essentially untouched as long as residents acknowledged him to be king.6 Hitler was incapable of such political flexibility.7 Whereas Hitler’s lust for conquest and discovery matched Alexander’s, his energies were turned toward a horrifying dream of “racial purification.” 8Although both men sought to bring the known world under their iron rule, Alexander maintained a moral standard—even in pitched battle—that Adolf Hitler could never have grasped.


Key Term: Supporting DetailsKey Term: Supporting Details

Supporting Details• are more specific sentences that provide examples, reasons,

or other evidence that makes the main idea clear and convincing.

• answer questions raised by the topic sentence.• are dependent upon the main idea expressed in the topic

sentence.• are the basis for main ideas that are implied, or suggested, by

the author but not directly stated.• can be major or minor. Major details directly explain or prove

the main idea. Minor details further develop major ones.


Spot Quiz: Topic Sentence, Supporting Details and Transitional SentencesSpot Quiz: Topic Sentence, Supporting Details and Transitional Sentences

Which sentence is the topic sentence? What questions about the topic sentence do the supporting details answer? And while you are at it, do you see a transitional sentence anywhere?

• 1Although various cultures throughout history have adorned themselves with body piercings, Americans never seemed especially interested in piercing their body parts. 2Times have changed, however. 3Today, many Americans are piercing any number of different body parts. 4Men and women, for instance, now commonly pierce their ears once or even multiple times. 5Wearing jewelry on pierced areas of the face, including the nose, the eyebrow, the lip, and the tongue, also became very fashionable among the young in the 1990s, although that trend has declined over time. 6With clothing styles that feature a bare midriff, many young women are now also likely to pierce their navels. 7Some of the bravest of today’s trendsetters, male and female alike, have even gone so far as to pierce their nipples. (Source of information: “Body Piercing,” Wikipedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/Body_piercing )


http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_piercing

Two Words to the WiseTwo Words to the Wise

1. If you want to test your comprehension and remember what you’ve read, try jotting main ideas of key paragraphs into the margins of your textbook. If the main idea is expressed in a topic sentence, make sure you paraphrase it. Whatever you do, don’t just copy the topic sentence.

2. When we copy someone else’s words, there’s no guarantee that we know what they mean. It’s only by translating someone else’s ideas into our own words that we can be sure we have understood them. With that in mind, here are some pointers on paraphrasing.


7 Pointers on Paraphrasing Topic Sentences7 Pointers on Paraphrasing Topic Sentences

1. Start by mentally breaking the topic sentence into its basic parts, the topic and the author’s comment on the topic.

2. Paraphrase in phrases rather than individual words. Turn, for instance, “When the war came to an end” into “After the war was over.”

3. Eliminate any unnecessary words that aren’t essential to expressing either the topic or the author’s comment on the topic.

4. Change the word order. Sometimes that will get you on the right track. Compare for instance the following original with the paraphrase. Original: W.H. Auden's best-known poem, "September 1, 1939," was written the day that Germany invaded Poland and launched World War II.” Paraphrase: On the day that Germany invaded Poland and launched world War II, the poet W. H Auden completed his most famous work, “September 1, 1939.”


7 Pointers on Paraphrasing Topic Sentences

7 Pointers on Paraphrasing Topic Sentences

5. Divide one sentence into two. If the topic sentence reads like this, “Twitter is a free social networking and micro-blogging service that enables its users to send and read other users’ updates known as tweets” you are free to paraphrase it like this: “Twitter is a free social networking and micro-blogging service. Its members send out updates—called “tweets”—which everyone in the network can read.”

6. Don’t struggle to paraphrase technical words or specialized names of people, objects and activities. For instance, if the passage is about the Kachina dolls created by the Hopi Indians, you probably don’t know a word to stand in for Kachina dolls so stick with Kachina dolls.

7. Keep in mind that paraphrases for your notes don’t fall into the same category as those written for papers. Paraphrases for your personal reading notes need not be complete, unbiased or grammatically correct.


A Very Important Word to the WiseA Very Important Word to the Wise

The most important rule for paraphrasing is this: Change the words, not the meaning. That’s a rule you need to stick to, particularly when you are paraphrasing for a term paper.

• If this is the original— “Facebook has more power in determining who can speak and who can be heard around the globe than any Supreme Court justice, any king or any president”– this cannot be the paraphrase: “Facebook has every right to decide who can speak out and who can be heard around the globe.”

•There’s a distinct difference in meaning between the original and the paraphrase with the first sentence (the original) describing the situation and the second sentence (the paraphrase) evaluating it.


Paraphrasing for Reading/Paraphrasing for WritingParaphrasing for Reading/Paraphrasing for Writing

Original: The Return of the Daughters, the documentary made by sisters Anna Sophia and Elizabeth Botkin, chronicles the lives of young women who have dedicated themselves to serving their husbands and their fathers, viewing any professional ambitions or desires for independence as the source of sin.

Paraphrasing for a Term Paper: The documentary, Return of the Daughters, made by two sisters, Anna Sophia and Elizabeth Botkin, follows the lives of young women who have given up the idea of professional achievement or personal independence in favor of complete obedience to their fathers and husbands.

Paraphrasing for Reading Notes: Documentary Return of the Daughters, made by Botkin sisters, shows women choosing to live under the thumb of husbands and fathers. See independence as sinful.


Spot Quiz: Picking the Best ParaphraseSpot Quiz: Picking the Best Paraphrase

Here’s the original statement: In an experiment published three years ago, memory researcher Elizabeth Loftus demonstrated that altering photos of political protests in Italy and China influenced how the protests were remembered, with people remembering incidents that never took place because they had seen the incidents in faked photos.

Now pick the best paraphrase among four choices and be prepared to explain why the wrong answers are wrong. Be prepared as well to explain why your answer is correct.


Picking the Best ParaphrasePicking the Best Paraphrasea. In an experiment published three years ago, researcher Elizabeth Loftus shows

that altering photos of political protests in Italy and China affected how the protests were remembered, and people remembered incidents that never took place because they had looked at the incidents in fake photos.

b. Memory researcher Elizabeth Loftus carried out an experiment three years ago in which she showed subjects doctored photos of political protests in China and Italy. Her study showed that people’s memories of the protests were influenced by their having seen the faked photos. They tended, that is, to remember the faked incidents from the photos.

c. Memory researcher Elizabeth Loftus has proven what many people have long suspected—that our memory cannot be trusted to correctly remember past events. We are influenced by what we see and hear about events after they occur and that profoundly distorts our memories of the events.


Final Wrap: Reviewing Paragraph EssentialsFinal Wrap: Reviewing Paragraph Essentials

1. True or False. The topic of the paragraph has to be introduced in the opening sentence.

2. You can tell what words in a paragraph are important by searching out _____________________.

3. True or False. The topic of the paragraph has to be expressed in a single word.4. The topic is the starting point for the discovery of ____________.

5. What’s the value of the following question: “What does the author want to say about the topic?”

6. True of False. The topic sentence is one of the more specific sentences in the paragraph.

7. True or False. The topic sentence is always the first or second sentence in the paragraph.

8. This phrase at the beginning of a sentence “At the start of the conflict” is an example of a __________________.


Final Wrap: Reviewing Paragraph Essentials

Final Wrap: Reviewing Paragraph Essentials

9. The key rule of paraphrasing is ________________________.10. True or False. The best way to paraphrase is word by word.


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