Chapter 25The Beginning of the Twentieth-Century Crisis:

War and Revolution

The Road to World War INationalism

Liberals claimed that creation of national states would bring peaceLed to competition instead of cooperationBrinkmanship: push a situation into dangerous terrain in order to gain advantage/achieve goal

Internal dissentEthnic tensionsGrowing power of Socialist labor movementsUse of war to divert revolutionary tide at home

MilitarismConscription and growing armamentsInfluence of military leadersMilitary plans

International Rivalry and the Coming of WarNew Alliances

Reinsurance Treaty between Russia and Germany, 1887Dismissal of Bismarck, 1890 and Wilhelm II’s lapse in the treaty (Biz was all about isolating France)Military alliance of France and Russia, via Dual Entente in 1894 (b/c Russia felt isolated, too!)

New Directions and New CrisesGB under new conservative government of PM Lord Salisbury ends “splendid isolation” and seeks an ally

• GB approaches Germany, but the Germans decline due to naval rivalry and the Boer crisis

• GB instead forges alliances with Japan (1902), France (1904) and Russia (1907)

By 1907, Triple Entente of France, GB and Russia solidified, to balance the Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy (1907)

Crises Over ImperialismThe Moroccan Crisis and Wilhelm II’s weltpolitik and a “Place in the Sun”

“world policy” and German imperial claims that Morocco should be independent from France (bordered German territories)All major European powers support France’s claim to Morocco, not German – Germany isolated Agadir Crisis (1911) – France send troops to Morocco to restore order and Germans counter by sending the Panther (naval ship) to Agadir leading to the French surrendering some territory to Germany

Balkans, 1908-1913Austria annexes Bosnia and Herzegovina, 1908 as allowed by Berlin Conference and San Stefano revisionSerbian protest, Russian and Pan-Slavists support of SerbiaBalkan Wars, 1912-1913

• Serbia’s Ambitions: large independent Slavic state • Russian support of Serbia• Austria-Hungary’s determination to limit Serb ambition

The Balkans, 1878

Map 25.1: Europe in 1914

The Road to World War I

The Outbreak of War: The Summer of 1914

The effects of the Balkan Wars prior to 1914: Serbian/Slavic frustrationAssassination of Archduke Francis Ferdinand and wife Sophia, June 28, 1914 by 18-yr. old Gavrilo Princip of Black Hand Society, a Serb nationalist groupGermany’s Chancellor Theobald von Bethmann-Hollweg gives “full support” to Austria (“Blank Cheque”)Forces Russian mobilization Schlieffen Plan requires march through neutral Belgium to get to France

I’m gonna

git you

sucka!

The Schlieffen Plan aka “oops, we pissed off the Brits!”

The War 1914-1915: Illusions & StalemateEuropean attitudes toward the beginning of war and the “war craze”Failure of the Schlieffen PlanFirst Battle of the Marne, September 6-10, 1914

Fast mobilization off British and French troops stop GermansFrench General Joseph Joffre

Russian Failures – German victory in the EastBattle of Tannenberg, August 30, 1914Battle of Masurian Lakes, September 15, 1914

Austrian FailuresGalicia and Serbia – trouble with the Russians Germans come to Austria’s aid

Battle Scene in Northern France

The War 1916-1917: The Great SlaughterTrench warfare

“No-man’s land”“Softening up” the enemyBattle of Verdun, 70,000 lost (German offensive)Battle of the Somme, 1916 (Allied offensive)

• Heaviest one-day loss in World War I

• 300,000 lost• To draw German soldiers

from Verdun

Trench Warfare in France

Trench Warfare Trench Warfare in Color From The Somme (2005)Trench Life = Hell… “Live and let live”Trench Magazines – Wipers Times, B.E.F. Times (British Expeditionary Forces)

Map 25. 2: The Western Front, 1914-1918

Map 25.3: The Eastern Front, 1914-1918

The Widening of the WarBoth sides attempt to tip the scales in their favor by gaining new alliesAugust 1914: Ottoman Empire enters the war for Central Powers

Battle of Gallipoli, April 1915ANZAC Troops and “…Waltzing Matilda”

May 1915: Italy enters the war against Austria-HungarySeptember 1915: Bulgaria enters the war on the side of the Central PowersMiddle East

Lawrence of Arabia (1888-1935) Arab princes vs. Ottoman forces

The Widening of the WarApril 1917: Entry of the United States

The United States tried to remain neutralNaval Conflict between Germany and BritainSinking of the Lusitania, May 7, 1915Return to unrestricted submarine warfare, January 1917United States enters the war, April 6, 1917

Bolshevik Revolution, 1917Italian defeatFailure of Western front offensivesBoth sides were exhausted!

A New Kind of WarfareAir Power

1915: first use of airplanes on the battle-frontGerman use of zeppelins

Tanks1916: first use of tanks on the battlefieldEarly tanks ineffective1918: British Mark V first effective tank

War Casualties

Country Mobilized Killed Wounded Total Casualties

Africa 55,000 10,000 unknown unknown -

Australia 330,000 59,000 152,000 211,000 64%

Austria-Hungary 6,500,000 1,200,000 3,620,000 4,820,000 74%

Belgium 207,000 13,000 44,000 57,000 28%

Bulgaria 400,000 101,000 153,000 254,000 64%

Canada 620,000 67,000 173,000 241,000 39%

The Caribbean 21,000 1,000 3,000 4,000 19%

French Empire 7,500,000 1,385,000 4,266,000 5,651,000 75%

Germany 11,000,000 1,718,000 4,234,000 5,952,000 54%

Great Britain 5,397,000 703,000 1,663,000 2,367,000 44%

Greece 230,000 5,000 21,000 26,000 11%

India 1,500,000 43,000 65,000 108,000 7%

Italy 5,500,000 460,000 947,000 1,407,000 26%

Japan 800,000 250 1,000 1,250 0.2%

Montenegro 50,000 3,000 10,000 13,000 26%

New Zealand 110,000 18,000 55,000 73,000 66%

Portugal 100,000 7,000 15,000 22,000 22%

Romania 750,000 200,000 120,000 320,000 43%

Russia 12,000,000 1,700,000 4,950,000 6,650,000 55%

Serbia 707,000 128,000 133,000 261,000 37%

South Africa 149,000 7,000 12,000 19,000 13%

Turkey 1,600,000 336,000 400,000 736,000 46%

USA 4,272,500 117,000 204,000 321,000 8%

The Home Front: The Impact of Total WarGovernment CentralizationConscription Effects on EconomiesPublic Order and Public Opinion

Dealing with unrestStrikesIrish Revolt 4/1916Defense of the Realm Act (DORA)Propaganda

Social Impact of Total WarLabor benefits prestige for trade unionsNew roles for women

• Male concern over wages• Women began to demand equal pay• Gains for women

The Last Year of the WarWithdrawal of Russia 3/3/1918 (Brest-Litovsk) gives Germany hopeLudendorff launches last German offensive, March 21-July 18, 1918Allied counterattack, Second Battle of the Marne, July 18, 1918General Ludendorff informs German leaders that the war is lostWilliam II abdicates, November 9, 1918German soldiers, workers revoltRepublic established under EbertArmistice, November 11, 1918The Casualties of the War

8 to 9 million soldiers killed, 22 million wounded

Revolutionary Upheavals in Germany and Austria-HungaryRevolution in Germany

Division of German Socialists: moderates and radicals in SPDFormation of two governments

• Weimar Republic• Spartacist Uprising 1919 (Liebknecht and Luxembourg) split

communists and radical socialists from SPD

Failure of radicals to achieve control: resistance from left and right continues…

Revolution in AustriaEthnic upheaval: various groups rallied for independenceFormation of independent republics (Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, enlarged Romania, enlarged Serb state called Yugoslavia)

The Peace SettlementPalace of Versailles, January 1919, 27 Allied nations: “Eternal Peace”Lenin and the secret treatiesWoodrow Wilson, Fourteen PointsPragmatism of other statesLloyd George determined to make Germany payGeorges Clemenceau of France concerned with his nation’s securityConcern over the spread of BolshevismJanuary 25, 1919, the principle of the League of Nations adopted

The Treaty of VersaillesFive separate treaties (Germany, Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria, and the Ottoman Empire)The most important was the Treaty of Versailles, June 18, 1919

Article 231, War Guilt Clause100,000 man army limitLoss of Alsace and Lorraine to FranceSections of Prussia to the new Polish stateGerman charges of a “dictated peace”

Wilson’s 14 Points1. No more secret agreements ("Open covenants openly arrived at").2. Free navigation of all seas.3. An end to all economic barriers between countries.4. Countries to reduce weapon numbers.5. All decisions regarding the colonies should be impartial6. The German Army is to be removed from Russia. Russia should be left to developher own political set-up.7. Belgium should be independent like before the war.8. France should be fully liberated and allowed to recover Alsace-Lorraine9. All Italians are to be allowed to live in Italy. Italy's borders are to "alongclearly recognizable lines of nationality."10. Self-determination should be allowed for all those living in Austria-Hungary.11. Self-determination and guarantees of independence should be allowed forthe Balkan states.12. The Turkish people should be governed by the Turkish government. Non-Turks inthe old Turkish Empire should govern themselves.13. An independent Poland should be created which should have access to the sea.14. A League of Nations should be set up to guarantee the political and territorial independence of all states.

The Other Peace TreatiesGerman and Russian Empires lost territory in eastern EuropeNew nation-states: Finland, Latvia, Estonia, Lithuania, Poland, Czechoslovakia, Austria, and HungaryRomania acquired additional lands from Russia, Hungary, and BulgariaYugoslavia – multinational powder kegCompromises will lead to future problemsMinorities in every eastern European stateOttoman Empire dismembered

Promises of independence of Arab states in the Middle EastMandates

• France – Lebanon and Syria• Britain – Iraq and Palestine

United States Senate rejects the Versailles Peace Treaty

Map 25.5: Europe in 1919

The Middle East in 1919

Timeline

The Russian RevolutionBy 1900 the fourth largest producer of steel

Count Sergei Witte – Minister of FinanceDevelopment of working classDevelopment of socialist parties

Marxist Social Democratic Party, Minsk, 1898Russo-Japanese War over Korea, 1904-1905General strike, October 1905

Bloody Sunday at the Winter PalaceNicholas II granted civil liberties and a legislative body, the DumaVoting and Land Reforms of Prime Minister Peter Stolypin – help peasants, but keep political power in hands of upper classesStolypin’s assassination by left…or right?Nick II’s Curtailment of power of the Duma, 1907 

The Russian RevolutionWar and Discontent

Nicholas II was an autocratic ruler and insisted he command military (?)Russia not prepared for war – not industrialized long enoughGovernment suspicion of war enthusiasmInfluence of Rasputin and discrediting the Romanovs

The Russian RevolutionThe March Revolution (February on Julian calendar)

Problems in St. Petersburg – long work hours, no food!March of the women, March 8, 1917Calls for a general strikeSoldiers join the marchers!Provisional Government, a coalition of liberals and socialists, takes control 3/12/1917

• Tsar abdicates 3/15/1917 – imperial government collapses

• Alexander Kerensky (1881-1970)- Mensheviks• Tried to carry on the war• Soviets (workers’ councils) sprang up

Bolsheviks under the leadership of Lenin, 1870-1924• Sent back to Russia in a sealed train by the Germans!• April Theses: denounced provisional government of

moderate socialists and liberals• “Peace, land and bread!” “All power to Soviets!”

Russian Revolution (cont)The Bolshevik Revolution (October Revolution)

Bolsheviks control Petrograd and Moscow SovietsArmy Order #1: do not obey any military commands that do not agree with Petrograd Soviet’s ideasKerensky vs. reactionaries under General Kornilov …Bolsheviks empowered!Collapse of Provisional Government, November 6-7, 1917Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, March 3, 1918 – Russia exits WWI

Civil WarBolshevik (Red) army and Anti-Bolshevik (White) armyMurder of the Tsar and his family (July 16, 1918)Disunity among the White armyRole of Trotsky as War CommissarCommunists and “War communism”Invasion of allied troops1921: Communist victory

Timeline summary of the Russian Revolution (20 min)

Map 25.4: The Russian Revolution

Eisenstein Recreates the Events of the Revolution

1927: 10 year commemoration of Revolution, Sergei Eisenstein releases October: Ten Days that Shook the WorldPart 1Part 2 (Lenin’s Arrival)Part 3Part 4 (Kornilov)Part 5 (Lenin says revolt!)Part 6 (Everyone joins Revolution)…

Discussion QuestionsWhy were so many Europeans eager for war in 1914? Did Europe’s governments share their enthusiasm? What was “total war”? How did European governments meet the challenge of total mobilization? Why were so many people in the United States reluctant to get involved in World War I? Why did Woodrow Wilson see U.S. involvement as a necessity?Describe the goals of the major participants at the peace talks. How were these goals incorporated into the Treaty of Versailles?

Web Links

World War I: Trenches on the Web The First World War: A Multimedia History World War I: Document Archive The Russian Revolution The Empire That Was Russia