BASIC BOTANY 3 - 1CHAPTER 3

Introduction 2Plant Nomenclature and Classification 2

Family 3Genus 3Species 3Variety and Cultivar 3

Plant Life Cycles 6Annuals 6Biennials 6Perennials 6

Plant Parts and Their Functions 7Vegetative Parts:

Leaves, Stems, and Roots 7Reproductive Parts:

Flowers, Fruits, and Seeds 10Plant Development 14

Seed Germination 14Vegetative Growth Stage 14Reproductive Growth Stage 14Senescence 15

Further Reading and Resources 15

MASTER GARDENERIDAHOUNIVERSITY OF IDAHO EXTENSION

Chapter 3BASIC BOTANY

BASIC BOTANY

INTRODUCTION

Botany is the study of plants. To become aknowledgeable plant person, it is essential tounderstand basic plant science. It is important tounderstand how plants grow, how their various partsfunction, how they are identified and named, andhow they interact with their environment. Learningthe language of botany means learning many newwords. Making the effort to learn this material willprove extremely valuable and will create excitementas you learn to unravel the mysteries of the plantworld.

Like all living organisms, plants are complex, andthere is far more to know about them than can belearned in an introductory Master Gardener course.Nonetheless, this chapter is designed to provide theMaster Gardener student with a brief, but broad,introduction to many aspects of botany.

PLANT NOMENCLATURE AND CLASSIFICATION

Plant classification and the scientific naming ofplants are important for correct and preciseidentification. Plant classification can be useful forMaster Gardeners involved in identifying plants,germinating seeds, growing a garden, diagnosingplant problems, or controlling pests.

Plants generally have a common name and ascientific name. Common names are usually simpleand easy to remember for the general public. Theyoften are descriptive of the plant; for example,burning bush, bleeding heart, or paper birch.

There are problems, however, with usingcommon names. The same species of plant mayhave two or more common names, with names

varying from country to country, region to region,and sometimes even within a local area. This makesit difficult to communicate about a plant. Forexample, the state flower of Idaho is Philadelphuslewisii, commonly called syringa in Idaho. In otherparts of the country, however, the same plant isknown as mock orange. To add to the confusion,Syringa is the genus for lilac shrubs. Anotherexample of confusing common names is Malvaparviflora, which is called little mallow, round leafmallow, cheeseweed, or sometimes buttonweed. Thesame common name may also be used for severalplants. An example is the common name geranium,which can refer to plants in either the genusGeranium or the genus Pelargonium.

With scientific names, a plant has only one name.Scientific names use the Latin language and oftenare descriptive of some characteristic of the plant. Adictionary on plant names can help withpronunciation and clarify the meaning of Latinwords.

Plants are named using a binomial (two-part)naming system. A binomial name includes theplant’s genus name (capitalized and italicized) plusthe specific epithet name (lowercased anditalicized). The name may be followed by the initialof the person credited with originally describing andnaming the plant. For example, Solanum tuberosum L. indicates that Carl von Linne(Linnaeus), a Swedish physician, described andnamed the white (Irish) potato.

Plant classification groups plants with similarcharacteristics, first in a broad sense, then through aseries of subgroups, using progressively morespecific flower and plant traits. This processcontinues until a single, unique plant form remains.

CHAPTER 33 - 2

Chapter 3

Basic BotanyJennifer Jensen, Extension Educator, Boundary County

Susan Bell, Extension Educator, Ada CountyWilliam Bohl, Extension Educator, Bingham County

Stephen Love, Consumer Horticulture Specialist, Aberdeen Research and Extension CenterIllustrations by Jennifer Jensen

BASIC BOTANY

This plant is given a binomial species name. Rankedfrom general to specific, the plant classificationgroups are as follows: kingdom, division or phylum,class, order, family, genus, species, and variety orcultivar. Each species is assigned to a genus, eachgenus to a family, and so on. Refer to Table 1 forexamples of plant classification.

Understanding plant classification is useful formaintaining a successful garden. For example,vegetable crops should be rotated each year, androtation can be simplified by grouping plants fromthe same family. To do so, you need to know whichplants belong in which family. A second example:when using the Internet to research solutions to aplant problem, it is absolutely essential to enter thecorrect scientific name. The more you study plants,the more you likely will appreciate the usefulness ofthe scientific nomenclature system.

An important distinction among plants at theDivision level is between those with seedlingshaving one seed leaf (monocots, such as grassesand lilies) and those with seedlings having two seedleaves (dicots, such as beans). Monocot and dicotseeds germinate differently. The distinction betweenmonocots and dicots becomes very important whenusing herbicides. For example, common lawnherbicides for broadleaf weeds (for example, 2,4-D)will kill only dicot plants, leaving the grass plants(monocots) unharmed.

FamilyMaster Gardeners usually work with the

classification of plants at the family level and below.Plant families are important in gardening becausemembers of the same family often have similarcultural requirements and similar insect and disease problems.

In a family of plants, similarities occur primarilywith reproductive parts (flowers, fruit, and seed),although leaves and other plant parts may also besimilar. Table 2 includes some common families andsome of their characteristics.

GenusGenus is a subdivision of a plant family. Plants of

the same genus share similarities mostly in flowercharacteristics and genetics. Plants in one genususually cannot breed with plants in another, butspecies within a genus will often intercross. Thefirst letter of the genus name is capitalized, and theentire name is italicized or underlined.

SpeciesSpecies is a group of individual plants that freely

interbreed and have many (or all) characteristics incommon. Species names use the binomial namingsystem of genus and specific epithet.

Variety and cultivarVariety

Variety is a word commonly used to describecultivated and hybridized plant types. This is amisnomer; used in its proper context, a variety is abotanical division of a species. It is a subgroupingof plants within a species that differs in someparticular way from other members of that species.In the wild, variety may be used to describe aparticular regional variant of a species with uniqueplant size, flower color, or other visible trait. Incultivated plants, variety may be used to designate aparticular useful form of a species. For example,cauliflower (Brassica oleracea var. botrytis) andcabbage (Brassica oleracea var. capitata) arevarieties of the same species. The variety namefollows the abbreviation “var.” It is written in lowercase and is italicized or underlined.

3 - 3CHAPTER 3

Table 1. Examples of plant classification.

Common name Black chokecherry Siskiyou blue Idaho fescue Western white pineKingdom Planta Planta PlantaDivision or phylum Magnoliophyta Magnoliophyta PinophytaSubdivision Angiospermae Angiospermae GymnospermaeClass Magnoliopsida (dicots) Liliopsida (monocots) PinopsidaOrder Rosales Poales Pinales Family Rosaceae Poaceae PinaceaeGenus Prunus Festuca PinusSpecies Prunus virginiana Festuca idahoensis Pinus monticolaVariety or cultivar var. melanocarpa ‘Siskiyou Blue’

BASIC BOTANY CHAPTER 33 - 4

Table 2. Common plant families.

Scientific Common family name family name Common plants in family Family traitsApiaceae Carrot family Carrot (Daucus carota)

Parsnip (Pastinaca sativa)Dill (Anethum graveolens)Poison hemlock (Conium maculatum)

Asteraceae or Sunflower family Lettuce (Lactuca sativa)Compositae Sunflower (Helianthus annuus)

Zinnia (Zinnia elegans)Spotted knapweed (Centaurea stoebe)

Brassicaceae or Mustard family Broccoli (Brassica oleracea var. botrytis)Cruciferae Kale (Brassica oleracea var. acephala)

Cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. capitata)Radish (Raphanus sativus)Shepherd’s-purse (Capsella bursa-pastoris)

Fabaceae or Pea or bean family Common pea (Pisum sativum)Leguminosae Common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris)

Lupine (Lupinus argenteus)Hairy vetch (Vicia villosa)

Lamiaceae or Mint family Peppermint (Mentha x piperita)Labiatae Sweet basil (Ocimum basilicum)

English lavender (Lavendula angustifolia)Henbit (Lamium amplexicaule)

Poaceae Grass family Corn (Zea mays)Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis)Blue fescue (Festuca glauca)Quackgrass (Elytrigia repens)

Ranunculaceae Buttercup family Columbine (Aquilegia vulgaris)Larkspur (Delphinium elatum)Lenten rose (Helleborus orientalis)Creeping buttercup (Ranunculus repens)

Rosaceae Rose family Apple (Malus pumila)Garden strawberry (Fragaria x ananassa)Rose (Rosa spp.)Sulfur cinquefoil (Potentilla recta)

Solanaceae Nightshade or Tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum)potato family Pepper (Capsicum annuum var. annuum)

Potato (Solanum tuberosum)Black henbane (Hyoscyamus niger)

Flowers usually in simple orcompound, flat-topped clusterscalled umbels; stems often hollow.Flowers organized as headswith ray and disk flowers. Oneof the largest families: 20,000species.Flowers have four petals thatare not joined; there usually aresix stamens (four long, twoshort).

Flowers with a distinct upper“flag” petal, arranged in headsor spikes.

Leaves usually opposite; flowerstubular; stems square.

Leaves simple and strap-like;inflorescence usually a longspike. Large family of between7,500 and 10,000 species.Large and variable family withvariable flower form; mostspecies have showy sepalsrather than petals.Flowers with five (or multiples offive) petals and many stamens

Leaves alternate; flowers havefive petals fused at the base;stamens attached to the petalsand form a column around thepistil.

BASIC BOTANY

CultivarThis word is a contraction of the term “cultivated

variety.” A cultivar is a very specific, human-bred,cultivated form of a useful crop species. Ifpropagated asexually (vegetatively), cultivars can betermed clones. When vegetatively propagated,cultivars maintain their characteristics fromgeneration to generation, thus preserving desirabletraits. However, seeds of clones will not produceplants with the same desirable characteristics as thecultivar. If propagated by seeds, cultivars can betermed lines.

Cultivar names are indicated by placing the termin single quotation marks or by preceding thecultivar name with the abbreviation cv. (do not useboth). The first letter of the cultivar name iscapitalized, but the name is not italicized orunderlined. An example is the tomato cultivar EarlyGirl, expressed as Solanum lycopersicum ‘EarlyGirl’ or cv. Early Girl.

Both ancient practices of plant domestication andmodern processes of plant breeding havecontributed to the vast pool of plants we haveavailable for food, industry, and beautification.Understanding the titles used to describe theseplants will help in making decisions as to whichcultivars are suitable for specific uses.

Landrace. This term is used to describe a locallydomesticated and utilized form of a plant speciesthat was developed through a long process ofselection without the use of modern genetics.Landraces typically have ancient origins, and theirproduction was historically limited to a very smallgeographical area. They often are specificallyadapted to production conditions typical of theirpoint of origin. One example is PalomeroToluqueño, a type of popcorn that was historicallygrown in the highlands of Mexico.

Landraces typically have improved traits thatmake them valuable for human use in comparisonwith the original wild species. At the same time,individual plants within a landrace often vary inappearance, quality, and resistance traits.

Open-pollinated. These cultivars are developedthrough modern breeding practices, geneticallystabilized to ensure uniformity, and then seedpropagated using methods that allow uncontrolleddistribution of pollen within the crop. They differ

from hybrids, which are produced through a processthat completely controls pollen transfer. Open-pollinated cultivars will grow true-to-type if seed iscollected from parental plants that are isolated fromother cultivars of the same species. Most lettuce,bean, and pea varieties for home gardeners areexamples of open-pollinated plants.

Heirloom. No universally accepted definition ofheirloom exists. Some people consider varieties tobe heirlooms only if they are at least 100 years old.Other people feel the proper cut-off date is 1951, theyear recognized as the point at which modern hybridcultivars became available. Nonetheless, there aretwo fairly common characteristics attributed toheirloom cultivars: (1) they are relatively old, and(2) they are not currently planted in large-scaleproduction agriculture.

Cultivars designated as heirloom have recentlybecome very popular in home garden and smallagriculture production. They provide uniqueappearance and quality characteristics. However,they also tend to be narrowly adapted and lack thepest resistance that is common in modern cultivars.

The terms “open-pollinated” and “heirloom” areoften used synonymously. By any standard used todefine heirloom, this is incorrect. Open-pollinatedrefers to any cultivar developed through modern(traditional) breeding methods that is not acontrolled-pollination hybrid. Every year, modernbreeding programs release new open-pollinatedcultivars of many crops and landscape species.Cultivars designated as heirloom, on the other hand,include many of the older, lesser known open-pollinated cultivars, clonal cultivars, and, in somecases, landraces.

Hybrid. Hybrid cultivars are often referred to asF1 hybrids. This means that the seed we purchaseand the resulting plants grown are the first-generation offspring of two open-pollinated parents.(The abbreviation F1 stands for the term “first filial”generation.) Hybrid cultivars are limited almostexclusively to food plants, with a few exceptions. Inproduction agriculture, hybrid cultivars can providemany important advantages, including higher yield,greater plant uniformity, more consistent quality,and the combination of the superior traits of twooutstanding parents.

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BASIC BOTANY

The main difference between hybrid and open-pollinated cultivars is that subsequent generationsgrown from the seed of a hybrid do not breed true totype. Thus, growers cannot collect and use theirown seed, but must purchase new seed each year.For this reason, many people do not consider hybridcultivars sustainable in small-scale agriculturalproduction.

Clonal. Many plant cultivars are not propagatedfrom seed. They are propagated using vegetativeparts. Some familiar plants propagated in thismanner include potatoes, rhubarb, asparagus, bulbflowers, and most types of fruit trees. Types of plantmaterial used to establish a new generation includetubers, bulbs, root cuttings, stolons or runners,rhizome pieces, and stem cuttings. Many clonallyproduced cultivars can trace their origins to a singleplant discovered many hundreds of years ago.

GMO. Short for “genetically modifiedorganism,” GMO cultivars are radically differentfrom the cultivar types discussed previously, all ofwhich have their basis in traditional breeding and/orselection. Biotechnologists have discovered ways toisolate and remove specific genes from oneorganism and attach them to the chromosomes of adifferent organism. This makes it possible to giveplants traits that nature did not provide.

This technology is widely used in productionagriculture to address critical production andnutrition issues. Examples include insect-resistantcorn and cotton cultivars (greatly reducing the needfor insecticide use), herbicide-resistant soybeans andsugar beets (minimizing the need for expensivehand weeding), and rice cultivars with high levels ofvitamin A (reducing the incidence of blindness inmany developing countries). Currently, there are noGMO cultivars available for home food production.Many people oppose the use of GMO cultivars,limiting their value for use in small-scale farming orhome production of food crops.

PLANT LIFE CYCLES

A plant is classified by its life cycle, specificallyhow long it lives and how long it takes to completereproductive processes and develop seed.

AnnualsAnnuals grow, mature, flower, produce seed, and

die in one season. An annual may be a summerannual or a winter annual. For summer annuals,the seed germinates in the spring, and a plantdevelops, matures, and produces seed by the end ofthe growing season. Summer annuals includezinnias, corn, and beans. Winter annual seedgerminates in the fall, producing a plant thatoverwinters, matures, and produces seed thefollowing growing season. Winter wheat and downybromegrass (a weed) are winter annuals.

BiennialsBiennials take 2 years or at least part of a second

year to complete their life cycle. During the firstseason, they grow a hardy rosette of basal leavesthat will overwinter. During the second season, theplant flowers, produces seeds, and then dies. Parsleyand table beets are examples of biennial plants.

PerennialsPerennials live for more than 2 years.

Herbaceous perennials have soft, nonwoody stems.Herbaceous perennials die back each winter, and anew plant grows from the crown or roots thefollowing spring. Herbaceous perennials may livefor 3 to 25 years, or even longer under idealgrowing conditions. Many herbaceous plants, suchas tomatoes or lantana (a flowering shrub), areperennial in warmer climates, but are grown asannuals in temperate climates.

Woody perennials such as trees or shrubs have awoody stem or trunk. Those that lose their leavesevery fall and grow new leaves in the spring arecalled deciduous.

Trees or shrubs that keep their leaves (needles orbroad leaves) through the winter are calledevergreens. Sometimes, the term evergreen may besomewhat of a misnomer because the older needles(those closer to the tree trunk) fall off. For example,a spruce tree will hold its needles for 7 to 10 years,while a pine tree will hold needles for about 3 years.

Woody perennials have a wide range of lifespans, ranging from 10 to 12 years for aspens in ahome landscape to more than 1,000 years for someconifers. Life expectancy is often linked to growthrates. (Slower growing plants such as bristleconepines tend to live longer.)

CHAPTER 33 - 6

BASIC BOTANY

PLANT PARTS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

Vegetative parts: Leaves, stems, and rootsUnderstanding plant part terminology (figure 1)

and the functions of plant parts will help youidentify plants and diagnose plant problems.

Leaves Leaves are the main structures produced on plant

stems. Leaves come in many different shapes, sizes,and arrangements and are used for plantidentification. They also serve many vital roles, themost important being the harvest of light energy.The leaf is the primary site of photosynthesis,respiration, and transpiration, all important growthprocesses for plants.

Leaf parts and structure. There are two mainparts to a leaf: the blade (flat, thin portion) and thepetiole. The petiole attaches the blade to the stemand contains conducting tissues between the leafand the stem.

The outer cell layers on the top and bottom of theleaf blade are the epidermis; they serve to protectthe inner leaf tissue. Specialized epidermal cells onthe undersides, and sometimes upper sides, of leavesform openings called stomata. (The singular ofstomata is stomate.) Open stomata keep water andnutrients moving through the plant and allow theexchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen between theair inside and outside the leaf, a process that iscritical for photosynthesis. Conditions that causeplants to lose a lot of water (high temperature, wind,low humidity) cause the stomata to close.Consequently, it is important to keep plantsadequately watered to allow air exchange forphotosynthesis.

Some plant leaves have a waxy layer on theepidermis called the cuticle. The cuticle protects theleaf from dehydration and prevents penetration ofsome disease-causing organisms.

The leaf blade texture (smooth, hairy, waxy, etc.)is often important to consider when applyingpesticides. For example, herbicides may not makegood contact on hairy or waxy leaves; consequentlythey are less effective. Also, some pesticides mayremove a desired waxy leaf texture. When thishappens on Colorado spruce needles, for example,the color of the needles may change from blue togreen.

Leaf arrangement and shape. Leaves areattached to a stem in one of three patterns: opposite,alternate, and whorled. Opposite arrangementmeans two leaves attach at the same point, but onopposite sides of the stem. With alternatearrangement, leaves are attached at alternatingpoints from one side of the stem to the other. In awhorled arrangement, three or more leaves areattached at the same point. Leaf arrangement isoften used for plant identification. For example,maple trees have opposite leaf arrangement, andbirch and willow trees have alternate leafarrangement.

Leaves are most often thought of as being flatblades of various shapes. Examples include theleaves of maple trees or green beans. However, aleaf blade may be needle-like, such as in conifers.Spruce trees have about 1-inch-long needles, andpine trees 2- to 3-inch-long needles. Leaves can alsobe scale-like, such as in redcedar and arborvitae, orflat and strap-shaped as in grass plants. Leaf shapesare also helpful for identification.

3 - 7CHAPTER 3

TERMiNAL BuD

Figure 1. Parts of a vascular plant.

LATERAL BuD

NODE

iNTERNODE

vASCuLAR SySTEM

PRiMARy ROOT

ROOTS HAiRS

LATERALROOTS

PETiOLE

LEAF BLADE

BASIC BOTANY

Photosynthesis in leaves. Plants are able to takesolar energy and turn it into chemical energythrough the process of photosynthesis. Withoutphotosynthesis, life on earth would not exist. Allother life forms depend on the oxygen and food thatphotosynthesis provides.

Inputs for photosynthesis include carbon dioxide,water, and light. Carbon dioxide enters the leafthrough the stomata, water enters through the roots,and light energy comes from natural or artificiallight. Outputs of photosynthesis are oxygen andcarbohydrates.

Gardeners are basically managing a living plantfactory. The goal is to maintain plant health andmanage the environment so plants can produce themost carbohydrates possible. Anything that damagesthe leaves (diseases or insect feeding) or reducestheir ability to absorb sunlight (too much shade) ortake in carbon dioxide will limit the photosyntheticcapability of a plant.

Respiration in leaves. Respiration is essentiallythe reverse of photosynthesis. It is the process bywhich carbohydrates are converted into energy. Withthe production of energy, sugars and oxygen areconverted to carbon dioxide, water, and a smallamount of heat. Respiration releases energy to buildnew tissues, maintain chemical processes, andproduce growth within the plant. Respiration occursin all cells at night as well as during the day, a keypoint that is discussed below.

Relationship between photosynthesis andrespiration. The rates of photosynthesis andrespiration depend on temperature. Plants have anoptimum temperature range and a maximumtemperature for photosynthesis. The rate ofphotosynthesis will increase with increasingtemperature up to a certain point and then decreaseat higher temperatures. Likewise, highertemperatures will increase respiration. Unlikephotosynthesis, however, respiration continues torise with increasing temperature.

Photosynthesis does not occur at night, butrespiration does. If nighttime temperatures are toowarm, the plant will use all of the energy producedby photosynthesis during the day for metabolicprocesses at night just to stay alive, rather thanconverting the carbohydrates into new plant cells.This can affect the portions that we eat, such as

potato tubers and cucumbers. If days are hot andnights are warm, plant growth will be reduced andyields may decrease. Grasping this relationshipbetween photosynthesis and respiration will helpyou understand plant growth and yield variabilityfrom year to year.

Transpiration in leaves. The loss of waterthrough leaf stomata is called transpiration.Transpiration pulls water containing dissolvednutrients from the soil through the roots and the restof the plant. It also provides evaporative cooling forleaf tissue. About 90 percent of the water enteringroots is used in transpiration, and the remainder isused for photosynthesis.

The amount of water used depends ontemperature. As temperatures rise, the amount ofwater needed increases. Consequently, it is criticalto irrigate more frequently during warm weather.Also, plants growing in a dry climate need morewater than those growing in a more humidenvironment.

StemsThe stem is the main above-ground support

structure of a plant. It contains the vascular systemthat allows water, nutrients, and carbohydrates tomove within a plant.

Parts of a stem. All stems have nodes, whereleaf attachments occur. Nodes contain buds that maydevelop into leaves, flowers, or lateral branches.The areas between nodes are called internodes.Plants that grow in reduced light conditions mayhave very long internodes.

It is important to be able to recognize nodeswhen pruning. For example, it is often necessary toremove a tree branch back to a node that willproduce a new stem. Also, when plants arepropagated asexually via vegetative cuttings, newroots most often form at nodes.

Types of stems. Most stems grow above ground,and many grow erect (for example, trees, corn, andsunflowers). Some above-ground stems can alsogrow along the ground, such as cucumbers andpumpkins. There are also several other types ofstems that gardeners need to understand becauseplants with these modified stems may need to bemanaged differently.

CHAPTER 33 - 8

BASIC BOTANY

Crowns are compressed above-ground stemswith very short internodes. Examples of plants withcrowns include dandelions, strawberries, rhubarb,asparagus, and many grasses such as Kentuckybluegrass. Rhubarb and asparagus are propagated byplanting crowns. Crown identification is especiallyimportant when planting strawberries, as coveringthe crown with soil is detrimental to their growth.

Spurs are short, stubby stems commonly foundon fruit trees such as apple and pear. Spurs producefruiting buds. If a severe pruning cut is made closeto a spur, the spur may produce a stem rather thanthe intended fruit.

Stolons, also called runners, are horizontal stems,either fleshy or semiwoody, that grow on top of thesoil surface. For example, stolons attach astrawberry plant to its plantlets. Some types ofgrass, such as creeping bentgrass, form stolons. Thisspecies often is planted on golf course puttinggreens.

Rhizomes are stems that grow below ground. Avery popular lawn grass, Kentucky bluegrass,spreads by rhizomes. Another grass that spreads byrhizomes is quackgrass, which is considered adifficult-to-control weed.

There are several other types of modified stems,such as tubers (the edible part of potatoes) and bulbs(tulips and onions). These topics are covered inmore detail in the chapter titled “HerbaceousOrnamentals.”

Vascular systemPlants need a system to transport water and

nutrients from the roots to the leaves and to movephotosynthetic sugars to stems, roots, and otherplant parts. You could think of this vascular systemas being similar to the vessels and veins invertebrate animals. There are two types of vessels inplants. Xylem vessels conduct water and mineralsup from the roots, while phloem tubes carry sugarsand other compounds from the leaves to the rest ofthe plant.

The xylem and phloem are grouped in vascularbundles. In dicots, the vascular bundles are arrangedin a continuous ring in the outer perimeter of thestem. In woody plants (trees and shrubs), thesevascular bundles are located just under the bark.Thus, they can be easily damaged by lawn mowers,string trimmers, or stems rubbing against each other.

In monocots, the vascular bundles are scatteredthroughout the stem and are not as easily damaged.

BudsA bud is a fully formed but undeveloped shoot or

flower. If a bud is at the tip of a shoot, it is called aterminal bud. Regardless of location, buds thatform shoots or leaves are vegetative buds. Flowerbuds produce one or more flowers. Mixed budsproduce both shoots and flowers.

Buds may grow immediately after they areformed, or stop growing and remain dormant untilthe following spring. Buds on many plants, such asfruit trees, require a specified duration of coldtemperature below a critical level before they willgrow in the spring. This cold period is easilyaccomplished in Idaho, but may not be achieved inwarmer states such as Florida or California.

During dormancy, buds can tolerate very lowtemperatures without damage. However, once theplant has had enough cold temperature to satisfy therequirement for growth, a new bud can easily bedamaged by subsequent cold temperatures.

Roots Roots are often neglected or forgotten while

caring for plants because they are not visible.However, roots are a critical plant part thatgardeners need to understand to properly care forplants. Roots make up a large proportion of the totalplant—about 20 to 30 percent of the total volume.Small feeder roots are so numerous that the totalamount of roots can account for up to 90 percent ofthe surface area of a plant!

Establishing a healthy root system is one key togrowing attractive and productive plants. Theimportance of roots is evident when transplantingtrees. Transplanted trees often suffer from“transplant shock” and do not seem to grow well thefirst 2 or 3 years. The problem is the amount of rootsystem that was removed during the transplantingprocess. Bare-root or balled and burlapped treeshave less than about 5 percent of their original rootsystem and cannot grow normally until a completenew root system has developed.

Root functions. Roots absorb nutrients andmoisture from the soil or growth medium (pottingsoil), anchor the plant, physically support the stem,and move water and minerals to the stem. In somecases, roots serve as food storage organs. Roots

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BASIC BOTANY

profoundly affect the size and vigor of the plant, themethod of propagation, adaptation to soil types, andresponses to cultural practices and irrigation.

Types of root systems. After the primary rootemerges from the seed, it may continue to growstraight down and become a taproot, or it maybranch and form a fibrous root system with manyside (lateral) roots.

Root growth. There is a common misconceptionthat tree roots penetrate the soil to several feet. Infact, most of the functional feeder roots of woodyplants—those that absorb water and nutrients—arelocated in the upper 18 inches of soil. Many plantshave even more shallow root systems. The depth towhich roots penetrate depends on the plant type, soiltexture and structure, and water status. A dense,compacted soil layer or a high water table willrestrict or terminate root growth.

Another misunderstanding about roots is that theywill grow to “find” water. Roots will not grow intodry soil, so unless soil is moist, roots will not growto their maximum length.

The roots of most plants are far more extensivethan the above-ground area beneath the plant. Treeroots extend several feet beyond the drip-line of thetree. Disturbing the soil by, for example, digging atrench or compacting the soil via vehicular or foottraffic will have an adverse effect on the tree’shealth.

Reproductive parts: Flowers, fruits, and seedsFlowers

Flowers are the sexual reproductive organs ofseed-bearing plants, designed to produce anddistribute pollen, accept pollen, provide a way tofertilize the ovary, and nourish and protect thedeveloping seed (Figure 2). This makes flowerscritical to the survival, adaptation, evolution, anddistribution of plant species.

Angiosperms produce the reproductive structureswe recognize as flowers and are the group of plantsdiscussed in this section. Gymnosperms (conifers)produce pollen and seeds, but don’t have structuresrecognizable as flowers. Some plants, such as ferns,do not produce flowers or seeds and insteadreproduce using spores.

Parts of the flower. A typical flower has fourmajor parts: sepals, petals, stamens, and pistils.However, not all flowers have all four parts.Flowers lacking one or more of these basic parts arecalled incomplete flowers. In nature, anycombination of flower parts can occur. The shapeand visibility of flower parts also vary widelyamong plant species.

Sepals are the outer covering of the flower whenit is in the bud stage. They are usually green andleaf-like in appearance. In some plants, they have

CHAPTER 33 - 10

Figure 2. Parts of a flower.

PETAL

ANTHER

FiLAMENT

STAMEN

SEPAL

STiGMA

STyLE

OvARyOvuLE

PiSTiL

BASIC BOTANY

the form and color of petals (for example, in tulips).Collectively, all of the sepals form the calyx.

Petals are usually the largest and most visiblefeature of a flower and are commonly brightlycolored. The color helps attract insects to pollinatethe flower. As a group, the petals form the corolla.

Stamens are the male parts of the flower and areusually found near the center of the flower. Eachflower contains multiple stamens—in some casesvery large numbers. At the top of each stamen is ananther sac in which pollen is produced.

The pistil is the female component of the flower.The upper part of the pistil, called the stigma,usually has some type of sticky surface designed totrap and accept pollen. The base of the pistilcontains one or more ovules (eggs) that develop intoseeds after pollination and fertilization.

Arrangement of male and female flowers.Many species of plants produce flowers lacking oneor more of the sexual parts and are referred to asimperfect. Flowers with no pistils are male flowers(staminate). Flowers with no stamens are femaleflowers (pistillate).

Depending on species, imperfect flowers may bearranged within and among plants in a number ofways. Individual plants may produce separate maleand female flowers on the same plant. The term forthis arrangement is monoecious (a Latin termmeaning “one house”). Cucumbers are an exampleof this type of plant; the male flowers (the ones

lacking tiny fruit under the corolla) and femaleflowers (the ones with a tiny cucumber under thecorolla) alternate along the vines (see Table 3 foradditional examples of common monoeciousspecies).

Other species may have separate male and femaleplants, with flowers of only one sex on any singleplant. The term for this arrangement is dioecious (aLatin term meaning “two houses”). Holly is anexample of a dioecious plant. Only the femaleplants produce berries, and only if a male plant isnearby to supply pollen (see Table 3 for additionalexamples of dioecious plants).

Pollination of flowers. For seed to develop,pollen must be transferred from the anthers to thepistil, where it can fertilize the ovules. Some plantsrequire a pollinator to transfer pollen from flower toflower. Pollinators can include many types ofanimals, most commonly insects or birds.Honeybees are an example of common pollinatinginsects.

Plants that require a pollinator (such as an appletree) produce sticky pollen that adheres to animalvisitors. Other plants, such as corn, utilize the windfor pollination. They release large amounts of small,light, nonsticky pollen grains into the air and rely onchance to carry them to the pistil of a nearby plant.As a rule, plants that require pollinators have largeand/or showy flowers. Wind-pollinated plants tendto have inconspicuous flowers.

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Table 3. Examples of plants with monoecious or dioecious flower arrangement.

Scientific name Common nameMonoecious species Betula alba European white birch

Curcurbita pepo PumpkinJuglans nigra Black walnutMusa acuminata BananaQuercus macrocarpa Bur oakSalix matsudana Globe willowZea mays Corn

Dioecious species Acer negundo Box elderAsparagus officinalis AsparagusFraxinus pennsylvanica Green ashJuniperus horizontalis Carpet juniperPopulus alba White poplarSpinacia oleracea SpinachTaxus cuspidate Japanese yew

BASIC BOTANY

FruitsAfter pollination, the embryo starts to develop,

fruit forms, and seeds enlarge within the fruit. Fruitscome in many sizes and forms. They may be fleshy(peach) or dry (elm). They can be single (avocado)or aggregated (raspberry; the crumbles of araspberry are actually individual fruits). They canhave a hard coat (a nut) or soft, fragile skin(tomato). They can hold one seed (plum) or many(cantaloupe).

The fruit serves to protect the developing seed.Once the seed is mature, the fruit can be importantin seed dissemination. Sweet, edible fruits, such asserviceberries, are often consumed by animals, andthe seed is then deposited elsewhere in theirdroppings. Other types of fruit may dry and breakopen violently (dehiscence), flinging the seed somedistance from the mother plant. An example of aplant using this dissemination mechanism ischickpea. Still other fruits may have “wings”(samaras in maples) or “umbrellas” (the parachute-like pappus of dandelions) that allow them to “ridethe wind” to a new location. Cockleburs have abarbed fruit that attaches itself to clothing or animalfur, providing the seed with transportation. Smallanimals gather, transport, and bury nuts, not onlymoving the seeds but planting them as well.

Fruits are also important for human nutrition, andmany garden plants are produced for their ediblefruits. Some fruits, such as cucumbers and peas, arepicked and eaten at a botanically immature stage.Others reach full maturity before being picked,meaning growth is complete and the seed is capableof germination. Examples are apples and pumpkins.

SeedsSeeds form when ovules are fertilized after

pollination. Thus, they contain genes from both thefemale and male parents. Each seed is anencapsulated embryo, in essence a miniature butfully formed plant within a protective coat. Once theembryo is formed, it usually goes into a state ofarrested development until the seed is separatedfrom the mother plant and is exposed to propergrowing conditions.

Seeds, in addition to fruits, are important sourcesof food for humans. We grow many plants for theiredible seeds, including nuts, legumes, and grain.

Seed viability. In order for seeds to grow, theembryo must be viable, or alive. Factors such as

improper pollination, less-than-ideal growingconditions during seed development, or competitionwithin a plant for resources can lead to nonviableseed. Nonviable seeds may look normal, but will notgrow, even when planted in optimal conditions. Innature, nonviable seeds affect the ability of plants topropagate themselves. In the garden, nonviableseeds have a negative impact on plant stands andproductivity. Nonviable seeds should not beconfused with dormant seeds, which are discussedbelow.

Seeds enable plants to bridge periods of timewhen growing conditions are not favorable (winter,dry periods, etc.). Consequently, if conditions areappropriate, seeds of most plant species can remainviable for extended periods of time. Germinationand growth may be delayed until suitable growingconditions occur. Having seeds of desirable plantsremain viable for many years is beneficial, but whenweed seeds remain viable for many years, it createsa need for ongoing weed management.

There are exceptions to the rule of extended seedviability. The seeds of some plant species arecapable of growth for only a few days and then onlyif kept constantly moist. Species of plants with shortperiods of viability usually live in warm, or at leastmoist, conditions and often produce seeds thatdevelop within wet, pulpy fruits.

Recently purchased seed has usually gonethrough a certification process, meaning thegermination percentage has been tested in alaboratory and acceptable levels of seed viabilityensured. Older seed or seed that has not beencertified can be tested at home to make sure it isviable. Before testing germination, make sure theseed is not dormant (see a discussion of dormancybelow).

A quick, simple way to test viability of mostseeds is to float the seed in a container of water.Seeds that float are usually not viable; live seedswill sink. However, the most reliable method forassessing viability is a germination test. Place aknown quantity of seeds on a moist paper towel andseal it in a plastic bag. After a week to 10 days,inspect the seed to determine the percentage that hassprouted.

Seed storage. Due to the tendency of seed toremain viable over extended periods of time, seedcan often be stored for 1 to several years, depending

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on species and storage conditions (Table 4). Evenunder ideal conditions, however, seeds of someplants (such as onions, leeks, and parsnips) mayremain viable for only 1 year. Seeds of other plantspecies (such as radishes, tomatoes, grains, andmany grass species) may remain viable at least 6and sometimes more than 20 years.

Successful seed storage requires properconditions. The keys to long storage are temperatureand humidity, with cool, dry conditions being best.The “rule of 90” can help you determine a suitablestorage site. Measure the temperature and relativehumidity of the intended storage location and addthe two values together. If the sum is less than 90,extended seed storage should be successful. Lowhumidity is the most critical factor for seed storage,but generally, lowering either humidity ortemperature will extend the storage period. Long-term viability of seeds can be ensured by placing theseed in a sealed container with a desiccation gelpacket and placing the container in a freezer.

Seed dormancy. Some seeds, although viableand planted under correct conditions, fail to grow.These seeds are exhibiting a natural survivalcharacteristic termed dormancy. Dormancy is anadaptation of some plants to keep seeds fromgerminating until conditions favor seedling survival.Most of our common food crops and annual flowerslack dormancy, meaning the seed will grow as soonas it is planted into warm, moist soil. However,many perennial flower species (such as monkshood,alliums, columbines, and penstemons) and mosthardy shrubs and trees produce seed with some formof dormancy. In these cases, dormancy must bebroken before seedling establishment can besuccessful.

The most common mechanisms of dormancy areseed coat impermeability and embryo dormancy.Seed coat dormancy is caused by the presence of athick, hard seed coat that is impermeable to water.In nature, weathering, soil abrasion, the action ofmicroorganisms or passage through the digestivetract of an animal can soften the seed covering, thusallowing the seed to take up water and begingrowing.

For garden production, an artificial methodknown as scarification can be used to break orsoften the seed coat. The simplest scarificationmethod is mechanical; simply scratch the seed coat

with sandpaper or nick it with a knife. Heattreatments using boiling water can also disrupt theseed coat enough to allow germination. With thismethod, it is important to use caution to avoidpersonal injury. Also, be sure you know the properlength of treatment to avoid damaging or killing theseed.

Embryo dormancy is a chemical/physiologicalcondition that prevents growth, usually associatedwith the balance of growth hormones in the seed. Innature, this type of dormancy ensures that seedlingswill emerge in the spring, rather than in the fall. Thehormonal balance of the seed changes toward astatus favoring growth during exposure to cold,moist soil conditions. This type of dormancy can beovercome by stratification, a process of artificiallychilling seeds under moist conditions. Place the seedin moist potting soil in a small plastic bag and placethe bag in a refrigerator for 1 to 3 months.

Seed dormancy attributes and the methodsrequired to overcome dormancy vary widely amongplant species. Success with many plants depends onunderstanding dormancy characteristics and findingthe best ways to satisfy dormancy requirements.Good reference materials are available to determinenecessary conditions for germinating seed ofdifficult species.

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Table 4. Examples of longevity and minimum germination (percentage of live seed required toensure successful production).

Kind Longevity Minimum germinationof seed (years) (percent)Bean 3 70Beet 4 65Carrot 3 55Corn, sweet 2 75Cucumber 5 80Lettuce 1 80Muskmelon 5 75Pea 3 80Pumpkin 4 75Radish 4 75Spinach 3 60Squash 4 75Watermelon 4 70*Source: http://www.ext.colostate.edu/Pubs/Garden/07221.html

BASIC BOTANY

PLANT DEVELOPMENT

Plants go through definable stages of life,beginning with germination (sprouting) and endingwith senescence and death. Some annuals completethis entire process within a few months, while sometree species live for thousands of years.

Seed germinationPlant development begins with the germination of

a seed. First, the seed swells as it absorbs water. Thefirst root (radicle) emerges from the seed coat andgrows downward. In proper soil moistureconditions, the new roots and root hairs grow downinto the soil to anchor the plant and acquire waterand minerals. Meanwhile, the shoot portion of thestem emerges from the seed and begins extendingtoward the soil surface.

During germination and seedling establishment,young plants are vulnerable to damage fromconditions that may not damage an establishedplant. Lack of moisture, excessive heat or cold,pests, and diseases can all kill or seriously damagean emerging seedling. For example, an establishedplant may be hardy to -25°F, while a tender youngplant of the same species may be hardy to only32°F. As the fragile new shoot moves up through thesoil, it may also be damaged by the inability topenetrate heavy or compacted soil.

Because of this extreme vulnerability,germinating seedlings require that we pay carefulattention to cultural details. We must adequatelyprepare the soil, plant seed to the proper depth,maintain proper moisture conditions, minimizeexposure to pests, and control temperature as muchas possible.

Vegetative growth stageOnce a seedling is established, the size and

complexity of the plant increases as the first trueleaves are formed. Stems elongate and produceadditional leaves. The leaf surface increases, therebyenhancing the plant’s ability to capture and utilizelight. During this stage of development, growth israpid and plant parts tend to be large and succulent.Also, the growing plant begins to displaycharacteristic branching and rooting patterns. Forexample, carrots will produce fern-like leaves and along taproot, while blue fescue will develop long,narrow leaves from a crown and a dense, fibrousroot system.

New growth on all plants develops from localizedmeristems—specific regions of rapidly dividingcells. Meristematic tissues within any plant includethose providing both apical and lateral growth. Theapical meristems are found at the tips of stems androots and produce cells resulting in longer stems andbranches. Lateral meristems are located along theinterior of the stem and roots and serve to increasethe diameter of stems, trunks, branches, and roots.Lateral meristems are especially important in theexpansion (increase in diameter) of woody tissues intrees and shrubs.

Grass plants have a unique form of apicalmeristem called the intercalary meristem, locatedat the base of the leaves. Intercalary meristem cellsdivide and produce new growth from the leaf base,giving grasses the unique ability to regrow aftermowing or grazing. Scalping grass with a mower(cutting to a very short length) or overgrazing maydamage or remove this meristem and cause a baldspot (no grass) in the lawn or pasture.

Reproductive growth stageUpon achieving adequate size and storing

sufficient energy, flowering plants go through aprocess of physiological change that favors thedevelopment of reproductive organs at the expenseof vegetative growth. Among angiosperms, thismeans producing flowers and fruits. Once floweringis induced, particularly with annuals and herbaceousperennials, leaf growth usually slows and the plantsbecome more fibrous and stout. For annuals, thereproductive process occurs only once before theplant senesces and dies. For long-lived perennialand woody species, the reproductive cycle may berepeated many times during the life span of a singleplant.

Flowering is influenced by many external andinternal factors, including genetics, plant mass, planthealth, hormone balance, temperature, and daylength. Cold or warm temperatures at a specificstage of growth can trigger the flowering process.For example, consistent cold weather will causeyoung broccoli plants to bloom early instead ofgrowing large heads. Another important trigger forsome plants is the length of the light period. Onions,for example, require increasingly long early summerdays to trigger bulb growth. These triggeringmechanisms ensure that the plants produce flowers

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during the optimal time of the year so that floweringand fruit development can be unhindered.

During fruit set—the next phase of reproductivegrowth—the ovary develops into a fruit with seed.Fruit and seed development takes a great deal ofenergy. For this reason, it may be beneficial toprevent fruit from developing when plants are justgetting established. Dead-heading is anotherexample of preventing fruit development, in thiscase to promote more flowering. Any stress thatreduces photosynthesis—drought, nutrientdeficiencies, insects, or diseases—will negativelyaffect fruit development.

SenescenceFor annuals and biennials, death is the next and

final stage following fruit development. Senescenceis a series of steps that lead to the death of a plant.The plant ceases to metabolize, and nutrients aremoved from the vegetative structures to the fruits.

Perennial plants do not die after fruit production.On herbaceous perennials, however, fruiting maysignal an annual dieback of foliage. In woodyspecies, fruiting may or may not be associated withfall leaf drop and annual dormancy.

For all plants, the stages of developmentassociated with maturation and senescence areaccompanied by a lack of response to outsideinfluences. In other words, the plants areprogrammed to naturally decline, and no inputs ofnutrients, moisture, or any form of tender lovingcare will extend their life. During this stage ofdevelopment, plants also become more prone todiseases and insect feeding. Luckily, pests do littlelasting damage to plants at this stage of their lives,and efforts to control pest issues during senescenceare usually unwarranted.

FURTHER READING AND RESOURCES

American Nurseryman Publishing Co. PronouncingDictionary of Plant Names. 2006. AmericanNurseryman Publishing Co., Chicago, IL

Barden, J. A., R. G. Halfacre, and D. J. Parrish.1987. Plant Science. McGraw-Hill, Inc., NewYork, NY.

Capon, B. 1990. Botany for Gardeners. TimberPress, Portland, OR.

Coombes, A. J. 1994. Dictionary of Plant Names.Timber Press, Portland, OR.

Cooperative Extension, College of Agriculture, TheUniversity of Arizona. 1998. “Botany: Plant Partsand Function.” In Arizona Master GardenerManual. http://ag.arizona.edu/pubs/garden/mg/botany/physiology.html

Durant, M. 1983. Who Named the Daisy? WhoNamed the Rose? A Roving Dictionary of NorthAmerican Wild Flowers. Congdon & Weed, Inc.,New York, NY.

Ham, D. L., and L. R. Nelson. 1998. Newly PlantedTrees: Strategies for Survival. Clemson ExtensionForestry Leaflet 17. http://www.clemson.edu/extfor/urban_tree_care/forlf17.htm

Hartman, H. T., A. M. Kofranek, V. E. Rubatzky,and W. J. Flocker. 1988. Plant Science. 2nd ed.Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ.

Jensen, W. A., and F. G. Salisbury. 1972. Botany: AnEcological Approach. Wadsworth Publishing Co.,Belmont, CA.

Kroening, M., and D. Trinklein. 2007. “Plants andtheir Environment.” In Missouri MasterGardener Core Manual. University of MissouriExtension. http://extension.missouri.edu/publications/DisplayPub.aspx?P=mg2

Raven, P. H., R. F. Evert, and S. E. Eichhorn. 1992.Biology of Plants. 5th ed. Wort/Worth Publishers,New York, NY.

Robinson, E. R. 1939. New Pronouncing Dictionaryof Plant Names. Florists’ Publishing Co.,Chicago, IL.

Wilkins, M. 1988. Plantwatching. Facts on FilePublications, New York, NY.

Woodland, D. H. 1991. Contemporary PlantSystematics. Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.

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Published 1993. Revised 2012.