vi

CHAPTER 3

Review of Related Literature

CHAPTER: 3

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

INTRODUCTION

Past knowledge is necessary for building of new ideas. Hence, the review

of literature of recognized authority and of previous research provides the

researcher excellent overview of the work that has been done in the fields and

help the researcher to eliminate the duplicate of what was already done and

guides the proper direction of new investigation and to formulate approximate

methods of research.

Review of literature is necessary for any research work because it helps us

to know what sources are available in the field of enquiry. The researcher find

out which of them she is likely to use and where and how to find them. In the

field of education, also the research worker need to acquire up-to-date

information about what has been thought and done in the particular area from

which she intends to take up a problem of Research.

The review also helps the researcher to find out the gap of the researches

which have been carried out in the field. Further it helps to formulate the present

research and of its process and methodology.

The present study has been made and the related studies in this area are

examined to make the foundation of the present study. It helps to develop the

appropriate research methodologies and techniques for carrying out the present

research. It is also a background and context of the research and the operational

explanation of the concept and ideas on the basis of which the work is carried to

make the foundation of the present study.

Review of the Study

The researcher in this present study has carried out the review work in a

very intensive way, where the literature has been classified into books, journals,

monographs and research studies related to Modernism and postmodernism in

relation to philosophy and education in India and abroad. This has helped the

researcher to develop the appropriate research methodology for the present study.

The review has been carried out basically on the primary and secondary

58

resources, specially the study conducted in India are available in research reports

edited by M.B. Buch. specially in First, Second. Third and Fourth Research

Survey in Education. The review has been presented in the following way

Review of the books of Western Philosophers

Madan Sarup in his book "An Introductory Guide to Post-

structuralism and Postmodernism" has revised his accessible and popular

introduction to poststructuralist and postmodern theory. A new introductory

section discusses the meaning of concepts such as modernity, postmodernity.

modernization, modernism and postmodernism. A section on feminist criticism

of Lacan and Foucault has been added together with a new chapter on French

feminist theory focusing on the work of Helene Gious, Luce higaray and Julia

Kristeva. The chapter on postmodernism has been significantly expanded to

include a discussion of Lyotard on language games and on the 'sublime'; it ends

with a discussion of the relationship between feminism and postmodernism. A

further chapter has been added on the work of Jean Baudrillard. a cult-figure on

the current postmodernist sense, whose ideas have attained a wide currency. The

chapter includes a new section on some postmodern cultural practices such as

architecture. TV. video and film. In tracing the impact of poststructuralist thought

not only on literary criticism and on such disciplines as philosophy, politics,

psychoanalysis, the social sciences and art.

Barry, Smart in his book "Post-modernity" discusses a short and

authoritative critical introduction to one of the most talked about and most

misunderstood concepts of current times. Barry Smart provides a clear and

readable discussions for students which also manages to be a shrewd and

stimulating contribution to the debate about modernity and post-modernity.

Rigorous and perceptive, it will be essential reading for all those interested in the

concept of post-modernity. Barry Smart is Associated Professor of Sociology at

the University of Auckland, New Zealand. However, this book is very useful to

understand the key ideas of post-modernity from other aspect. Here

postmodernity is discussed from sociological perspective, and modern reason and

post modern imagination. This book is lacking the key concept of growth and

development of postmodernism from the period of modernism.

59

Dave Hill, Peter McLaren, Mike Cole and Glenn Rikowski, edited

"Postmodernism in Educational Theory: Education and the Politics of

Human Resistance", provides a broad description of postmodernism and

education. This booi< incorporates two major tliemes: tiie appraisal and critique of

postmodernism within educational theory; and the explication of Marxist and

socialist-feminist alternatives to postmodernism which highlight human

resistance to capital and its associated forms of inequality. With respect to

education and training, the focus is fourfold: first, there is an emphasis on the

degeneration of educational theory through the 'postmodern turn' (and the effects

for educational politics, policy and perspectives); second, attention is given to the

ways capitalist education and training are implicated in the social production of

labour-power, the living commodity on which the whole capitalist system rests:

third, a range of educational inequalities are analysed and theorised, and various

implications for the struggle for equality within education are drawn out; finally,

and most importantly, the subversive, critical and emancipatory aspects of

education are explored, with an emphasis on critical, revolutionary and

contraband pedagogies—pedagogies that run against the grain of capitalist

educational and social life."'

Kearney, Richard in his book "Routledge History of Philosophy

Volume Vin, Twentieth Century Continental Philosophy", provides a

chronological survey of the history of Western philosophy from its beginnings in

the sixth century B.C. to the present time. It discusses all major philosophical

developments in depth. Most space is allocated to those individuals who, by

common consent are regarded as great philosophers. But lesser figures have not

been neglected and together the ten volume of the History include basic and

critical information about every significant philosophy of the past and present.

These philosophers are clearly situated within the cultural and in particular the

scientific context of their time.

Woods, Tim, "Beginning Postmodernism", itself the name indicates, this

book is for beginner 'Postmodernism' has become the buzzword of contemporary

society in the 1990s, yet it remains confusing and buffing in its variety of

definition, contexts and associations. Beginning postmodernism aims to offer

60

clear, accessible a step by step introduction to postmodernism across a wide range

of subjects. It encourages readers to explore how the debates about

postmodernisms have emerged from basic philosophical and cultural ideas and to

develop a comparative connections and ideas from one area to another. With its

emphasis firmly on 'postmodernism in practice', the book contains exercises and

questions designed to help readers understand and reflect upon a variety of

positions within the following areas of contemporary culture, philosophy and

cultural theory, architecture and concepts of space, visual arts, etc. The researcher

found only one difficulty in this book that is there is not any precise and clear

description about the philosophers of postmodern age and their significant

contribution to this field.'

Cooper, David E. in his Book 'World Philosophies' a historical

introduction, provides a brief description from ancient philosophy to

postmodernism. This book is the most authoritative and up-to-date volume

introduction to the history of Eastern and Western philosophy. These

philosophical systems are viewed as attempts, above all, to provide integrated

accounts of the place of human beings within the wider order of things and to

determine in the light of these philosophies the proper conduct of human life.

Both clear and comprehensive, world philosophies examines Vedanta,

Confucianism, Taoism, Platonism, Tolamic, Marxism, Positivism, Pragmatism,

Phenomenology, Hermenutics, Existentialism, Naturalism, and Analytic and

Continental philosophies amongst others. The final chapters discusses recent

development such as feminist and postmodernism philosophies and responses in

the developing world to Western thought. One of the major drawback that the

researcher have found is the sections on African, Islamic and Japanese thought

are essentially detail, cooper weaves a fascinating date of how philosophers

throughout the ages have attempted to demonstrate how human beings are at

home, or fail to be at home, in the universe.'

Stocker, Barry in his book, "Derrida on Deconstruction", Reviewed by

Simon Lumsden, provides the extraordinary complexity of Derrida's thought, his

style and the nature of his philosophical project makes writing an introductory

guidebook to his thought exceptionally challenging. The Routledge Philosophy

61

Guidebooks series sets itself the task of providing clearly written introductory

works that try to minimise the use of technical language, making them as

accessible as possible to an advanced undergraduate audience. Authors (and the

editors no doubt) also want those works to be able to stand in their respective

fields as works that make a genuine contribution to scholarship. This is a very

difficult balancing act. Some of the works in this series, notably Sebastian

Gardner's Kant and the Critique of Pure Reason and Genevieve Lloyd's Spinoza

and the Ethics offer distinctive readings of these philosophers that are models of

clarity, readability and rigorous scholarship while also being genuinely

introductory works. Stocker's introduction to Derrida focuses much less than

these works on being a substantive contribution to Derrida scholarship and

largely aims to be an introductory work. Given the extraordinarily diverse,

prolific and difficult nature of Derrida's texts, any work that clearly and

straightforwardly introduces his ideas, his criticisms of the philosophical tradition

and some of the key influences on his thought would be a substantial

achievement. There are few works in English on Derrida that achieve this.

Derrida on Deconstruction is a welcome attempt to present Derrida's thought

clearly and systematically.^

Review of Comparison and Case Study of Indian and Western Philosophers'

Contribution to the Field of Education.:

Kuzhandavelu, K., (1965) conducted a case study of the Educational

Philosophies of John Dewey and Mahatma Gandhi, with the following

assumptions of the thesis was that a comparative study of Gandhi's philosophy

with a well-tried, well formulated and well-accepted philosophy of education like

that of .lohn Dewey might through on the former and might help to understand it

better. Comparisons were made between the two philosophies of education

concerning (i) Changing the old order,(ii) educational experimentation, (iii)

education through activity,(iv) School as a miniature, and (v) education to build

up a democratic society, and in that context, the role of teacher, curriculum,

discipline and higher education. The method adopted for the study, was primarily

library research but experience survey and trends analysis were also party used.

The following were some of the salient conclusions from the study.

62

1. Dewey's laboratory school was a model school which drew attention of

many educators and popularized his ideas whereas Gandhi's scheme had no such

model school.

2. A good number of literatures on Basic education were very much wanting.

The Psychological and pedagogical aspects of basic education should be given

more emphasis. Research and experimentation should find an important place in

Basic education.^

Mathew, A.V. (1944) conducted a comparative study of Freud, Adier,

Jung from the, stand-point of Education, with the following objectives- to make

a comparative study of the views and findings of Freud, Adler and Jung regarding

the nature and working of the unconscious with special reference to those aspects

of the study which are important from the stand-point of education. The views of

the three psychologists were collected from the English translations of their

works and from the writings of their prominent followers.^

Minocha, S. (1979) conducted a comparative study of Naturalism in

Education as conceptualized by Rousseau and Tagore. The main objective of

the study were: (I) to highlight the main features of the naturalistic philosophy of

education of .len .Jacques Rousseau, (ii) To delineate the salient characteristics of

the naturalistic philosophy of education of Tagore, and (iii) to compare the

philosophical expositions of Rousseau and Tagore on the basis of common

elements as well as divergent views in the educational philosophy of these two

thinkers. The study was of comparative in nature. The major conclusions of the

study were: (1) Rousseau was the foremost exponent of naturalism in education.

For him the inclusive and ultimate aim of education and good life was the natural

development of the primitive propensities of the internal, (2) It seemed likely that

Tagore was influenced by the naturalistic philosophy of Rousseau and

Wordsworth, though he did not borrow anything from them. His own poetic

disposition inspired him to evolve an original philosophy of nature, (iii) Tagore

was conscious of imparting education to women whereas Rousseau confined

them to the learning of domestic chores and the care of husband and children

only.'«

63

Kaur, Ravinder Jeet (1992) conducted a comparative study of the

educational philosophy of Sri Aurobindo and IMahatma Gandhi and their

relevance to the modern educational system with the following objectives - (i)

to study the general philosophies of Sri Aurobindo and Mahatma Gandhi, (ii) to

compare the philosophies of Sri Aurobindo and Mahatma Gandhi in respect of

metaphysics, epistemology, axiology, logic and aesthetics, (iii) to compare the

educational philosophies of Sri Aurobindo and Mahatma Gandhi in respect of

aims, curriculum, and methods of teaching. Major findings are (i) both Sri

Aurobindo and Mahatma Gandhi aimed at all round development of the

individual, (ii) both stressed life long education and self realization as the highest

aims of education, (iii) both emphaised that the society and education should help

him the transformation of man."

Shankar, Hari (1991) conduced a comparative study of philosophical

and educational views of Maharashi Aurobindo and Rousseau. The main

objectives were (i) to study the nature of mind, yoga and divine life with

reference to the philosophy of Aurobindo, (ii) to explain the nature of .leeva,

Jagat and Brahma by classifying the philosophical views of Auribindo, (iii) to

express the social and political views of Aurobindo and Rousseau. Critical study

and analysis of relevant literature had used. Major findings were - (i) according

to Aurobindo - (i) the ultimate aim of life is to full spiritualistic consciousness

for development of the personality, (ii) scientific researches done in any of the

countries should be adopted by all.

Sharma, Uma Rani (1989) conducted a comparative study of the

educational ideas of Sarvapalli Radhakirshnan and Bertrand Russell. Major

objective were (i) to study the educational ideas of Radhakirshnan and Bertrand

Russell, and (ii) to compare the educational ideas of both the philosophers. Major

findings - (i) the aims of school education for Bertrand Russell were to help the

pupil to reveal the mysteries of nature; use his leisure widely, (ii) Radhakrishnan

emphaised moral and spiritual training etc.

Singh, Vidya (1992) conducted a comparative study of idealism in

education as perceived by Plato and Sir Ma. Major objectives (i) to study the

concept of idealism as given by Plato, (ii) to study the concept of idealism as

64

given by Sri Ma, and (ill) to make a comparative study of idealism in education

as given by Plato and Sri Ma. Major findings - (i) idealism believes that there is a

divine power behind all good things in the world, (ii) according to idealism, the

aim of education is to enable everybody to develop to the highest, (iii) the

educative process must help the growth and development of the child in a free

atmosphere etc.'"*

Tewari, Rakesh Chandra (1991) did his study on Educational

implications of Buddhistic Philosophy. Objectives (i) to study the metaphysics,

epistemology and axiology of the Buddhist philosophy, (ii) to being out

implications of the Buddhist philosophy for educational objectives, curriculum

and teaching methods, (iii) to give precise description of some important centres

of Buddhist education. Using historical method, the primary and secondary

sources of information were used. Major findings - (i) the four noble truths are -

(a) there is suffering, (b) there is a cause of suffering, (c) there is cessation of

suffering, (c) if the cause of dukh (suffering) is removed, there would be

cessation of suffering, etc.''''

Rema, M. (1993) a comparative study of the Educational Thoughts of

Swami Vivekananda and Mahatma Gandhi. The study was an attempt to analyse

and compare the educational thoughts of Vivekananda and Gandhi with reference

to educational aims, curriculum, methods and role of the teacher. There have

been several earlier studies done on these two thinkers, individually and in a

comparative frame. As it is the study is simply repetitive.""

Bharathy, D. Vijaya (1999) conducted a comparative study of the

educational philosophies of Swamy Vivekananda and John Dewey. The

objectives of the study are - to analyze and compare the educational philosophies

of Vivekananda and Dewey with reference to philosophy of life, concept and

aims of education, methods of teaching and learning, etc. The major outcomes of

the study are - the two philosophies are most relevant to present day

requirements. Vivekananda's vision of life is a blend of oriental and western

culture, spiritual and material values,, science and Vedanta, where as Dewey's

pragmatic philosophy based on experimentalism, science and democracy are the

most suitable components of our education.

65

Dutta, T.S., (1978), A Study of the philosophy of Vivckananda with

reference to Advaita-Vedanta and Great Universal Heart of Buddha. The

aims of the study were to highlight the philosophy of Vivekananda with reference

to Advaita-Vedanta of Sankara and Buddhism of Lord Buddha. The findings

were as such Swami Vivekananda stood for expansion, growth, progress and all-

round perfection. Swami Vivekananda was a future man.'"

Jabbar, Z. K., (1976) A Critical Study of Educational Implication of

Existentialism. His main objectives were that to analyze the main philosophical

ideas of existentialism and to discuss the aims of education, method, contents and

relationship between the teacher and the taught in existentialist schools and

universities. His conclusions are that Existentialism is the philosophy of the

present day man. Existential knowledge is a direct outcome of man's interaction

with his world of experience.'

Kadiyal, R.A., (1980) conducted a study of the Contribution of

Karmaveer Dr. Bhauro Patil to the Educational Thoughts, Practices and

Development of Education in the State of Maharashtra. His main objectives

were to study critically Karmaveer Dr. Bhaura Patil's work of comprehensive

nature, and (ii) to assess his work in the light of the thoughts generated and the

practices developed by him through his institutions 312 schools, 26 colleges and

68 anicillary institutions. He had followed the following methods- the case study

approach was followed. The case study presented a synthesis of biographical,

historical and descriptive approach in the life of unit in the past. The major

findings are (i) the education of the masses was the first condition for

emancipation from foreign yoke and for the unity of India, (ii) Education should

be for the reconstruction of existing society into a casteless unified society

through emotional integration of caste and communities.̂ **

Minocha, S., (1981) conducted a study on Coparative Study of

Naturalism in Education as Conceptualised by Rousseau and Tagore. His

main objectives were (i) to highlight the main features of the naturalistic

philosophy of education of Rousseau, (ii) To delineate the salient characteristics

of the naturalistic philosophy of education of Rabindranath Tagore. (iii) To

compare the philosophical expositions of Rousseau and Tagore on the basis of

66

common element as well as divergent views in the educational philosophy of

these two thinkers. He had followed the comparative method dealing with the

comparison of the naturalistic philosophy of Rousseau and Tagore. The major

findings of the study were Rousseau was the foremost exponent of naturalism in

education. For him the inclusive and ultimate aim of education and good life was

the natural development of the primitive propensities of the individual, (ii) It

seemed likely that Tagore was influenced by the naturalistic philosophy of

Rousseau and Wordsworth, (iii) In certain fundamentals Tagore and Rousseau

agreed with each other. Both of them said that human beings had yearning for a

union with nature.^'

Parmar, D.M., (1979) conducted a study on A Case Study of Vallaleh

Vidyanagar as an Educational Comleex with reference to Special Role of Dr.

B. D. Patel. His main objectives were to study Bhaikaka's thinking and to find

out how far it was reflected in the development of the local institutions, (ii) to

study the contribution of these institutions to the village upliftment, and (iii) to

study the impact of Vallabh Vidyanagar and Vithal Udyonagar on the rural

society. The investigator resorted to the documentary method. He also

interviewed and tape-recorded. The opinions of thirty seven personalities who

had directly or indirectly come into close contact of Bhaikaka. The major

findings were Bhaikaka gave priority to self reliance experimentation and good

staff for the making of students with a sound character, (ii) He was not

completely successful in achieving his goal of village upliftment with the help of

the rural university.

Bakhe, S. M., (1983) conducted a study on Educational Philosophy of

Lokamanya and Swami Vivekananda- a Comparative Study. The present

study was undertaken to make a careful study of the works and activities of Tilak

and Vivekananda and to extract relevant material from available sources and to

present it all in an organized form as a formal statement of their educational

philosophy. The main sources of the data were 'complete works of Lokamanaya

Tilak' in seven volumes, published by kesari Prakashan, Pune, and complete

works of Swami Vivekananda, in eight volumes, published by Advaita Ashrama,

Calcutta. The authorized biographies of Tilak and Vivekananda were consulted

67

along with the studies on their Hfe and philosophy and their contribution to Indian

renaissance. The aim of education according to Tilok and Swamigi was to enable

man to reah'ze the highest in him. The child was a self entity, dwelling in the

physical body and possessing the mind. These faculties were capable of being

developed to the maximum tune of perfection.

Dhal, P., (1990) conducted A Comparative Study of the Educational

Philosophies of Rabindra Nath Tagore and Maharshi Aurobindo. The study

was conducted to compare the educational aims, curriculum, teaching methods,

the teacher-pupil relationship and school organization proposed by Tagore and

Aurobindo, (ii) To discuss the merits and demerits of the educational

philosophies of Tagore and Aurobindo, and (iii) To suggest educational

implications of the philosophical thoughts of Tagore and Aurobindo in the

present day context. Analytical and comparative study of the literary works of

Tagore and Aurobindo, as also of certain other thinkers was undertaken in the

present study. The major findings were both Tagore and Aurobindo emphasized

'truth', 'beauty', and 'goodness', as the ideals of education, (ii) Both advocated

that the medium of education must be the mother tongue, (iii) Education must be

based on Indian culture, literature and fine arts and due importance be given to

1 • • • 24

co-curncular activities.

Dutta, Sunil Krishna.(1991) conducted a study on Upanishadic

Philosophy of Education and Vivekananda's Philosophy of Education. The

present study was undertaken to present an account of the Upanishadics

metaphysics, epistemoiogy and axiology. (ii) to present an account of the

metaphysics , epistemoiogy, and axiology of Vivekananda's philosophy, (iii) to

present an account of Vivekananda's educational philosophy in its aim,

discipline, curriculum, methods, moral education, teacher education, women's

education and mass education. Comparative and analytical study of literature on

philosophy with particular emphasis on the educational philosophy of Upanishads

and that of Vivekananda. "

Review of the contribution of Indian Philosophy:

Asthana, S.R. (1978) conducted a study on pragmatism in Indian

Education since the earliest Times. The study was undertaken with a view to

68

investigating how the pragmatism of man had affected the educational activity in

India. The aim of the study was to explore the various pragmatic trends and

approaches which marked the growth of education in India since the earliest

times. But, perhaps more, important was the aim to emphasis how the pragmatic

approach could help us seek solutions for the present-day needs and aspirations

through education. The basic source of the data for this study was the Indian

history - ancient, medieval and modern, political and economic conditions of the

periods were also used. The study revealed that in this land, we as a people, had

great reverence and love for education. Also whatever be the system of moral,

social and religious beliefs, we always endeavored to adapt and change with the

contemporary condition of life. This second feature was responsible for the

pragmatism which one found in education throughout its long history. The

greatest emphasis was given to the formation of moral character.̂ **

Jabber, Z.K. (1976) conducted a critical study of Educational

Implications of Existentialism, with the following objectives - to analyse the

main philosophical ideas of existentialism and to discuss the aims of education,

methods, contents, and relationship between the teacher and the taught in

existentialities schools and universities. For this purpose, a critical interpretative

and evaluative study of books and authors was made. The major conclusions of

the study were : (1) Existentialism is the philosophy of the present day man who

is undergoing and experiencing internal and external tensions. Conflicts and

crises unknown to the earlier man. As such, it seeks a way out of the dilemmas

of life to an authentic and more meaningful existence for man, (2) Existential

knowledge is a direct outcome of man's interaction with his world of experience.

True knowledge is obtained through the transcendence of the self to various

objects of this world so as the self to various objects of this world so as to make

them internally felt as if they were the self to various objects of this world so as

to make them internally felt as if they were the part of one's own existence, (3)

The existentialists recommend Socratic method of teaching because it is through

indirect method of teaching because it is through indirect method only that a

genuine academic freedom is possible.

69

Mehta, Neelam (1990) conducted a research on Experience as a major

premise in Education : A Philosophical Investigation. The main objectives are

(i) to explore and identify the varied philosophical standpoints vis-a-vis

experience and to analyse and interpret them into working propositions for

education, (ii) to attempt the possibility of a synthetic exposition of experience.

The study used mainly the analytic and interpretive approach in identify varied

philosophical standpoints vis-a-vis experience. Major findings are - (i)

experience is an "act of acquisition of knowledge as well as realization", (ii) the

crux of experience for all schools of thought is the meaning of experience, which

in each case is constituted differently in a problematic situation.'̂ ^

Pandey, Vivek (1991) conducted a critical study of existentialists

philosophical thoughts and its educational implications. The main objectives

of the study are (i) to study those situations and influence which provided a

special feature to the philosophy of existentialism and its thought, (ii) to discuss

the philosophies of some important existentialist philosophers. Major finding are

- (i) Jean Paul Sartre considered essential for creating awareness about men's

existence and preparing him for life's struggle, (ii) the teacher is only a guide

who should protect children's self, rather than imposing his own self etc.^'

Devi, Prativa (1996) conducted a study on Humanistic "Education

during Upanishadic period. The objectives of the study are to find out how far

the Upanishadise reflect a humanistic ideology of educational theory building

from the renaissance onwards, to examine the text and formulate concepts that

build up a philosophical base of education. The findings are stated as

upanishadic ideology emphasizes 'Being' and self realization as ultimate pursuits

and education underscores the same."'**

Asthana, S.R., (1978) conducted a study on Pragmatism in Indian

Education since the Earliest Times. The aim of the study was to explore the

various pragmatic trends and approaches which marked the growth of education

in India since the earliest times. The study revealed that in this land, was as a

people, and had great reverence and love for education. Also whatever be system

of moral, social and religious beliefs, we always endeavoured to adopt and

change with contemporary condition of life.^'

70

Sharma, Sunita (1990) Bharatiya Shiksha Me Dwandatmakata : Ek

Adhyayan (Dialccticism in Indian education : A Study). The main objectives

were - (i) explain the Marxist theory of dialectical materialism and to show it

relationship with education, (ii) to identify the existence of the principle of

dialccticism in various fields (Literature, sociology, politics, economics), (iii) to

accelerate debates related to dialecticism in various fields of education. Critical

study of the relevant literature is resorted to in the present study. Major findings

of this research were (i) the cardinal principles of dialecticism are (a) there is

continuity in the developmental process, (b) mobility is self befitting etc., (ii)

dialecticism affects the individual thought and philosophy, (iii) democracy is the

final outcome of authoritarianism, (iv) education affects society vice versa."'̂

Das, K., conducted a study on The Concept of Personality in

Sankhya- Yoga and the Gita. His main objective is to determine the concept of

personality as found in the Samkhya- Yoga and also the Gita. The study revealed

that the personality as found in the Samkhya-Yoga was a pattern of dynamic

organization of psycho-physical constructs of nature, having a self or spirit as

inherent principle of consciousness and teleology."'̂

Dubey, M., made his research on (1980) Educational Philosophy in

Upanishads (Upanishads main shiksha Darshan). The main objectives were to

i) to study the educational philosophy of the Upanishads. II) To review the

changes in the educational philosophy since the Upanisadic age. The major

findings were i) Education was open for all castes, creeds and women irrespective

of their socio-economic status ii) the entire education system was residential

etc.̂ ^

AgarwaljU.R., (1917) conducted a research on The Theosophical

Philosophy: Contribution to Educational Thoughts and Practice in India.

The main objective was to trace the relationship of religion, science, society and

education to the theosophical philosophy. The outcomes were that i) theosophy

was concerned with high levels of reality and metaphysical truths not only for

livelihood but life itself ii) All religious stemmed from the same source therefore

the main principles of different religious needed to the incorporated as one

religion.

71

Gosh, N.G., (1977) studied on Distribution of Four Social values

among certain Selected Strata of Youths and Prediction of Good Citizenship

with the Help of Values. Main objectives were that to what extent the youths

were displaying four social values, namely, secularism, democracy, nationalism,

socialism in their behaviour pattern. What factors influencing their acquisition by

the youths etc.The findings were, the increase of the years of schooling had no

direct impact on the acquisition of values. Boys had significantly higher scores on

all the four values than girls.̂ '̂

Kalia, A.K., (1981) conducted a study of Values and Ideals of Early

Adolescents living in Different Types of Home Environment. The main

hypotheses of the study were, i) early adolescents living with both the parents

differ in their values and ideals from early adolescents living in orphan homes, ii)

The values and ideals of early adolescents living in one parent homes are

different from those living in orphan homes. The major findings of the study

were i) the both parent male adolescents scored significantly higher on theoretical

and political values than those from orphan homes, ii) the both parent males and

one parent males were similar in their theoretical, economic, aesthetic, political

and religious value preferences, whereas social values were found higher in the

case of the both parent subject. ^

Khosia, D.N.,(1983) conducted a study on Educational Philosophy of

Sikh Gurus. The main objectives are to i) study the norms and values, aims,

content, teaching methods, teacher, taught as put forth by the Sikh Gurus, ii) to

arrive at the philosophy of education. The major findings of the study were to the

gurus, the truth is the only norm and truthful living the peak of all excellence

which embodies truth, goodness and beauty in itself According to them, the

world is a pious place and man must enhance piety and holiness by making truth

the focus of all his conduct and character. Therefore, the main aim of education is

to awaken man to his true merit.

Patel, K.M.,(1981) conducted A Study of Value Orientation in the

Educational Institutions run by Sathya Sai Organisation. Ihe main objectives

of the study were i) studying the impact of Sri Sathya Sai Baba's teachings on the

development of the concept regarding life, among students, ii) making a

72

comparison of value systems of students of students studying in Satliya Sai

Organizations and otiier educational organizations. From the observations,

conclusions were drawn with regard to the impact of educational ideology of

Sathya Sai Baba.^''

Rajasekaran,V., (1980) conducted a study on Educational Philosophy

of the Ancient Tamils of the Cancan Period. The aimed at tracing the

educational philosophy of the ancient Tamils of the Cancam period as depicted in

the Cancam literature. The findings of the study were i) the aims of education

according to ancient Tamils were disciplined life, social consciousness, moral

and spiritual values and patriotism, ii) Formal and non-formal systems of

education were in vogue, iii) Language, music, drama, agriculture, weaving,

commerce, architecture, medicine etc. were included in the curriculum.'*"

Ray, D.K., (1980) conducted A Study of some Factors and Processes

involved in the Development of Values. The main objectives of the study were

i) to inquire into some of the factors and processes involved in the development

of values, ii) to examine the extent to which different factors contributed to the

development of values and the processes in which they worked from stage to

stage in the growth and development of adolescents. The major findings of the

study were i) the standard of adolescent values (tolerance, cooperation,

obedience, religious devotion, honesty and altruism) was lower than expected and

the development of the value system was positively related to the process of

socialization, ii) values developed with the advancement of age/grade.'*'

Sastry, D.S.N., (1980) conducted A Study of the Classroom Behaviour

of Teachers in their Philosophic in Education.The objectives are i) to study the

relationship between the teacher behaviour in the classroom and his philosophic

beliefs in education, ii) to identify the salient classroom behaviour patterns .

Shukia, S.C., (1982) conducted a study on Integration of Yogic

Philosophy and Practices in the Modern System of Indian Education. The

main objectives of the study were to make a comprehensive study of the yogic

philosophy and practices with a view to understand their implications for human

life and for human life and for education of the individual, ii) Examining the

significance of the yogic exercises for the development of a well-balanced

73

personality, iii) To design a curriculum on yoga for various levels (primary,

junior, secondary, and higher). It was a library study which main findings were

Yoga was important for the physical, mental, and spiritual development of the

human being, ii) Yoga could be integrated with the educational system as a part

of physical exercises performed by students in daily school life with co-curricular

activities, iii) Yoga could also be integrated with the informal schemes of

education.

Singh, B.P., (1977) did a Research on Developing Aims of Education in

India. The researcher conducted the study with the following objectives - i) to

discuss the aims of education as they had been developing in the different periods

of Indian history according to the needs and aspirations of the people. The

investigation is divided into five sections, namely vedic, Buddhist, Muslim,

British, and Post-Independence. In every section details have been given

regarding the various aspects of education. The investigator has discussed the

ways of determining the educational aims, the measures to be adopted for making

current system of education more worthwhile.'*'*

Singh, R.P., (1983) did his research on Gurukul Education and its

Utility in Modern Age. The researcher formulated his objectives in the

following way. i) to evaluate the different aspects of gurukul education and to

which of them could be in the modern system of education. The main finding of

the study were- i) the guiding philosophy of gurukulas was universal welfare and

good of all. ii) Education in the gurukulas laid stress on character- building,

morality and religion, iii) In gurukulas, physical development was ensured

through physical exercises and spiritual development was ensured through

religious instruction,philosophy and literature.'*^

Venkateswarlu, M., (1978) conducted a study on The Educational

Philosophy as reflected in the Mahabharata. The main objectives of the study

were- i) the hierarchical system of body-mind- intellect- heart-with ego- spirit, ii)

the affective and conative domains, iii) the interrelationships among ethology,

axiology and ontology, iv) the concepts of sacrifice, creativity, equity, equality,

free will and pre-determination, v) epistemology as a part of the educational

philosophy that the Mahabharata reflects. The main findings of the study were i)

74

the conviction (sankhya) of (he existence of the self same reality in all created

beings was conducive to self-confidence, appreciation and humanity which were

basic to the right conduct which alone could bring about national integration, ii)

The course of brahmacharya released tremendous will power.iii) There was

nothing that a well-directed human will could not achieve.'"'

Ansari,A.A., (1988) conducted a study Educational Philosophy as

found in Islamic Culture. The researcher formulated his objectives in the

following ways i) to find out the importance given to education in the Quran and

the Hadiths, ii) to examine the concepts, types and aims of education stressed by

the Islam, iii) to study the role of the teacher and the expectations from students

in Islamic culture. The major findings of the study were i) the aims of Islamic

education were realization of eternity, truth, perfect living and inculcation of

democratic values, ii) Islamic education advocated the use of the inductive-

deductive method, questioning, experimentation and discussion, iii) Different

curricula were planned for different stages of education, iv) The teacher was the

role model for students and enjoyed a high status in society.

Collins, Peter M., (1991) conducted a study on Graduate Studies in

Philosophy of Education: History of Philosophy of Education. The main

objectives of the study were i) to study the role of history in research in the

philosophy of education, ii) to describe and exemplify the intensely personal

character of philosophy of education and implication for research. The researcher

had achieved the following findings -i) Four (the semester hours) courses which

focus upon the interrelationship between philosophy and education could

constitute the basis for a graduate programme in the history of philosophy of

education in Western civilization. These courses are :a) ancient philosophy of

education, b) medieval philosophy of education, c) modern philosophy of

education, d) contemporary philosophy of education. Emphasis needs to be laid

on implications for current problems and development of the students own

philosophy of education, ii) In planning a particular course programme, the

prominent role of philosophy courses, other than those in philosophy of

education, must not be overlooked.

75

Dutta, Sunil Krishna, (1991) conducted a study on Upanishadic

Philosophy of Education and Vivekananda's Philosophy of Education. The

main objectives of the study were i) to present an account of the Upanishadic

metaphysics, epistemology and axiology( including all the vedantic philosophy),

ii) to present an account of the metaphysics, epistemology, and axiology of

Vivekananda's philosophy, iii) to present an account of Vivekananda's

educational philosophy in its aim, discipline, curriculum, methods, moral

education, teacher education, women'seducation, vocational education, and mass

education. The major findings of the study were i) Vivekananda identified

Vedanta with Karmavada and applied it for practical purposes of social and

individual progress, ii) Instead of confining his ideas to the usual expression of

'tolerance', Vivekananda went a step ahead and proved that all philosophies were

true and aimed at the same.'"

Kanchan, L.R., (1988) conducted A Critical Study of the

Philosophical Psychological, social and cultural Relation between Education

and Religion. The main objectives of the study were i) to identify the recent

trends in religion and education, ii) to identify the formal and informal agencies

in religious education, iii) to find out effective means of integrating religious

concepts in the existing school curricula. The researcher had observed the

following findings- i) Most of the students agreed that prayer was irrelevant,

belief in God grew with age and maturity, and that all religions were equal, (ii)

They felt that secularism could resolve many of the problems of the country and

advocated religious education as part of the educational programme, (iii) to most

students, religion meant doctrine, ritual and dogma, (iv) Many science and

religion were not contradictory. ""̂

Mathur,Sunian, (1989) conducted a study on Relevance of the

Educational Ideas of Atharva Veda. His main objectives are as (i) to select,

classify and discuss the philosophical and educational ideas of the Atharva Veda

and to present an outline of the educational philosophy and educational system of

India, (ii) To give practical suggestions for making education helpful in national

progress, (iii) To show how the philosophical and educational views of the

Ailhava Veda will be helpful. Analytical study of the relevant literature was used

76

in the study. The major findings were accordiiig to the Arthava Veda, the

universe is made of three elements. Namely (i) Brahmaman (God), (ii) Jeeva

(individual) and (iii) Prakriti (nature). (2) Knowledge must be constructive and

related to live.^'

Mehta, Asha, (1988) Study of Socio-Psychological factors related to

the teacher's philosophical Orientation and Educational Output. His main

objectives are (i) to study the nature of the teacher's philosophical orientation and

the relationship between the teacher's philosophical factors, (ii) To study the

relationship between the teacher's philosophical orientation and social factors.

The following methods are used in the study. Teachers from 53 intermediate

colleges from three districts were selected by the cluster sampling technique

.Sociometric status scale and the teachers philosophical orientation scale and

personal Data Schedule developed by the investigator. The major findings were

as follows: (i) analyzing the nature of the teacher's philosophical orientation on

the basis of different philosophies and sex. (ii) The psychological and social

factors were not significantly related with the teacher's philosophical

orientation."

Review of the Study of Autobiography of Indian Philosophy

Bhatt, J.M. (1973) conducted a study of the Educational Philosophy

of Vinoba Bhave. The investigation of Vinoba Bhave in the context of his

philosophy of life. Two subsidiary objectives were: (i) to analyze Vinoba

Bhave's educational philosophy in the light of other schools of philosophy; and

(ii) to find out how far Vinoba's educational thought could fit in with the existing

situation in India. The relevant data and evidences were gathered from the

writings of Vinoba and visitation to Vinoba's and Gandhi's ashramas, interview

and discussions with the inmates of workers associated with Vinoba Bhave. The

study revealed that according to Vinoba's philosophy: (i) education for life was

not merely a process with a goal; (ii) self-realisation was the chief aim of

education.'''̂

Patel, C.P. (1983) carry out his research work on study of the

psychological foundation of the 'Free Progress System' as Evolved in Sri

Aurobindo International Centre of Education, with a view to find out the lates

77

organization of the free progress system, to delineate its psychological bases and

to attend a double comparative appraisal of the system and he observed that there

are constant conflicts in among sub-conscient, conscient, inner psychic and

spiritual consciousness. By the synthetic method of self perfection and make

personality and its parts integrated by developing national and international spirit.

The types of Psychological principles identified are the cordinal, the general and

the specific principles. The system had its modest achievements in the area of

psychic and spiritual education having significant achievement in the physical,

vital and mental areas."

Bhagwati, (1988) conducted a study of Educational philosophy of Dr.

Radha Krishnan and its relevance for social change, with the following

objectives (i) To determine the place of Dr. Radha Krtishnan as a thinker in the

present day world, (ii) to discuss the educational philosophy of Dr. Radha

Krishnan, and (iii) to find out the relevance of the philosophy of Dr. Rdha

Krishnan for social change. Critical study and analysis of literature related to the

educational philosophy of Dr. Radha Krishanan facilitated the study. Major

Findings - (i) According to Dr. Radha Krishnan, philosophy in an art and a way

of life, (2) Dr. Radha Krishnan's philosophy is based on spiritual consciousness.

(3) According to Dr. Radha Krishnan, education must be based on the cultural

values of the Indian heritage.""

Bharote, A.C. (1992) conducted a study of the philosophy of Acharya

Vinoba Bhave and its effect in education in the light / reference of the New

Education Policy. Some of the main objectives are - (i) to study the educational

philosophy of Acharya Vinoba Bhave, (ii) to study in depth the new National

Policy in Education, (iii) to study the general linkage between the National Policy

on Education and the Philosophy of Acharya Vinoba Bhave, analytical study of

the literature of and related to Acharya Vinoba Bhave's philosophy, the National

Policy on Education and articles, letters, reviews, notes, etc. pertaining to the new

National Policy were undertaken. The major findings are the framework of the new

National Policy on Education was designed with reference to new social needs and

new challenges and tensions."'''

78

Chavda, Jhavcrilal Prcmjibhai (1991) conducted a study of the

educational thoughts of Dolararai Mankad and it implementation with the

following objectives, to study the educational thoughts of Dolararai Mankad with

reference to (a) the philosophical base of education in life, (b) proposed steps for

curriculum including approaches of methods of teaching and evaluation, (c)

responsibilities of the teachers, etc. Major findings are (i) Dolararai Mankad was

in favour of rural oriented education and a curriculum base on spiritual values,

(ii) A simple life was a special feature of the Gangajal Vidyapeeth.^^

Dash, Gayadhar (1990) conducted a research on Educational

Philosophy of Sri Aurobindo and its experiment in Orissa with the following

objectives, (i) to highlight the main features of the integral education advocated

by Sri Aurobindo and expounded by the Mother, (ii) to survey some integral

education centres in Orissa and to analyse the practices and peculiarities of these

centres for ascertaining the strengths and the weakness of the experiment. Major

findings of this research are - (i) Integral education has five principal aspects :

physical education, vital education, mental education, psychic education and

spiritual education. Dhal, P. (1970) conducted a comparative study of the

educational philosophies of Rabindra Nath Tgore and Maharshi Aurobindo with

the following objectives to compare the educational aims, curriculum, teaching

methods, the teacher - pupil relationship, etc. Major findings are - (i) Both

Tagore and Aurobindo emphaised 'truth' beauty, and goodness as the ideals of

education, (ii) Both advocated that the medium of education must be the mother

. 58

tongue.

Gogate, V.V. (1991) conducted a critical study of Samarth Ramdas's

contribution to the field of education. The main objectives are (i) to study the

educational thoughts of Samarth Ramdas as expressed in his writings, (ii) to study

and the contribution of the mathas founded by Ramdas to the field of education,

(iii) to evaluate the educational thoughts and views of Ramdas in the present

context. The methodology used in this study are analysis of literature from primary

and secondary sources and interviews with personalities who studied Ramdas.

Major findings are (i) concept of education : Ramdas laid stress on real knowledge

and according to him, education and knowledge were synonymous, (ii) Ramdas 79

stressed that the disciple should be active, hardworking, honest, regular,

broadniinded, inventive, noble and intelligent."''̂

Nand, Vijai (1992) conducted a study on educational ideas of Dr.

Rajendra Prasad and this relevant to modern India. With the following

objective - (i) select, classify and draw conclusions from the educational ideas of

Dr. Rajendra Prasad, (ii) to determine the relevance of the educational ideas of

Dr. Rajendra Prasad in modern hidia. Critical analytical study of the writings,

speeches and autobiography of Dr. Rajendra Prasad has used for the study. Major

findings are - (i) Dr. Rajendra Prasad pleaded for healthy nationalism, (ii) his

ideas reflect a deep desire to improve the education system.'"

Rao, S.S. (1988) conducted a study on the concept of Gandhiji's basic

education, its theory and practice with the following objectives - (i) to examine

the origin, historical background and fundamental principles of basic education,

(ii) to find out the extent to which the principles of basic education were adopted

in the Kotari Education Commission Report. The major findings were (i)

unsuitability of the schools selected for implementing the programme, (ii)

opposition by public because of fear of low standards of achievements, etc.*"'

Sharma, Indira (1992) conducted a critical evaluation of J.

Krishn'amurthy's thoughts on education. His main objectives were (i) to state

and analysis .1. Krishnamurthy's general philosophy, (ii) to state and analyse J.

Krishnamurthy's thoughts on education, (iii) to trace the uniqueness in the

educational thoughts of i. Krishnamurthy. His major findings were - (i) J.

Krishnamurthy has denied the existence of a permanent soul and holds the view

that the ultimate reality is homeless immensity, (ii) the truth is a pathless land and

one has to achieve it by understanding the self unconditioning his mind from

false propaganda, beliefs, dogmas, traditions, and e tc '

Tewari, Urmila (1989) did her study on Educational philosophy of J.

Krishnamurthy and its implication for modern system of Indian education.

Major objectives (i) to make an analytical study of the educational philosophy of

.1. Krishnamurthy, (ii) to analyse critically the modern system of education in

India. Major findings (i) J. Krishnamurthy contributed significant ideas relating

to education, (ii) he was against conventional education and pleased for the

80

'holistic approach' to education, etc., (iii) J. Krishnamurthy feh that the ultimate

aim of education was the spiritual realization of self and of life."

Aruna, G. (1992) studied Psychological and educational implications

of J. Krishnamurthy's observations of life and relationship. The study

attempts to analyse and organize human nature in terms of psychological

structure and function out of J. Krishnamurthy's observations of human life. The

objectives are - to analyse the content of J. Krishnamurthy's observations, to find

out the place of these explorations both in technical and psychological fields, the

major outcomes of the study are - J. Krishnamurthy's revolutionary approach to

the complexity of human psychological structure gives new perspective by which

one can find pointers to develop an integrated personality.'*''

Deshpande, V.N. (1994) conducted a study on Contribution of

Radhakrishnan to Educational Thought. Us objectives are - to make an analytical

study of Radhakrishnan's speculative thesis and educational philosophy, to compare

his views on education with those of western thinkers including Plato, John Dewey,

Sartre and also the Indian thiiikers including Tagore, Gandhi and Krishnamurthy.

The long list of major findings does not reveal any new philosophical or educational

insights. They are just summarized statements of Radhakrishnan's philosophical and

educational ideas which are already well known. "

Rajahans, Shamshankar, Sadashiv (1996) conducted a study of

educational thoughts and works of Dr. B.R. Ambedkar. The objectives of the

study are - to put forth systematically the educational thoughts of Ambedkar, to

study the educational contribution of Ambedkar. The major outcomes are stated

in the form of "According to Ambedkar " followed by twenty statements on

education. A few of them are sampled here - "Life without education is a great

loss", "Progress follows at the wake of education", "Modernisation in education

is a must", etc.*̂ '̂

Babu, A.S., (1978) conducted A Study of Sri Aurobindo's Philosophy

of Education. The main purpose of the study was to interpret Sri Aurobindo's

philosophy of education based on his philosophical texts and educational

writings. The major findings are, the psychic being was the divine aspect of man.

81

Each man was possessed of this divine nature and it was through the evolution of

the psychic nature that man became the true individual/'^

Chauhan, B.P.S., (1981) conducted a study on Educational Philosophy

of Swami Dayananda. The main objectives are i) to study the philosophical

thoughts of Swami Dayananda according to his own granths. II) to find out the

nature of education on the basis of his granths and literature. The study revealed

that Swami Dayananda was not only a philosopher or a religious reformer but

also a great educatioist. He was a nationalist educator/'^

Dev, B.R., (1981) conducted a study on The Spiritual Element in the

Educational Philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi. He tried to investigate the

spiritual foundation of the activities of the Mahatma.II) to prove that the actual

purpose of all education was self-realisation, a purpose which was impossible to

attain without Sadhana or spiritual discipline.*"^

Abbasi, A.N.M.S., (1980), conducted a study on The Educational

Thoughts of Jawaharlal Nehru. Main objective was to study Nehru's views on

the educational problems from different angles. II) To study the socio-economic

and political events to understand his role in the field of education. According to

Nehru, the aim of education should be to develop human society and to broaden

its outlook to remove rigidities and to help in the growth of economy.

Jain, K. C, (1980) conducted A Study on the Educational

Philosopohy of Lord Mahavir with relevance to Modern India. The objectives

were i) to interpret the philosophy of Lord Mahavir in terms of education, ii) to

examine the implications of the philosophy of Lord Mahavir. Findings of the

study are i) .lainaism was the religion concerned with practical life, ii) it was

interested in the purity of the human beings and believed in the human beings and

believed in the values which were essentially adaptable to human life.

Khama, P., (1981) conducted A Study of Kilpatrick, W.H., as an

Educational Philosopher. This study aimed at an analysis and interpretation of

the educational viewpoints of William Kilpatrick, a strong advocate and

supporter of the pragmatic School of philosophy .̂ ^

Nair, V.S., (1980) made a research on Educational Ideas of Swami

Vivekananda. The main objectives are (i) to trace the cultural revivalism in India

82

in the nineteenth century and teaching of religion, (ii) to find out the

philosophical bases of education, psychology of education, and (iii) to find out

the significance of Vivekananda's ideas in modern times. Methods: The

descriptive research technique based on intensive library work was mainly used

for collection of data. Primary source of data was the complete work of

Vivekananda and the secondary source included the works on Vivekananda and

the interpretations and synthesis developed by recent scholars in various fields.

The major findings are (i) Vivekananda was the greatest synthesizer of his time

as compared with his contemporaries like Tilak and Gandhi, (ii) His vedic

idealism was a philosophy of action combining the intellect ofSankara and the

love Buddha, (ii) By his correct interpretation of the Hindu religion, Vivekananda

tried to remove the superstitions from the masses.̂ '̂

Purandare, P.G., (1982) conducted A Critical Study of Rabindranath

Tagore's Educatioal Philosophy. His main objectives of the study were to make a

critical analysis of the ideological contribution of Rabindranath Tagore to the

educational practice in India. The methodology consisted of library study of his

writings and his practices and the educational innovations at Santiniketan. The

major findings were according to Tagore, education was not only imparting

information but formation of character and personality. With all the advancement

of science and technology, what education everywhere lacked was its main

purpose of moulding the main. Tagore was the first thinker in recent times who

tried to revive the ideals of ancient Indian culture.

Pnthiyath, J.D., (1978) conducted a study on Educational Philosophy of

Swami Vivekananda. The main objectives of the study were (i) the place of

religion in education, (ii) the role of religion in the ancient systems of education

as well as in recent philosophies in India, and (iii) the reconstruction of Indian

education on the basis of Vivekananda's philosophy. A study of various

philosophical systems and of philosophies and writings of eminent scholars and

authors was undertaken. In this study: (i) Education was defined as physical

health, the training for the youth, and religion was established as related to other

interests, science and morality, (ii) Democracy was identified as the best form of

83

government implying freedom which was inseparable from responsibility the

sources of which was morality, philosophy, law and the like."

Rani, A., (1979) conducted a study on Impact of Idealistic Thought on

Indian Education with Special Reference to the Contribution of Tagore,

Aurobindo, and Gandhi. The study was designed to know the impact of idealistic

thoughts of three Indians namely, Gandhi, Tagore and Aurobindo on Indian

Education. In the investigation, first of all the origin of idealism has been

mentioned, then various important elements of idealism and its historical

background have been given. After that, the idealism in Western traditions has

been described.'*"

Ray, S.S., (1981) conducted A Study of the Educational Ideas of

Rabindrenath Tagore and their Relevance to Contemporary Thoughts and

Practices in Education. The study was designed to identify the exact educational

ideas which Tagore accepted and tried to implement, (ii) to assess how far these

ideas were relevant to the contemporary thought and practices in education,(ii) to

find out which of the educational ideas of Tagore were applicable in the

prevailing socio-economic situation. The study was conducted through content

analysis of Tagore's writings including letter and reports of the school of

Santiniketan and Sriniketan and content analysis of the contemporary and the

present structure of education. The major findings were (i) Tagore's idea of

education for the ultimate human unity through communion with nature mingled

with freedom and joy, (ii) His concept of education as an instrument of

development of mutual cooperation, as well as for the prevention of alienation

and segregation, was in conformity with the ideas of Martin Buber and Gunar

Mugal, (iii) Tagore's acceptance of education as tool of developing national

integration and international understanding was quit consistent with the modem

thoughts on education.'^

Singh, S.N.,(1980) conducted A Critical Study of Rabindranath Tagore as

an Educationist.The study using the primary and the secondary sources of

literature on Rabindranath Tagore, critically evaluated his life and works and then

tried to build up his educational philosophy. The study revealed that Tagore's

contribution to education was immense and it was perceptible in all the fields of

84

education in India and abroad. Tagore as an educationist was a blend of idealism

and humanism.'^

Sivamohan, V.S., (1978) conducted a study on Educational Philosophy of

Poet Tiruvalluvar. The study was designed to make an analysis of the educational

ideas of Tirukural (written by Tiru valluvar) particularly as delineated in

Arattuppal and Porupal (The sections dealing with Virtue and wealth). Major

findings are Tiruvalluar emphasized the ethical determination of material as well

as non-material return us when he said that aram (virtue) will yield wealth, glory

and even health, (ii) As against the fourfold stages of spiritual growth earmarked

for the twice- born, Tiruvalluvar accepted only a twofold division, (iii) He

categorically rejected the idea of feminine inferiority.''

Aganval, Kusum (1992) conducted a research on Educational

Philosophy of Ram Tirth. The study was designed to select, classify and discuss

the philosophical and educational thoughts of Ram Tirth, and (ii) to give practical

suggestions for Indianisation of education and educational philosophy vis-a vis

the educational thoughts of Ram Tirth. Critical study and analysis of the

philosophical and educational ideas of Ram Tirth were used in the study. Major

findings: Education should be based on the ideals of life and should aim at

bringing out the inner capacities and developing the personality of the child in

order to develop the society ultimately (ii) Indian ideals should be included in the

curricula at different stages of education.(iii) Practical knowledge of Vedanta

should be given to students, (iv) the curriculum should include philosophical as

well as scientific subjects, (v) Education should enable the individual to become

self sufficient.^"

Lohakare, S.S., (1991) conducted A Study of the Educational Philosophy

in Samartha Ramdas Swamy's Shri Dasbodha with reference to the values of life.

The study was designed to study critically the educational philosophy of Samarth

Ramdas as depicted in Shri Dasbodha, (ii) to find out the position of inclusion of

the educational ideas contained in Shri Dasbodha in the curriculum of Marathi for

classes v to x and utility of the educational philosophy in the curriculum. The

following methods are used in the study- Critical analytical study of Shri

Dasbodha articles, letters, criticism, notes and other documents related to the

85

book supplemented by interview of followers of the Shri Dasbodha literature

served the study. The values cherished by Samarth Ramdas, interalia include, (a)

personal values- selflessness, industriousness, simplicity, self- evaluation ability,

self- control, purity, leadership, judiciousness, faith in science, (b) social values-

comprehensiveness, equality, friendship, sacrifice, secularism, brotherhood,

tolerance, (c) moral values- responsibility, truthfulness, sympathy, and love for

nature, (d) Spiritual values- faith in God, indifference,love and aesthetic

attitude."'

Mahalingam, K., (1992) conducted a study on Educational Thoughts of

Gandhiji and their relevance to Contemporary education. The main objectives are

(i) to study the educational principles of mahatma Gandhi and their relationship

to the philosophies of naturalism, idealism and pragmatism, (ii) to study the

impact of the Gandhian educational principles on reports of the various Indian

Education Commission. Critical analytical study of Mohandas Karamchand

Gandhi's publication on education. Gandhi's views on education described in the

books by various authors and several publications on Indian and Western

educational philosophies in the present study. The major findings are (i) Gandhi's

educational views reflect idealism, (ii) Gandhiji's educational philosophy is

consistent with biological naturalism, (iii) Gandhiji advocated a pragmatic

approach towards the education of Indian thoughts Basic craft as the centre of

education.

Manay, Shakuntala, (1991) Value Education in the light of Sri

Aurobindo's Philosophy with Special reference to Home Science Education. The

study conducted to examine critically the merits and demerits of home science

education, (ii) to find out whether or not home science is value- oriented. Critical

study of the literature has been used in the study. The major findings are- (i)

home science education is not value oriented, (ii) The programme of value

education is to lift consciously lower consciouss at the level of matter and of the

vital psychic level to higher knowledge by becoming conscious of truth.

Patel, M.U., (1990) conducted A Critical Study of the Eductional

Philosophy of Manubhai Pancholi 'Darshak'. The study was conducted to

pinpoint the basic educational thought of Manubhai Pancholi ' Darshak'. The

86

study seeks to provide a precise account of tlie educational philosophy of

Manubhai Pancholi 'Darshak'. Critical study of the works of'Darshak' was used

in the study. The major findings were like Gandhiji, 'dashak' based his

philosophy of education on tentative try outs and tests that were inspired by deep

reflection on educational problems as well as by the quest for an ideal educational

framework.̂ '*

Prabbune, R.G., (1990) conducted A CriticalStudy of the Literature of

Sane Guruji from the Educational point of view. The main objectives were (i) to

identify the educational objectivities in sane Guruji's literature from the

educational point of view, (iii) to identify the educational values in Guru's

literature and assess its usefulness in reconstruction of the nation and the society.

Methods: Analytical study of speech, stories, novels, Guruji's literature and

criticisms thereon supplemented by a study of the writings and interviews with

persons known to sane Guruji's or acquainted with his work. A quessionaire was

used to find out the influence to sane Guruji's literature on the minds of

adolescents. The major findings were (i) According to Guruji everything is based

on the foundation of love. A teacher cannot teach successfully without love. The

basic values- love, knowledge and power are needed for living successfully, (ii)

Guruji's literature's sociological aspect depicts his generous attitude towards the

poor, the oppressed, the untouchable and the workers. "

Review of the Contribution of Western philosophers:

Asthana, RS. (1974) conducted a critical study of the Educational

Philosophy of John Dewey. The major objectives of the study were: (i) to

critically evaluate the educational theory of John Dewey and relate it to his ideas

on ethics, philosophy, logic and aesthetics, (ii) to compare Dewey with other

educators like Rousseau, Pestalozzi, Froebel and Herbart, and (iii) to identify the

areas where some of Dewey's viewpoints may be found relevant for Indian

setting. The data were collected from both Dewey's own writings as well as from

critical writings on Dewey. These were critically examined and interpreted with

special reference to out democratic setup, value structure and education. The

study brings into relief the emphasis on the depth of our commitment to

democratic ideas, quality and nature of education to sustain those ideals,

87

education as value-condilioned activity and need for a more dynamic look on our

democratic institutions.*''

Ramcsh, G., (1982) conducted a study on Theory and Practice of

Education in Herbert Read. The main objectives were to evaluate the woric of

Herbert Read in the application of art and aesthetics to education, (ii) to critically

evaluate the educational theory of Herbert Read and relate it to some of the vital

problems of education, (ii) to critically evaluate the existing theories of art and

compare Read with educators like Plato, Schiller, Dewey and Rabindranath

Tagore, (iii) to critically evaluate the education at different levels to highlight the

significance of art or aesthetics in Indian curricula. The data were collected

mostly from the primary sources. In addition to these sources, the study had

drawn on the material from the books on Herbert Read by different writers.

Current journals in art and aesthetics education were also consulted. The major

findings were Herbert Read was kjiown for his many innovations and concepts in

the field of education. The core of his educational teaching was art as a medium

of education, (ii) Herbert Read craved for the natural environment of the school,

home and society. He concluded that it was not possible to create a natural

environment within the scope of the present technological society, (iii) Herbert

Read in his philosophy of education referred to the role of a teacher as a guide in

education and like Rousseau he was not for the abdication of the teacher's

responsibility. (iv)The status of morality in education was too high in his theory.

He equated art with morality, "what is rational is moral' for Herbert Read.

Review on the impact of Western Philosophy:

Sharma, N. (1980) conducted a study of the Impact of the Western

Educational Thinkers on Modern Indian Education. The main objective of the

investigation was to make a detailed study of the educational philosophies of the

Western educational thinkers so as to determine the impact; nature and extent of

their usefulness in the context of the present day educational needs in India. The

study adopted a historical - cum - critical method. The necessary data were

collected from the life and the works of the Western educational thinkers. The

study was delimited to the educational thinking of Comenius, Rousseau,

Pestalozzi, Froebel, Dewey and Montessori. This impact on the modern Indian

88

education was studied with special reference to the aims of education, concept of

curriculum, method of teaching, concept of discipline and organizational pattern.

The main conclusions were : (i) the Western educational thinkers, sometimes in

the person of Comenius or Pestalozzi, at other times in the spirit of Rousseau or

Froebel, and many a time in the name of Dewey and Montessori, has made

themselves felt at the hands of modern Indian educationists for deciding the

educational aims, (ii) while toeing the line of the western educational thinkers,

modern Indian educationalists had so redesigned their pedagogical practices as to

give due recognition to the various teaching techniques propounded by some of

the Western educational thinkers.**

Collins, Peter, M. (1992) conducted a study on Prolegomena to research

in philosophy of education, with the following objectives, (a) to clarify some

fundamental consideration underlying research in philosophy of education, (ii) to

note the role of history in research in philosophy of education, (iii) to describe

and exemplify the intensely personal character of philosophy of education and

some implications for research in philosophy of education. Major findings : (1)

The prevalence and difficulty of identifying educational research with empirical

investigation are related to the need for a philosophy open to the transcendent for

example, religion and theology.

Dhiman, Sushil (1988) Phenomenology in relation to education: A Study

in Philosophical Methodology with the following objectives - (i) to explore

phenomenology in the total context of philosophical perspective, (ii) to analyse

distinctive features of phenomenology as a method of philosophy. The major

findings are (i) Husserl's philosophy includes: (a) an analysis frees from

presuppositions, (b) Philosophy as a rigorous science and (c) intentionality, etc.'̂

Review of the Articles related to Modernism and Postmodernism

Beck, Clive, in his article, "Postmodernism, Pedagogy, and

Philosophy of Education" describes philosophy and education in postmodern

age and its implication in education. In this article the author has clearly

exemplified the concept of modernism, postmodernism, the chronological

development of philosophy and education and the contributors of postmodern

philosopher and their pedagogy. The researcher has found many implications of

89

what we have been discussing for philosophy of education. To begin with,

students of education, Hke school students, should be helped to see that

knowledge is value dependent, culture dependent and changeable — that we are

not searching for a fixed, universal philosophy of life and education. At the same

time, however, they should be helped to identify continuities and commonalities

that give some stability and direction to their lives and to the practice of teaching.

One way of achieving the twofold goal of combating foundationalism and yet

helping students develop modest "foundations" for life and education is to study

various "forms of scholarship" — e.g., anti-racist, feminist, individual, and so on

— as advocated in Part III, above. In this way students will see that theory is

necessarily tailored to suit diverse group and individual needs."

Deepalakshmi, S., in his article "Globalization and Education"

explains the process of Globalization and its influence in education. The

researcher has found that the education system must ensure that students gain not

just depth of knowledge in these subjects but a holistic perception and skills that

will equip them to face the real world. At every stage, there must be opportunities

to expand their boundaries, platforms for collaboration and learning and

recognition for those who strive to excel. Further, market needs should be kept in

view while developing the curriculum. The element of productivity orientation

should guide the formulation of curriculum framework. It is also necessary that

while deciding about the fee structure and other student levies, the tendency

towards commercialization of education should be guarded against. India should

decide about the nature and extent of globalization that can be constructively

introduced in their socio-economic and educational systems. While it is difficult

to resist the temptation of falling in line with the international community, it is

necessary that while doing so, the paramount of national interests should be kept

in view. Finally, it is about always trying to push the bar a little more, constantly

innovating and never standing still. If the educational institutions believe in a

value based education system, then their students will excel in all walks of life.

At schools and colleges that believe in educational excellence, student

enthusiasm and feedback is an important driver of change and evaluation. They

create a vibrant, student community that continually innovative and excel in all

90

spheres from academics to arts and sports. Globalization is a never ending

process and Developing countries like India should utilize this properly to

improve their national standard through their education system.'^

Woermann, Minka, in his article, "Interpreting Foucault: an

evaluation of a Foucauldian critique of education" explains the potential

strengths and weaknesses of a Foucauldian critique of education are discussed

and evaluated. The article focuses specifically on the value of Foucault's work for

critiquing social and political ideologies prevalent in education, which is

understood as a societal institution, and hence, as a modern regime of

institutional power. In terms of strengths, the ability to raise issues of knowledge,

power and contestation that are traditionally ignored in educational theory is

addressed. In terms of weaknesses, Foucault's problematic use and understanding

of power and his apparent rejection of objective truth are investigated. The

critique develops at the hand of influential, but competing, interpretations of

Foucault's contribution to the field of education in particular, and philosophy in

general. It is argued that these influential readings of Foucault gain traction

within specific discourses (such as education), and should thus be subjected to . . . - 9 3

critical scrutiny.

Deacon, Roger, in "Michel Foucault on education: a preliminary

theoretical overview" Michel Foucault's oeuvre is a vast resource not only for

social and political theorists but for educators too. It deserves to be mined and

exploited more thoroughly, in a manner not unlike the way Foucault approached

Nietzsche's work: The only valid tribute to thought such as Nietzsche's is

precisely to use it, to deform it, to make it groan and protest (Foucault, 1980:53-

54). The research project to which this preliminary theoretical overview refers is

an attempt to develop the implications of Foucault's work for education in all its

facets. From a Foucauldian perspective, it seeks to show, not what education is

but, how it operates in concrete and historical frameworks, in the sense of the

actual processes, techniques, and effects which come into play when some

individuals teach, or are taught by, others. What kinds of power relations govern

the process, what bodies of knowledge are called into being, which different

institutions are involved, what forms do the interactions take, and what effects do

91

they have? Questions such as these, as well as the initial findings of this project,

will help in addressing more concrete future applications of Foucault's work to

education.''*

Luke, Allan, in his article, "Theory and Practice in Critical Discourse

Analysis" described critical discourse analysis is a contemporary approach to the

study of language and discourses in social institutions. Drawing on

poststructuralist discourse theory and critical linguistics, it focuses on how social

relations, identity, knowledge and power are constructed through written and

spoken texts in communities, schools and classrooms. This article describes the

historical contexts and theoretical precedents for sociological models for the

study of language, discourse and text in education. It then outlines key terms,

assumptions and practices of critical discourse analysis. It concludes by

describing unresolved issues and challenges for discourse analysis and sociology

of education.''"''

Jackson, Peter, in his article, "Why I'm a Foucauldian (Michel

Foucauit and Jacques Derrida's works)", describes Foucault and Derrida are

commonly called poststructuralists, this label obscures important differences

between their approaches and overlooks the fact that the two men fell out over

theoretical issues. Foucault insisted that it is possible to analyze the power

structures that underpin a body of discourse, and given that the pattern of power

in any historical situation has a characteristic form then the discourses produced

under that regime will also have specifiable features. In contrast, Derrida insisted

that any given text is open to a range of possible interpretations and has no single

authoritative reading. In addition to their points of theoretical disagreement, it is

also important to note that Derrida's and Foucault's respective poststructuralist

tool kits have different objectives and are best suited for different types of

inquiry. For Derrida, deconstruction is a set of approaches to help us break free of

the straitjacket of established interpretations of texts, while Foucault's emphasis

on power and discourse provides new perspectives on what happened in history.

There are similarities in the two thinkers' methods, but the differences between

them also mean that they have had divergent receptions in different academic

disciplines. While Derrida has found a receptive audience in literature

92

departments, some historians have been wary of the more extreme versions of

deconstruction put forward by Derrida's acolytes, especially regarding claims

about the undecideability of texts.'*'

Pada, Roland Theuas S., in his article, "The Paradox of Ipseity and

Difference: Derrida's Deconstruction and Logocentrism", examines thinking

of DeiTida's notion of deconstruction as an attitude in understanding

logocentrism, one might find it necessary to pre-empt this discourse by taking

into serious consideration three words: center, consciousness, and difference.

These words offer the key towards the problem of logocentrism within Derrida's

deconstruction and, as far as these words seem to contextualize themselves within

Derrida's texts, they also offer an explanation of how meaning becomes possible.

Derrida's deconstruction is a form of writing in which the "I-ness" of the self is

given emphasis as both the limitation and possibility of appropriation in so far as

context is concerned. Reading for him is already considered as an act of writing,

the text, being polysemic in its inscription, already implies that the repetition of

the syntax of words will always be rendered by the consciousness with a relative

amount of impurity. Every instance of reading then is a form of writing, each

time and other tries to read the singularity of the construction of the text, it is

already altered as another occurrence within another consciousness.

Hobbs, Mitchell, in his article, "Discourse and Representation:

Reflections on Michel Foucault's Contribution to the Study of the Mass

Media", describes Michel Foucault continues to stand as an intellectual giant on

the field of social and cultural inquiry, although it is now more than 20 years

since his death. Like other intellectual icons of the postmodern pantheon,

Foucault's extensive oeuvre has forced scholars within the social sciences to

reflect on the assumptions that underpin their empirical endeavours, to pay acute

attention to matters of epistemology and ontology. Since his passing, much has

been written on Foucault's contribution to the 'human sciences', with many

excellent books dedicated to exploring both his biography and the implications

posed by his theories. Far from 'forgetting Foucault', as was deemed necessary

by another famous postmodern icon scholars from a variety of disciplines

continue to employ a 'Foucauldian paradigm' to different social settings. Yet,

93

despite his far-reaching influence, Foucault's work has had httle impact on the

field of media related inquiry, with comparatively few sociologists seeking to

apply his concepts of 'discourse' and 'knowledge/power' to this pervasive

sociocultural institution. Accordingly, this paper seeks to make a modest

contribution to the academy's collective, posthumous, Foucauldian-exegesis by

reflecting on the relevance of these concepts for use in researching and

understanding the mass media.'^

Burrell, Gibson, in his article, "Modernism, Post Modernism and

Organizational Analysis 2: The Contribution of Michel Foucault" examines

the second in a series on the relevance of the modernist-postmodernist debate to

organizational analysis, looks at the work of the late Michel Foucault. Whilst his

work is seen as producing a whole series of problems for those brought up in an

Anglo-American tradition of intellectual endeavour, it is maintained that his work

is suggestive of alternative ways of approaching problems and ordering material.

A three fold periodization of his work is suggested beginning with the

'archeaological' period, then attention is paid to the 'genealogical' period and

finally, though less fixed and discernible, his concern for ethics is noted. Ideas

and concepts drawn from all but the very last of his writings are then utilized in

ways which might allow for a significant reordering in the theory of

organizations, particularly in the debate concerning organizational heterogeneity

versus homogeneity, the importance of 'total institutions', organizational control

of sexuality and the role of new technologies in organizational control systems.'''

Youdell, Deborah, in his article, "Subjectivation and performative

politics—Butler thinking Althusser and Foucault: intelligibility, agency and

the raced-nationed-religioned subjects of education" examines .ludith Butler is

perhaps best known for her take up of the debate between Derrida and Austin

over the function of the performative and her subsequent suggestion that the

subject be understood as performatively constituted. Another important but less

often noted move within Butler's consideration of the processes through which

the subject is constituted is her thinking between Althusser's notion of subjection

and Foucault's notion of subjectivation. In this paper, the author explores Butler's

understanding of processes of subjectivation, examine the relationship between

94

subjectivalion and the performative suggested in and by Butler's work, and

consider how the performative is implicated in processes of subjectivation—in

"who' the subject is, or might be, subjectivated as. Finally, the author examines

the usefulness of understanding the subjectivating effects of discourse for

education, in particular for educationalists concerned to make better sense of and

interrupt educational inequalities. In doing this he offers a reading of an episode

of ethnographic data generated in an Australian high school. He suggests that it is

through subjectivating processes of the sort that Butler helps us to understand that

some students are rendered subjects inside the educational endeavour, and others

are rendered outside this endeavour or, indeed, outside studenthood.

Bloland, Harland G., in his article, "Postmodernism and Higher

Education" examines postmodern perspectives, terms, and assumptions have

penetrated the core of American culture over the past thirty years.

Postmodernism's primary significance is its power to account for and reflect vast

changes in our society, cultures, polity, and economy as we move from a

production to a consumption society, shift from national to local and international

politics, commingle high and low culture, and generate new social movements.

Postmodernism has captured our interest because it involves a stunning critique

of modernism, the foundation upon which our thinking and our institutions have

rested. Today, modernist values and institutions are increasingly viewed as

inadequate, pernicious, and costly. Postmodernists attack the validity and

legitimacy of the most basic assumptions of modernism. Because higher

education is quintessentially a modern institution, attacks on modernism are

attacks on the higher education system as it is now constituted.

Bicsta, GertJ.J., in his article, "Pedagogy Without Humanism:

Foucault and the Subject of Education" Education is commonly understood as

an interaction between subjects; an interaction between the educator, who already

is a subject, and the child, who has to become a subject by means of the

pedagogical activities of the educator. Postmodernism has seriously challenged

the common (modern) understanding of human subjectivity. The question

therefore is what his challenge entails for our understanding of the process of

education. In this paper this question is taken up in the context of a distinction

95

between two conceptions of education: education as manipulation and education

as communication. It is argued that the manipulative conception is closely related

to the modern understanding of human subjectivity, as is the critique leveled

against the communicative conception. In order to find out whether the

postmodern "deconstruction" of the modern understanding of human subjectivity

opens up new possibilities for a communicative understanding of education,

Foucault's analysis of the emergence and subversion of the modern conception of

man is presented and discussed. Although Foucault's work points into the

direction of the recognition of the primacy of the intersubjective - and in this

sense supports a communicative understanding of education - his deconstruction

also makes clear that intersubjeclivity cannot be understood as a new deep truth

about man. This means that pedagogy has to do without humanism. The paper

concludes with some reflections on such pedagogy without humanism.

Implication to the present Study:

After reviewing the related studies, it is being observed that there are very

less number of research work is done in the field of philosophy of education,

keeping this point in view the present study has been undertaken. Although in

Western countries, these type of studies have done in this field. But in India this

type of research is less in number. In India very few studies have undertaken to

explore the contribution of postmodern thinkers in India with special reference to

Foucault, Derrida, Lacan etc. But they had contributed immensely in Western

History, Literature and various educational aspects. Of course, the above studies

have been helped a lot for the formulation of the procedure of present education

and the drawbacks in education system. The studies have also provided some

introspection and insight for carrying out the present research.

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1. Sarup, Madan. (1993). An Introduclory Guide to Post-slruclwalism and

Postmodernism. Harvester: Harvester Wheat sheaf.

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3. Hill, Dave, McLaren, Peter, Cole, Mike & Rikowski, Glenn, (eds.). (1999).

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5. Woods, Tim. (1999). Beginning Postmodernism. Manchester: Manchester

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6. Cooper, David E. (2002). World Philosophies: a historical introduction.

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98