Chapter-3 Growth of Higher Education in...

Chapter-3

Growth of Higher Education in India

GROWTH OF HIGHER EDUCATION IN INDIA

The present chapter is a discussion of growth of higher education in India.

Though the growth has been traced from the pre-independence period, but the

focus is on the post independence period.

3.1. GROWTH OF HIGHER EDUCATION IN INDIA BEFORE

INDEPENDENCE

The theme of higher knowledge and higher education was fashioned in India by

the ancient Rishis and sages in the Vedic Age, the date of which is uncertain but is

supposed to be traceable to great antiquity. The early Gurukul system of education

flourished in the Vedic and Upanishadic periods, but a huge university came to be

set up at Takshashilia in the 6th century B.C. and two other universities namely,

Nalanda and Vikramsila were established in the 4th and 5th centuries A.D.,

respectively.

India has had a long tradition of inquiry and articulation of the concepts of

universe, self, role of state, economy, social order and other related matters. The

methodologies adopted were subjective and objective and included observation,

conceptualization, verification, articulation and teaching.

As a result India had gone further in science than any other country before the

modern era especially in mathematics, astronomy and chemistry, metallurgy and

physics. Indian scientists discovered and formulated and anticipated by force of

reasoning or experiment some of the scientific ideas and discoveries which

Europe arrived at much later. Ancient India was well equipped in surgery and its


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system of medicine survives to this day. A vast literature is also available on

“Vriksha Ayurveda” (Herbal Medicine). In literature, in philosophy and in

systems of yogic knowledge not only ancient India but medieval and modern India

reached high levels of achievement. The higher education system flourished in

ancient India and it continued to influence developments during its subsequent

ages, in spite of diverse forms that developed under the impact of changes in

religion, and in social, economic and political life.

3.2. BEGINNING OF MODERN HIGHER EDUCATION

India has a long tradition in learning and higher education was imparted mostly

through family lines or gurukul traditions. Formal institutions of learning such as

Pathshalas, Vihars and Madarsaas came into existence and flourished at various

points in history, particularly during the Pre-British period. British education

policy got clear direction following the minutes of Lord Macaulay in 1835. Lord

Macaulay favoured educating the elite and made a vigorous plea for spreading

western learning through the English language. The British also, at times,

appeared to show concern for the education of the masses. But the fact is that

education, particularly higher education, remained the preserve of the elite.

The involvement of the British in the Indian Education system, particularly from

the middle of the nineteenth century led to a rapid growth of schools, colleges and

universities established by the government as well as by Missionaries and other

private agencies for spreading the western system of education. Universities of

Bombay, Madras and Calcutta were established in 1857 and Universities of


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Allahabad and Punjab (at Lahore) in 1887. During 1880-1900, three different

agencies came forward to spread education:

(1) Mission schools and colleges

(2) Educational institutions established by the government

(3) Private institutions.

Thus a westernized education system through English language came to be

established. The nationalist movement raised the question of education for the

masses. Demand for education in the native language and development of Indian

languages was raised in the early part of the 20th century. The nationalist view was

that education should develop a nationalist character. The need for technical and

vocational education was also emphasized (Kaur 2003). However, the overall

provision of educational facilities remained extremely inadequate. There was just

a little over one person per thousand of population enrolled in higher educational

institutions in 1951.

Between 1913 and 1921, six new universities came into existence. Recognition

was also given to the efforts made by eminent Indians to break new ground in

creating teaching universities. For instance, the Banaras Hindu University,

founded by Madan Mohan Malviya, was established in 1916 and the Aligarh

Muslim University, founded by Sir Syed Ahmad Khan, was established in 1920.

A teaching, unitary and largely residential university was established at Lucknow

(1920). In the meanwhile, two princely States also established universities for

their areas, Mysore in 1916 and Osmania in 1918, the latter making history by the


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adoption of Urdu as the medium of education. Maharishi Annasahib Karve

founded the S.N.D.T. Indian Women’s University in 1916 and it used Marathi and

Gujarati as the medium of education. It was, however, incorporated much later in

1949. After 1921, when education was transferred to Indian control, the

development of universities was much faster and during the next 26 years, nine

more universities were established. On the eve of independence there were 20

universities including University of Lahore. After the attainment of independence,

there has been a much more rapid expansion in the field of higher education. But

even this expansion has not fulfilled the needs of the country.

3.3. DEVELOPMENT OF HIGHER EDUCATION AFTER

INDEPENDENCE

After independence, India adopted the approach of planned development of the

country. The First Five Year Plan focused on agriculture, the Second Five Year

Plan on industry and the Third Five Year Plan again attempted to focus on

agriculture and agro-based industry for the development of the country. This

called for development of the education system to meet the needs of agriculture,

industry and society in general.

At the time of independence in 1947, India inherited a system of higher education

which was not only small but also characterized by the persistence of large intra/

inter-regional imbalances. Determined efforts were made to build a network of

universities, and their affiliated colleges which provided tremendous outreach to a

country of vast diversities in language as also in the prevailing standards of

education at the different levels.


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When India became independent it had only 20 universities and 500 colleges

located in different parts of the country. It enrolled around a little over one person

per thousand of population in higher education. Participation of women was

limited and those who graduated annually were few in number. In the post

independence period, higher education has expanded fast, and it is mostly public

in nature. In developing countries like India, higher education occupies an

important place in the nation building process and in economic development. It is

responsible for promoting the acquisition of new knowledge and skills for

development of physical and human resources, for transforming traditional values

and attitudes to build a new society informed by equality and justice and for

developing a climate for creative thinking and growth of individuality.

Thus, keeping in view the important role of higher education and socio-economic

values of higher education in transforming the Indian society into a more

enlightened, prosperous and civilized community, the government of India took

upon itself the responsibility of its expansion and growth. Education has been

considered as one of the very important dominion in our national life. Education

holds the important key for development and progress in every aspect of our

existence.

Though several debates have undergone on this issue in the recent past, but the

discussion still prevails. It was a known fact that the educational system which

was devised by the former alien rulers did not target national goals and

aspirations. Several educational leaders later realized that the former educational

system had a deleterious effect on the young minds. Subsequently a movement to

establish few nationalist educational institutions was initiated. In this approach


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several nationalist schools and colleges were established to impart education with

a nationalist content and approach, as they thought this type of education would

infuse a spirit of patriotism and a national outlook. To eradicate such prevailing

systems in the pre-independence era in India, many commissions were set up to

propose recommendations to make a change in the educational system. In the year

1948-49 Radhakrishnan Commission on university education was set up, in the

year 1953 University Grants Commission and later in the year 1964-66 it was

Kothari Commission on education.

3.3.1. Radhakrishnan Commission

The first Commission on University Education (1948-49) appointed after

independence in 1947 under Chairmanship of Dr.S.Radhakrishnan set out the

basic aims of university education. It emphasized that the policies and the

programmes of universities should ensure the reorientation of higher education to

meet the national demand in the changed context. It outlined the goals of

universities as follows:

(1) To foster the kind of leadership in all walks of life by helping the

individuals develop their potentials

(2) To provide society with competent men and women trained in all

professions who as cultivated individuals, are endowed with a sense of

social purpose.

(3) To strive to promote equality and social justice and to reduce social and

cultural differences through diffusion of education.


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(4) To foster in the teachers and students and through them in the society

generally, the attitudes and values needed for developing the good life in

individuals and society.

(5) To bring the universities closer to the community through extension of

knowledge and its application to problem-solving.

Based on its recommendations the University Grants Commission (UGC) was

constituted as the apex body on higher education in 1953 by an Act of the

Parliament to provide the direction and support for the development of university

education.

3.3.2. University Grants Commission

The University Grants Commission was constituted in 1953. The Commission

was given an autonomous statutory status by an Act of Parliament in 1956. The

Commission was principally entrusted with the charge of matters related to

education. This included the determination and coordination of standards and the

facilities for study. The Commission was asked to make a thorough research about

these matters. The Central Government annually places at the disposal of the UGC

adequate funds. The funds were required to implement new development schemes.

3.3.3. Kothari Commission

To review the national condition of education and to plan developmental schemes

for education, an education commission was appointed by the government of India

under the chairmanship of Dr. S. Kothari in July 1964. The Kothari Commission

was also instructed to advise the government about the principles and policies to


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be adopted for the development of education. The Commission recognized that

education and research were crucial to the entire development and progress of

socio-economic and cultural progress of the country. At the same time the

Commission also condemned the rigidity of the existing system of education.

(1) The Commission recommended for the introduction of work experience

and social services as an integral part of general education.

(2) Emphasis was given to moral education which would inculcate a sense of

social responsibility.

(3) The Commission also recommended vocationalisation of secondary

education and strengthening the Centers of advanced study.

(4) To set up universities providing education of international standard was

recommended by the Commission.

3.3.4. National Policy on Education

Two decades later the Government of India produced the National Policy on

Education (NPE) in 1986, (with modifications undertaken in 1992) reaffirming

that “Education is a Unique investment in the present and future”. It emphasized

that higher education system should:

(1) Contribute to national development through dissemination of specialized

knowledge and skills.

(2) Play a key role in producing teachers for the education system.


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(3) Become dynamic as never before in the context of unprecedented

explosion of knowledge.

(4) Be consolidated and expended to meet the need for large number of

universities and colleges.

(5) Launch the Open University system as an instrument of democratizing

education.

(6) Develop a new pattern of Rural Universities to transform rural areas.

To realize and fulfill these objectives, a number of policy decisions have been

taken from time to time which have led to considerable expansion and

diversification of the university system, and, accordingly, growth in institutions,

enrolment and finance has recorded manifold increase during the plan period.

3.4. TYPES OF INSTITUTIONS IN HIGHER EDUCATION

According to the Indian Constitution, only universities established by an Act of

Parliament or an Act of State Legislature, and institutions deemed by an Act of

Parliament to have university status or national importance can award higher

education degrees. The institutions of higher education thus fall into the following

broad categories:

(1) Universities established by an Act of Parliament – Central Universities or

State Legislature – State Universities and are of unitary or affiliating type.

(2) Institutions of national importance, which have been declared as such by

the government of India by an Act of Parliament, such as the Indian

Institutes of Technology, which are empowered to award degrees.


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(3) Institutions deemed to be universities, which are given university status by

the UGC. Some of these offer advanced courses in a particular field of

specialization, such as the Indian Veterinary Research Institute etc., while

others award general degrees.

(4) Institutions, which award only diplomas and are not established by

legislation or are deemed to be universities, such as the Indian Institutes of

Management.

Thus we have Central Universities, State Universities, Deemed Universities such

as Gandhi Institute of Technology and Management (GITAM), Andhra Pradesh,

Indian Institute of Foreign Trade, New Delhi and Jamia Hamdard, New Delhi etc.

Open Universities such as Dr B.R. Ambedkar Open University (DBROU), Andhra

Pradesh, Dr. Hari Singh Gour Vishwavidyalaya Sagar University Institute of

Distance Education. Also popular as Sagar University Institute of Distance

Education and Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU). New Delhi etc.

And Institutions of National Importance such as Indian Institute of Technology,

New Delhi, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi and National

Institute of technology, Himachal Pradesh etc.

Educational programme offered by various institutions include undergraduate,

post graduate, pre-doctoral/doctoral, diploma and distance learning programme.

3.4.1. Bachelor/ Undergraduate level

Bachelor’s degree offered after 12 years of school education. Generally it is

offered in two streams: liberal and professional field of studies. The liberal studies

are generally three years programme offered in arts, commerce and sciences.


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Some institutions offer bachelor courses with honours in liberal studies which are

not necessarily longer in duration but indicate greater depth of study.

Bachelor degree in professional studies is generally a four years programme

offered in agriculture, dentistry, engineering, medicine, pharmacy, technology and

veterinary. The bachelors in architecture and medicine take five and five and a

half years respectively. There are other bachelor programme which are offered

only after completion of first bachelor degree. These include one year bachelors in

education, journalism and library and information science. Similarly a Bachelor’s

degree in law can be pursued only after completion of first bachelor degree but is

of three years bachelor programme. The bachelor degree in law is also offered as

an integrated degree lasting five years.

3.4.2. Master’s/ Post-graduate level

Master’s degree is normally of two-year duration in both the liberal and

professional fields of study. It could be coursework based with or without thesis or

research. Now a days to match the skill requirement, fast track programmes in

professional streams such as Executive MBA are also available to those having 3

to 5 years of experience at managerial level. Some Master’s degree such as

Library and Information Science lasts for one year while in Computer Science

lasts for three years.

3.4.3. Pre-Doctoral/ Doctoral level

A pre-doctoral programme – master of Philosophy (M.Phil.) is taken after

completion of the Master’s Degree. This can either is completely research based


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or can include course work as well which is generally of one and half year

duration. Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D) is pursued after masters or pre-doctoral

programme and generally takes two to five years to be awarded. Students are

expected to write a substantial thesis based on original research with or without

course work.

3.4.4. Diploma

Diploma Courses are also available at the undergraduate and postgraduate level.

At the undergraduate level, it varies between one three years in length while

postgraduate diplomas are normally awarded after one year’s study.

3.4.5. Distance Learning Programmes

At all the levels, programmes in both liberal and professional field are offered

through distance learning mode which normally takes longer duration than their

equivalent regular programme. With the establishment in 1985 distance learning

mode got a fillip and currently has become one of the popular modes of imparting

higher education.

The Universities are of various kinds, with a single faculty, or multi-faculties;

teaching or affiliating, or teaching cum affiliating, single campus or multiple

campuses. Most of the Universities are affiliating universities, which prescribe to

the affiliated colleges the course of study, hold examinations and award degrees,

while undergraduate and to some extent postgraduate colleges affiliated to them

impart graduate and postgraduate instruction. Many of the universities along with

their affiliated colleges have grown rapidly to the extent of becoming


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unmanageable. Therefore, as per National Policy on Education 1986, a scheme of

autonomous colleges was promoted. In the autonomous colleges, whereas the

degree continues to be awarded by the University, the name of the college is also

included. The colleges develop and propose new course of study to the university

for approval. They are also fully responsible for conduct of examination.

There were 20 universities and 500 colleges at the time of independence with 2.1

lakh students in the higher education system of the country. But after

independence, there has been a phenomenal growth in all these numbers. Now, it

is a recorded fact that there is an increase of 26 times in the number of

universities, 64 times increase in the number of colleges, and the students

enrolment has gone up to 81 times in the formal system of higher education as

compared to the figures of Independent Year of India At present, there are 611

universities and university-level institutions (as on August 2011) - 289 State

Universities, 94 Private Universities, 43 Central Universities, 130 Deemed

Universities, 42 institutions of national importance, 5 institutes established under

State legislature Act. In addition, there are 33,023 colleges. At the beginning of

the academic year 2010-11, the total number of students enrolled, in the formal

system, in the universities and colleges has been reported at 169.75 lakhs, 22.53

lakhs (13.27%) in university departments and 147.22 lakhs (86.73%) in affiliated

colleges.

The enrolment of women students at the beginning of the academic year 2010-11

was 70.49 lakhs constituting 41.5% of the total enrolment. The women enrolment

as a percentage of total enrolment in States is the highest in Goa (61.2%) followed

by Kerela (56.8%), Meghalaya (51.8%), Nagaland (50.5%) etc and Bihar


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recording the lowest women enrolment of 31.2% only. In terms of absolute

number of women enrolment, Uttar Pradesh tops the list of states with 9.8 lakhs,

followed by Maharashtra (8.6 lakhs) and Andhra Pradesh (7.2 lakhs) etc.

The number of research degrees (PhDs) awarded by various universities decreased

from 13,768 in 2008-09 to 11,161 in 2009-10, thus registering a decrease of

18.9%. Out of total number awarded in 2009-10, the faculty of Arts had the

highest number with 3490 degrees followed by faculty of science with 3742

research degrees. These two faculties together accounted for 65 percent of the

total number of research degrees awarded. In the professional faculties, the faculty

of Engineering and Technology had topped with as many as 1007 Ph.D degrees,

followed by Agriculture faculty with 573 degrees, Education faculty with 469

degrees, Medicine faculty with 337 degrees etc. (UGC annual report 2010-11)

3.5. REGULATORY FRAMEWORK

The institutions imparting higher education at different levels are regulated by the

following bodies

3.5.1. University Grants Commission (UGC)

It was set up under UGC Act 1956. It is responsible for coordination,

determination and maintenance of standards and release of grants to universities

and research organizations.


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3.5.2. All India Council of Technical Education (AICTE)

It has been established under the AICTE Act, 1987. The Council is authorized to

take all steps that are considered appropriate for ensuring coordinated and

integrated development of technical education and for maintenance of standards.

As per the current law, the UGC and the All India Council of Technical Education

(AICTE) enjoys very wide powers to coordinate and determine standards of

higher education. This power is often interpreted as ‘harmonisation’ which is

aimed at ensuring ‘uniformity’, operating in a predominantly centralized

framework. Law made under Entry 66 of the Union List of Constitution (such as

the UGC Act read with its Regulation and the AICTE Act read with its

regulations) will override those made by states under Entry 25 of the Concurrent

List. Coordination is understood as not just evaluation or making grants. It means

harmonization with a view to forge a uniform pattern for concerted action

according to a certain design, scheme or plan of development. It therefore,

includes action not only for removal of disparities but also preventing and

occurring of such disparities. (India Development Report, 2012).

3.5.3. Medical Council of India (MCI)

It was set up by the Indian Medical Council Act, 1956, amended in 1993. The

Council is empowered to prescribe minimum standards for medical education

required for granting recognized medical qualifications by universities or medical

institutions in India. The Council is also responsible to give its recommendations

to the Central Government for establishing new medical colleges, opening of new


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or higher courses of study and increase in admission capacity in any courses of

study or training.

3.5.4. Indian Council for Agricultural Research (ICAR)

It has established various research centres (namely ICAR Research Complex for

NEH Region, Tripura Centre in 1975, National Research Centre on rapeseed-

Mustard (NRCRM) on October 20, 1993 and redesignated it as the Directorate of

Rapeseed-Mustard research (DRMR) in February 2009 and Central Agricultural

Research Institute established by ICAR on 23 June 1978 in Port Blair etc) in order

to meet the agricultural research and education needs of the country. It is actively

pursuing human resource development in the field of agricultural sciences by

setting up numerous agricultural universities spanning the entire country.

3.5.5. National Council for Teacher Education (NCTE)

It is a statutory body set up under the National Council for Teacher Education Act,

1993 to facilitate planned and coordinated development of the teacher education

system in the country, and for regulation and proper maintenance of norms and

standards in the teacher education system. The council is empowered to grant

recognition to institutions offering courses or training in teacher education.

3.5.6. Dental Council of India (DCI)

It was constituted under the Dentist Act, 1948, is a statutory body incorporated

under an Act of Parliament to regulate the dental education and the profession of

dentistry throughout India. The Council is responsible for according recognition to


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dental degree awarded by various universities and also for maintaining uniform

standards of dental education in India.

3.5.7. Pharmacy Council of India (PCI)

It is also known as central council and was constituted under Section 3 of the

Pharmacy Act, 1948. The PCI controls pharmacy education and profession in

India up to graduate level. The council prescribes the minimum standard of

education for qualification as pharmacist.

3.5.8. Indian Nursing Council (INC)

It is a statutory body constituted under the Indian Nursing Council Act, 1947. The

Council is responsible for regulation and maintenance of a uniform standard of

training for nurses, midwives, auxiliary nurse-midwives and health visitors.

3.5.9. Bar Council of India (BCI)

It is empowered to make rules to discharge its functions under the Advocates Act,

1961. An important rule-making power is with reference to laying down

guidelines for the standards of professional conduct and etiquette to be observed

by advocates. The Bar Council of India rules may prescribe for a class or category

of person entitled to be enrolled as advocate. The Bar Council of India can also

specify the conditions subject to which an advocate must have the right to practice

and the circumstances under which a person must be deemed to practice as an

advocate in a court.


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3.5.10. Central Council of Homeopathy (CCH)

It was established under the Homoeopathy Central Council Act, 1973. The

Council prescribes and recognizes all homeopathic medicine qualifications. Any

university or medical institution that desires to grant a medical qualification in

homeopathy is required to apply to the Council. The Council is responsible for

constitution and maintenance of a Central Register of Homoeopathy and for

matters connected therewith. All universities and board of medical institutions in

India are required to furnish all information regarding courses of study and

examination.

3.5.11. Central Council for Indian Medicine (CCIM)

It is a statutory body constituted under the Indian Medicine Central Council Act,

1970. This council prescribes minimum standards of education in Indian Systems

of Medicine viz. Ayurved, Siddha, Unani Tibb. The Council is responsible for

maintaining a Central Register on Indian Medicine and prescribes standards of

professional conduct, etiquette and code of ethics to be observed by the

practitioners.

3.5.12. Distance Education Council (DCE)

It was constituted under statute 28 arising from Section 25 of the Indira Gandhi

National Open University Act, 1985. The Distance Education Council (DEC) is

responsible for the promotion and coordination of the open university and distance

education system and for determination of its standards. The Council provides

academic guidelines to promote excellence, encourage use of innovative


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technologies and approaches, enable convergence of all systems and sharing of

resources through collaborative networking for access to sustainable education,

skill up gradation and training to all.

3.5.13. Rehabilitation Council of India (RCI)

The Parliament enacted Rehabilitation Council of India Act in 1992. It prescribes

that any one delivering services to people with disability, who does not possess

qualifications recognized by RCI, could be prosecuted. Thus the Council has the

twin responsibility of standardizing and regulating the training of personnel and

professional in the field of Rehabilitation and Special Education.

3.5.14. National Council for Rural Institutes (NCRI)

It is an autonomous society fully funded by the Ministry of Human Resource

Development, Government of India. It was established with a main objective of

promoting Rural Higher Education for advancing livelihoods with the instrument

of education bases on the values proposed by Gandhiji.

3.5.15. State Council of Higher Education (SCHE)

Following the National Policy on Education in 1986, respective state governments

have established State Council of Higher Education (SCHE). These councils

prepare and coordinate programs of development of higher education in each

state. Thus they seek to consolidate the efforts and investments of institutions of

higher education with the state.


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3.6. GROWTH OF RECOGNISED EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS IN

INDIA

The growth of higher education in India has been phenomenal in recent decades

and has been discussed below. It would be pertinent to examine the growth of

education at different levels before we take up higher education as it would

provide better insight into the educational scenario in India as a whole, as well as

to make meaningful comparisons as and when required.

3.6.1. Primary Institutions, Upper Primary and Higher Secondary

Institutions

Table 3.1 gives a decadal growth of primary schools, Upper Primary and Higher

Secondary institutions from 1950-51 to 2000-01 and year wise growth up to 2010-

11. The number of primary schools at the beginning of the planning period stood

at a little more than two lakhs (209671) in 1950-51. There was a continuous

increase and by 2010-11 their number exceeded 7 lakhs, recording 7,48,500. In

the year 2002-03 there was a reduction in their number, by 12695, due to closing

down of non-viable institutions. The percentage increase decade-wise over the

period of time varied from 57.5 to 13.8.

The evolution of India’s education system has been driven by increased focus on

basic elementary education. One of the key achievements of India’s education

system since Independence has been the consistent rise in country’s literacy rate,

which has risen from 18% in 1951 to 74% in 2011. Significant efforts have been

made to universalize elementary education in the past six decades. The number of

elementary schools grew significantly, gross enrolment figures for elementary


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education also increased during the period 1950-51 and 2004-05. This growth in

elementary education in India has largely been the result of the Government’s

initiatives.

Table 3.1: Growth of Primary Institutions, Upper Primary and Secondary Institutions (1950-51 to 2010-11)

Year Primary

Institutions

Increase over the

preceding decade/

year

Upper Primary

Institutions

Increase over the

preceding decade/

year

Higher Secondary Institutions

Increase over the

preceding decade/

year

1950-51 209671 - 13596 - 7416 -

1960-61 330399 120728 49663 36067 17329 9913

1970-71 408378 77979 90621 40958 37051 19722

1980-81 494503 86125 118555 27934 51573 14522

1990-91 560935 66432 151456 32901 79796 28223

2000-01 638738 77803 206269 54813 133492 53696

2001-02 664041 25303 219626 13357 137207 3715

2002-03 651382 -12659 245274 25648 145962 8755

2003-04 712239 60857 262286 17012 152049 6087

2004-05 767520 55281 274731 12445 NA -

2005-06 772600 5080 288500 13769 165087 -

2006-07 756950 -15650 300008 11508 NA -

2007-08 787600 30650 325500 25492 172200 -

2008-09* 789400 1800 336600 11100 183200 11000

2009-10* 823200 33800 367700 31100 189900 6700

2010-11* 748500 -74700 447600 79900 200200 10300 * Provisional Source: Selected Educational Statistics, MHRD, Different years


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Implementation of elementary education schemes: Schemes such as Sarva Shiksha

Abhiyaan (2001) and the Mid Day Meal Scheme (1995) can be given the credit for

rapid expansion of the elementary education system in India over the last decade.

The Sarva Shiksha Abhiyaan led to formation of over 200,000 new schools. A

significant growth has also been witnessed in upper primary schools, which have

grown roughly 33 times from 1950-51 to 2005-06.

The number of upper primary schools in 1950-51 was 13,596. During the first

decade of planned development there was a phenomenal increase in number of

upper primary institutions from 13,596 to 49,663, an increase of 265 percent over

the decade. There was a continuous increase and by 2010-11 their number

exceeded 4 lakhs, recording 447600. The percentage increase decade-wise over

the period varied from265.2 to 36.2.

Similarly, in case of higher secondary institutions, the number of institutions

increased enormously over the period 1950-51 to 2010-11, more than 100 percent

during the first two decades of planned development as shown in table 3.1. The

number of higher secondary institutions in the year 1950-51 was 7416 and by

2010-11 their number exceeded 2 lakh, recording 200200.

“In 1948, India had around 12,500 secondary schools of all grades in its major

states (which included upper primary schools) and enrolled in them a little less

than 3 million children. However, even after favourable expansion policies of the

colonial government, the number of high and higher secondary schools in India

was around 4,000 in 1948 with an enrolment of about 1.8 million” (Kabir, 1955).


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In independent India, the network of educational institutions has expended

remarkably during the past six decades. The growth rate of secondary level

institutions during this period has remained much lower compared to that of the

upper primary level. Between 1950-51 and 2010-11, the number of primary level

institutions increased by almost four fold from 209671 to 748500, the number of

upper primary level institutions went up by thirty three fold, from 13596 to

447600 and the secondary level institutions by twenty seven fold from 7416 to

200200. “The growth rates of upper primary and secondary level institutions seem

to be relatively very high during the period primarily because of their small base”

(K. Biswal, 2011).

Figure 3.1: No. of Primary, Upper Primary and Higher Secondary Institutions

Decade-wise, 1950-51 to 2010-11

0

100000

200000

300000

400000

500000

600000

700000

800000

1950-51 1960-61 1970-71 1980-81 1990-91 2000-01 2010-11

No. of Primary institutions

No. of Upper promaryinstitutions

No. of Higher secondaryinstitutions

Source: Based on Table 3.1

3.6.2. Colleges for General Education

Table 3.2 shows the decade wise growth of colleges for General Education from

1950-51 to 2000-01 and subsequently year wise growth up to 2010-11. The

percentage increase over the preceding decade was 161.1 percent in 1960-61 the


70

average of which comes out to be 16.1 percent per year. Same is the case with the

years 1970-71, 1980-81, 1990-91 and 2000-01. By 2009-10 there were 14300

general colleges as compared to 370 in 1950-51. If we see the period of six

decades i.e. from 1950-51 to 2000-01 we find that colleges for general education

increased 20 times. In the first decade of planned development, growth of colleges

for general education was highest compared to the rest of the period and was

61.74% from 1950-51 to 1960-61. Now if we see year wise percentage from

2000-01 to 2004-05, it was 63.1 in 2000-01 which declined to 10.1 in 2004-05.

After that it declined to 9.1% in 2005-06. It is clear from the table that number of

colleges for general education increases but their percentage decline.

Table 3.2: Growth of Colleges for General Education (1950-51 to 2009-10)

Year Colleges for

General Education

Increase over the Preceding

Decade/ Year

Percentage increase per year

1950-51 370 _ _

1960-61 967 597 16.1 p.a.

1970-71 2285 1318 13.6 p.a.

1980-81 3421 1136 4.97 p.a.

1990-91 4862 1441 4.2 p.a.

2000-01 7929 3067 6.3 p.a.

2001-02 8737 808 10.2

2002-03 9166 429 4.9

2003-04 9427 261 2.8

2004-05 10377 950 10.1

2005-06 11698 1321 12.7

2006-07 11458 -240 -2.1

2007-08 13381 1923 16.7

2008-09* 15852 2471 18.5

2009-10* 14300 -1552 -9.8

2010-11* NA - *Provisional p.a.: per annum Source: Selected Educational Statistics, MHRD, Different Years


71

Figure 3.2: No. of Colleges for General Education

Decade-wise, 1950-51 to 2010-11

No. of General Colleges

0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000

8000

9000

1950

-51

1960

-61

1970

-71

1980

-81

1990

-91

2000

-01

2010

-11

No. of General Colleges

Source: Based On Table 3.2

3.6.3. Growth of Women’s Colleges

Data on number of women colleges is shown separately from 1997 onwards. The

growth of women colleges from 1997-98 to 2011-12 is shown in table 3.3. The

number of women colleges increased from 1260 in 1997-98 to 4266 by 2011-12.

Table 3.3 shows that as many as 2058 women colleges have so far been

established during Eleventh Plan as compared to the figure at the end of Tenth

Plan (2208), thus resulting 93% increase in the number of women colleges

established.

Colleges for general education increased from just 370 in 1950-51 to 15,852 in

2008-09. A comparison with growth of women’s colleges shows that while

colleges for general education were 7929 in 2000-01, of these girls’ colleges were

only 1578. By 2008-09 number of these colleges had increased to 15,852, of


72

which girls’ colleges were only 2565. Thus while during the period number of

colleges increased by almost 8000 (7923), girls’ college increased approximately

by 1000 only. Thus growth of girls’ college was much lower than of colleges in

general. Three possible explanations for this are

(a) less girls get enrolled, therefore less demand

(b) higher dropout rate of girls at college level

(c) neglect of girls’ education at college level.

Much more intensive and genuine efforts are needed to promote education of girls

at higher level of education.

Table 3.3: Growth of Women Colleges during 1997-98 to 2011-12

Year Number of

Women Colleges Increase over

Preceding Year

Percentage increase over the preceding year

1997-98 1260 - - 1998-99 1359 99 7.85

1999-2000 1503 144 10.6 2000-01 1578 75 4.99 2001-02 1756 178 11.3 2002-03 1824 68 3.9 2003-04 1871 47 2.58 2004-05 1977 106 5.67 2005-06 2071 94 4.75 2006-07 2208 137 6.62 2007-08 2360 152 6.88 2008-09 2565 205 8.69 2009-10 3612 1047 40.82 2010-11 3982 370 10.24

2011-12* 4266 284 7.13 Source: UGC annual report 2011-12. *Provisional


73

Figure 3.3: Growth of Women Colleges during 1997-98 to 2011-12

No. of women Colleges

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

3500

4000

4500

1997

-98

1998

-99

1999

-200

0

2000

-01

2001

-02

2002

-03

2003

-04

2004

-05

2005

-06

2006

-07

2007

-08

2008

-09

2009

-10

2010

-11

2011

-12

No. of women Colleges


3.6.4. Growth of Professional Colleges

The decadal growth of colleges for professional education from 1950-51 to 2000-

01 and year wise growth up to 2010-11 is shown in table 3.4. The number of

colleges for professional education in 1950-51 was little more than 200 only.

There was a continuous increase and by 2006-07 their number was 8354. Like in

general colleges, the percentage increase over the preceding of professional

colleges in 1960-61 was 309.6 percent the average of which comes out to be 30.9

percent. Same is the case with the years 1970-71, 1980-81, 1990-91 and 2000-01.

We did not compare the period of 1980-81 because it includes the institutions for

post-Matric courses. The year wise percentage increase during the period 2000-01

was 8.3.


74

Table 3.4: Growth of Colleges for Professional Education (1950-51 to 2009-10)

Year Colleges for Professional Education

Increase over the Preceding Decade/

Year

Percentage increase per year

1950-51 208 _ _

1960-61 852 644 30.9 p.a.

1970-71 992 140 1.64 p.a.

1980-81 3542** 2550 25.7 p.a.

1990-91 886 - -

2000-01 2223 1337 15.1 p.a.

2001-02 2409 186 8.3

2002-03 2610 201 8.3

2003-04 2751 141 5.4

2004-05 3201 450 16.3

2005-06 5284 2083 65.1

2006-07 7024 3070 58.1

2007-08 9718 1364 16.3

2008-09* 12030 2312 23.8

2009-10* 11600 -430 -3.6

2010-11* NA -

*Provisional p.a.: per annum **include institutions for Post-Matric courses Source: Selected Educational Statistics, MHRD, Different Years

Figure 3.4: No. of Colleges for Professional Education

Decade-wise, 1950-51 to 2010-11

No. of Professional colleges

0

1000

2000

3000

4000

1950

-51

1960

-61

1970

-71

1980

-81

1990

-91

2000

-01

2010

-11

No. of Professional colleges

Source: Based on Table 3.4.


75

3.7. UNIVERSITIES

At the time of Independence, in 1947, there were only 20 universities and 500

colleges in the country. The number of students and teachers in the higher

education system was very small. After Independence there has been an

exponential increase in all these numbers. Table 3.5 shows the upward trend of

growth of universities from 1950-51 to 2006-07. The number of universities

increases from 27 in 1950-51 to 620 in 2010-11.

Table 3.5: Growth of Universities (1950-51 to 2010-11)

Year Universities Increase over

Preceding Decade/ Year

Percentage increase per

year 1950-51 27 _ _

1960-61 45 18 6.6 p.a.

1970-71 82 37 8.2 p.a.

1980-81 110 28 3.4 p.a.

1990-91 184 74 6.7 p.a.

2000-01 254@ 70 3.8 p.a.

2001-02 272@ 18 7.1

2002-03 304@ 32 11.7

2003-04 304@ 0 0

2004-05 343@ 39 12.8

2005-06 350 7 2.04

2006-07 371@ 21 6

2007-08 406 35 9.4

2008-09* 440 34 8.4

2009-10* 440 0 0

2010-11* 620 180 40.9

*Provisional p.a.: per annum @ include Deemed to be universities and Institutions of National Importance. Source: Selected Educational Statistics, MHRD, Different years


76

Figure 3.5: Growth of Universities

Decade-wise, 1950-51 to 2010-11

No. of Universities

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

1950-51 1960-61 1970-71 1980-81 1990-91 2000-01 2010-11

No. of Universities


The number of universities in 2003-04 remained the same as in the year 2002-03

at 304. The decadal percentage increase during the period 1960-61 to 2000-01

varied from 82 to 38. The percentage increase over the preceding decade of

universities was 66.6 percent in 1960-61 the average of which comes out to be 6.6

percent per year. Same is the case with the year 1970-71, 1980-81, 1990-91and

2000-01. And the year wise increase was found to vary from 2 percent to 13

percent. In two years namely 2003-04 and 2009-19 no new university came into

being.

Equally wide is discipline-orientation of the universities in the country. As per

UGC Annual Report 2009-10 the data shows (table 3.6) that most universities

(54%) are multidisciplinary in character. Another 6.3% universities (women

universities, and the open universities are also multidisciplinary, while the rest are

discipline-specific (agriculture, engineering, law, medical etc.)


77

Table 3.6: Central and State Universities and their Disciplinary Orientation (2009-10)

Type Number Percentage

General (multi-disciplinary) 126 54

Agricultural, veterinary and fishery

39 16.7

Technological 14 6

Language 11 5

Medical 9 4

Law 6 2.6

Women (multi-disciplinary) 5 1.3

Open 11 5

Others 16 5.7

TOTAL 237 100

Source: UGC Annual Report (2009-10), Higher Education in India (strategies and schemes during XI plan period (2007-2012) for universities and colleges.

It may be noted that, with the exception of the Agricultural and Medical

Universities, which are supported and overseen by the Ministries of Agriculture

and Health and Family Welfare respectively, the rest of the universities are under

the purview of UGC.

3.8. UNIVERSITIES IN INDIA

In India higher education holds an important place today and it can be understood

by the number of universities currently present in India and the quality of

education they provide. Table 3.5 shows the growth of universities from 1950-51

to 2010-11 in which data on universities includes deemed to be universities and

institutions of national importance. The number of universities in India by States

and Types in year 2011 is shown in Annexure 3.5. As on August 2011, there were


78

a total of 611 universities in India out of which 289 are State Universities, 130

Deemed Universities, 94 Private Universities and 43 Central Universities.

The Ministry of Human Resource Development (MHRD) is responsible for

supervising the functioning of all the universities in India through its chief

regulatory body- Universities Grants Commission (UGC). The other government

organizations which contribute to the upliftment of Indian education are All India

Council for Technical Education (AICTE) and National Assessment and

Accreditation Council (NAAC).

3.9. PRIVATE UNIVERSITIES IN INDIA

Private universities are not operated by governments, though they receive public

subsidies, especially in the form of public student loans and grants. Private

universities may be subject to government regulation. Many private universities

are run by charitable or non-profit organizations, and some are commercial for-

profit universities which are run as business organizations.

In India privately funded institutions have existed since independence. Many of

these universities offer multidisciplinary professional courses similar to state

funded universities; however institutions offering single stream specialization

programs are also in existence.

As on August 2011, there were 94 private universities in India. The oldest is

Sikkim Manipal University of Health Medical and Technological Science, with

Gazette Notification date of 11 October 1995. Some of India’s prominent Private

Universities include Auro University of Hospitality and Management, Surat,


79

Gujarat. Pacific University, Udaipur, Rajasthan. Jindal Global University, SRM

University, GITAM University, Amity University, Amrita University etc.

3.10. UNIVERSITY LEVEL INSTITUTIONS

Over the past six decades India has covered a long distance on the path of

expanding the institutional capacity in higher education (table 3.7). In the year

1950, the country had just 25 university level institutions; this figure has gone up

to 417 in 2007, nearly 17 fold increase. The growth of degree colleges during the

period has been even larger, nearly 30 times. The number of colleges has gone up

from 700 in 1950 to 25,951 in the year 2009 respectively.

Table 3.7: Institutions of Higher Education and their Intake Capacity

Capacity Indicators 1950 1991 2004 2006 2009

No. University Level institutions

25 177 320 367 467

No. of Colleges 700 7,346 16,885 18,064 25,951

No. of Teachers (in thousands)

15 272 457 488 588

No. of Students (in million)

0.1 4.9 9.95 11.2

13.6

Total university level institutions by 1/7/2010 add up to 534. Source: UGC Annual Report, Higher Education in India (strategies and schemes during XI Plan Period (2007-2012) for universities and colleges.

In the country university-level institutions widely differ in terms of their structure

and coverage (table 3.8). These could be subdivided into six broad groups: Central

Universities (in the Year 2009) were 40, State Universities are 234, Deemed

Universities are 128, Institutions of National Importance established under Central


80

legislation are 39, established under State legislation are 5 and Private Universities

are 21 in number.

Table 3.8: University Level Institutions in India

Type 2002 2006 2007 2009 2010

Central Universities 18 20 25 40 41

State Universities 178 217 231 234 257

Institutions Deemed to be Universities

52 102 102 128 130

Institutions of National Importance (by State

legislation

5 5 5 5 5

Institutions of National Importance (by Central

legislation)

12 13 33 39 39

Private Universities _ 10 21 21 61

Total 265 367 367 467 533

The figures for 2010 are up to 1/7/2010 Source: UGC Annual Report, 2009-10, Higher Education in India (strategies and schemes during XI Plan Period (2007-2010) for universities and colleges.

3.11. STAGE-WISE ENROLMENT OF STUDENTS

The majority of students in the higher education system were enrolled for a

variety of courses at the undergraduate level. The students at this level constitute

an estimated 86.11 percent of the total students in colleges and universities put

together. The percentage of students enrolled for Master’s level courses was 12.07

while a very small proportion (0.81%) of the students in the institutions of higher

education was doing research. Likewise only 1.01 percent of the students were

enrolled in diploma or certificate courses shown in table 3.9.

Most of the students in the higher education system were enrolled in affiliated

colleges- 90.06 percent of all the undergraduate students and 70.84 percent of all

the post graduate students, while the remaining was in the universities and their


81

constituent colleges. However, 90 percent of the research students working for M.

Phil or Ph.D. were enrolled in the universities. In the case of enrolment in

diploma/certificate courses too, university departments/ university colleges,

together had an edge over affiliated colleges. However, a majority of the students

were in affiliated colleges at both undergraduate and post graduate levels.

Table 3.9: Stage-wise Enrolment* of Students: University Teaching Departments/ University Colleges and Affiliated Colleges 2010-11

S.No. Stage University Departments/

University Colleges

Affiliated Colleges

Total (% to Grand

Total)

Percentage in

Affiliated Colleges

1 Graduate 1453519 13162954 14616473

(86.11)

90.06

2 Post graduate 597541 1451583 2049124

(12.07)

70.84

3 Research 114263 23405 137668

(0.81)

17.00

4 Diploma/ Certificate

87391 84227 171618

(1.01)

49.08

Grand Total 2252714 14722169 16974883

(100.00)

86.73

Source: UGC Annual Report 2010-11 Figure in brackets are in percentages

3.12. STUDENTS ENROLMENT

Another growth parameter of higher education is the increase in student’s

enrolment. Table 3.10 shows the decadal increase of students from 1950-51 to

1990-91. Subsequent data is on a yearly basis.


82

Table 3.10: All India Growth of Students Enrolment in Higher Education

(1950-51 to 2010-11)

Year Total Enrolment Increase over

preceding decade/ year

Percentage Increase per year

1950-51 1,73,696 _ _ 1960-61 5,56,559 3,82,863 220.42 1970-71 19,53,640 13,97,081 251.02 1980-81 27,52,437 7,98,797 40.88 1990-91 49,24,868 21,72,431 78.9 1991-92 52,65,886 3,41,018 6.9 1992-93 55,34,966 2,69,080 5.1 1993-94 58,17,249 2,82,283 5.1 1994-95 61,13,929 2,96,680 5.1 1995-96 65,74,005 4,60,076 7.5 1996-97 68,42,598 2,68,593 4.1 1997-98 72,60,418 4,17,820 6.1 1998-99 77,05,520 4,45,102 6.1

1999-2000 80,50,607 3,45,087 4.5 2000-01 83,99,443 3,48,836 4.3 2001-02 89,64,680 5,65,237 6.7 2002-03 95,16,773 5,52,093 6.2 2003-04 1,02,01,981 685208 7.2 2004-05 1,10,38,543 836562 8.2 2005-06 1,20,43,050 1004507 9.1 2006-07 1,31,63,054 1120004 9.3 2007-08 1,44,00,381 1237327 9.4 2008-09 1,57,68,417 1368036 9.5 2009-10 1,72,43,352 1474935 9.4 2010-11 1,86,70,050 1426698 8.3 2011-12* 2,03,27,478 1657428 8.9

*Provisional p.a.: per annum Note: Series revised from 2003-04 based on the figures for the year 2011-12 Source: UGC Annual report 2010-11

At the national level, since independence up to 2006-07 there has been 13 fold

increase in the number of universities, colleges have registered a 40 fold increase

in the same period while in student enrolment the increase was approximately 80

fold in the period from 1950-51 to 2008-09.


83

Figure 3.6: All India Growth of Students Enrolment

Decade-wise, 1950-51 to 2010-11

No. of Students

0

2000000

4000000

6000000

8000000

10000000

12000000

14000000

16000000

18000000

1950-51 1960-61 1970-71 1980-81 1990-91 2000-01 2010-11

No. of Students


The trend of student enrolment in the last 60 years is given in the table 3.10. The

growth in student enrolment during 1992-93 to 1994-95 occurred at a moderate

but steady rate, with the average increase in enrolment during this period working

out to 5.1 percent per annum, while the increase in 1996-97 was only 4.1 percent

indicating that for the first time since 1987-88, the increase in enrolment in a year

fell below 5 percent. The percentage annual increase in student enrolment during

the entire period varied between 4 percent to 7 percent.

During the year 2008-09, there were more than one crore i.e. 1,57,68,417 students

enrolled on various courses at all levels in universities, colleges and institutions of

higher education as compared to 83.99 lakhs in the year 2000-01, registering an

increase of 187.7 percent.


84

3.13. GROWTH OF WOMEN ENROLMENT

The role of women in economic development can be enhanced with education.

Education of women helps them in emancipating and preparing them in playing an

effective role in social, economic, political and public life. Education helps them

in strengthening their human capital base in enhancing the opportunities to get

better employment and hence better earning. Several research studies have also

shown that returns to education of women are higher than that of men. But in

developing country like India, female education is still regarded as consumption

expenditure.

There had been a phenomenal growth in the number of women students enrolled

in higher education, since independence. The women enrolment which was less

than 10 percent of the total enrolment on the eve of independence had risen to

42.66 percent in the academic year 2011-12. Women enrolment in higher

education has increased 43 thousand in 1950-51 to 8672 thousand in 2010-11

shown in table 3.11. The growth in enrolment of women is less as compared to

growth of total students’ enrolment. There are various socio-economic factors

responsible for low growth in women’s enrolment like early age of marriage, in

some parts of India girls education is considered as consumption expenditure, girls

are considered as burden so their parents don’t send them school.


85

Table 3.11: Growth of Enrolment of Women in Higher Education (1950-51 to 2011-12) (in thousands)

Year Total Student

Enrolment

Increase over

preceding decade

Percentage increase

Women enrolment

Increase over

preceding decade

Percentage Increase

1950-51 397 - - 43 - -

1960-61 1050 653 164.5 170 127 295.3

1970-71 1954 904 86.1 431 261 153.5

1980-81 2754 800 40.9 749 318 121.8

1990-91 4925 2171 78.8 1437 688 91.8

2000-01 8399 3474 70.5 3306 1869 130.06

2010-11 18670 10271 122.3 7748 4442 134.4

2011-12 20327 1657 8.87 8672 924 11.9 p.a.

p.a.: per annum Source: UGC, Higher Education in India at a Glance, 2012

Figure 3.7: Growth of Enrolment of Women in Higher Education

Decade-wise 1950-51 to 2010-11

0

2000

4000

6000

8000

10000

12000

14000

16000

18000

20000

1950

-51

1960

-61

1970

-71

1980

-81

1990

-91

2000

-01

2010

-11

Total Student Enrolment (inthousand)

Women Enrolment (inthousand)



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3.14. STUDENT ENROLMENT: AN INTERNATIONAL COMPARISION

India possesses one of the largest higher education systems in the world and ranks

second in terms of absolute numbers of student enrolment. Over the past six

decades there has been a healthy consistent growth in the number of institutions

and student enrolment. But India still lags behind the rest of the world with a low

gross enrolment ratio (GER) in higher education of less than 20 percent, (8.9%

according to UGC annual report 2011-12) which is low as compared with the

world figure of nearly 30 percent and worse with other developed and developing

countries. The GER in United States is 84 percent, in United Kingdom it is 59

percent, in Japan it is 59.7 percent and in China it is 25.9 percent shown in table

3.12.

Even in developing countries like Philippines and Thailand the GER is above 20

percent. In countries like Indonesia and Malaysia it was 23.1 percent and 40.2

percent respectively which is much better than India’s figure of 17.9 percent.

Education is most important component for our nation’s social, economic and

political change. A well educated population equipped with skills, attitudes and

relevant knowledge, is very necessary for economic and social development in the

twenty first century.

“For India to sustain its growth momentum and to strengthen its competitiveness,

a world-class higher education system is an important pre-requisite. Global

experiences indicate a positive correlation between GER and economic growth in

a country and point to the need for a minimum of 30 percent GER in higher


87

education to sustain economic growth. To meet this minimum requirement there

has to be a sharp improvement in the quality and quantity of institutions of higher

education. This will require significant investment and focus on faculty and

research. The government will expedite the work on setting up of a National

Mission for Faculty Development”. (Shashi Tharoor, Minister of State for Higher

Education and Development)

Table 3.12: Gross Enrolment Ratio in Higher Education in Selected Developed and Developing Countries

Country Year Ratio Afghanistan 2009 3.3

Australia 2010 79.9 Bangladesh 2009 10.6

Bhutan 2011 8.8 China 2010 25.9

Hong Kong 2010 59.7 India 2010 17.9

Indonesia 2010 23.1 Iran 2010 42.8

Japan 2010 59.7 Malaysia 2009 40.2

Nepal 2004 5.6 New Zealand 2010 82.6

Pakistan 2008 5.4 Philippines 2008 28.9

Russian Federation 2009 75.9 Sri Lanka 2010 15.5 Thailand 2011 47.7 Turkey 2009 45.8

United Kingdom 2012 59 United States 2012 84

Viet Nam 2010 22.3 Source: Statistical Yearbook for Asia and the Pacific 2012.

3.15. GROWTH IN THE NUMBER OF TEACHERS

The increase in students’ enrolment both in universities and colleges has rightly

been accompanied by increase in number of teachers in institutions of higher

education. The growth in the number of teachers in educational institutions is


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shown in table 3.13. In 1990-91 there were 2,63,819 teachers in universities and

colleges. The number of teachers in universities was 62,565 in 1990-91 which

rose to 72,919 in 2001-02. And the number of teachers in affiliated colleges was

2,01,254 in 1990-91 which rose to 3,58,574 in 2001-02. The total number of

teachers was 4,71,931 in 2004-05.

Table 3.13: Number of Teachers in Educational Institutions

Year Universities Affiliated colleges Total

1990-91 62565 201254 263819

1993-94 67540 223508 291048

1994-95 69283 231510 300793

1995-96 67215 276205 343420

1996-97 69090 285240 354330

1997-98 70034 300318 370352

1998-99 71306 315315 386620

1999-00 71852 325869 397721

2000-01 72534 339094 411628

2001-02 72919 358574 431493

2002-03 NA NA 436246

2003-04 NA NA 456742

2004-05 NA NA 472931

2005-06 NA NA NA

2006-07 NA Na NA

2007-08 96402 556263 652665

Source: Department of Education, MHRD, University Grants Commission

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