Chapter 25: Political Systems in Today's World CHAPTER 25: POLITICAL SYSTEMS IN TODAY’S WORLD The...

articipatingI N G O V E R N M E N T

articipatingI N G O V E R N M E N T

Comparing Governments One of the most interesting ways to learn about political systems in other countries is to talk directly with a person from another country. Investigate your community to find out whether there is a foreign exchange student, visiting businessperson, or recent immigrant from another country. With the teacher’s permission, invite that personto class for a time of sharing information.

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The United NationsStep inside the United Nations building in New York

City by way of a video tour of this hub of world diplomacy.

Glencoe’s Democracy in Action Video Program

The United Nations wascreated after World War II tosupport global cooperationand world peace. The Democracy in Actionprogram “The United Nations” provides informationabout the basic functions ofthe United Nations and how decisions are made in a col-laborative effort.

Hands-On ActivityUse the Internet to locate the Web site for

the United Nations. Research the United Nationsdatabases for information about the status ofdeveloping nations, such as life expectancy andper capita income. Create a short report com-paring two developing nations’ statistical data.

Incorporate charts and graphs to illustrate your comparison.Present your findings to your classmates.

▲ The statue Victoryis a memorial to the soldiers wholost their lives inWorld War I andWorld War II.

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688

Political Systems Americans often takedemocracy for granted. By comparing politicalsystems, we can develop an appreciation forthose that provide a large degree of personalfreedom and opportunity.

To learn more about the advantagesand disadvantages of two specific

political systems, view the Democracy in ActionChapter 25 video lesson:

Parliamentary vs. Presidential Systems

Chapter Overview Visit the United States Government:Democracy in Action Web site at gov.glencoe.com andclick on Chapter 25–Overview to preview chapterinformation.

GOVERNMENT

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http://www.gov.glencoe.com

There are more than 190 countries in theworld. The history, culture, economicneeds, natural resources, and geographyof each country shape its government and

politics. As a result, governments across the worldvary greatly; no two are exactly the same. We can,however, identify three basic types of government:long-standing democracies, nations in transitionto democracy, and authoritarian governments.

The first democratic ideas originated inancient Greece and Rome. The principles of repre-sentative government developed slowly over manycenturies in Europe. English colonists eventuallybrought these principles to the Americas. Todaypolitical scientists call countries like the UnitedStates with well-established democratic govern-ments consolidated democracies. Such nationshave fair elections, competing political parties,constitutional government that guarantees indi-vidual rights, an independent judiciary, and someform of a market economy.

Parliamentary SystemsDemocratic governments may take severalforms. One of the most widespread is

parliamentary government. In this form of gov-ernment, executive and legislative functions bothreside in the elected assembly, or parliament.Often the parliament selects the leaders of theexecutive branch of government, who are knownas the cabinet. Great Britain and Japan are con-solidated democracies with a parliamentary formof government.

British Parliament In Great Britain,Parliament, the national legislature, holds almostall the governmental authority. Parliament is abicameral (two-house) legislature, consisting ofthe House of Commons and the House of Lords.Both have a role in enacting legislation, but theHouse of Commons has much greater powerthan the House of Lords.

Democratic GovernmentsS e c t i o n 1S e c t i o n 1

Japanese Teens Rebel MITAKA CITY, JAPAN, APRIL 6, 1987

Young people in Japan

today have no desire to

work as hard as our par-

ents,” observes Junko Ko-

tohda, as she dines with

her family. Like her parents

and sisters, Kotohda is

seated on the floor in tradi-

tional Japanese fashion.

However, there’s Western

food on the table—tonight

it’s fried chicken.“Our par-

ents are workaholics,” she

continues.“We want entertainment too.” But Kotoh-

da, a high school senior, will not join teens at Tokyo’s

Yoyogi Park where, dressed like 1950s American rock

’n’ rollers, they dance to boom boxes.“I have my own

individuality,” she insists.

A modern Japanese teen

Reader’s Guide

Key Termsconsolidated democracies, parliamentary govern-ment, life peers, presidential government,apartheid, sanctions

Find Out■ What are the forms that democratic govern-

ments take today?■ What are the challenges for democracy in

Western Europe and Japan?

Understanding ConceptsComparative Government How does parliamen-tary government differ from presidential govern-ment?

Elderly South African casts first ballot.▲

“

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The modern House of Lords hasvery limited power. Money bills, for ex-ample, must originate in the Commons.The House of Lords does have the abilityto amend legislation or vote down billspassed by the Commons. In both cases,however, the Commons may overrulethe House of Lords and make its ownbill a law.

The Prime Minister Great Britainhas no separation of powers between theexecutive and legislative branches ofgovernment. The leader of the majorityparty in the House of Commons be-comes the prime minister and choosesother ministers to head executivedepartments and serve as cabinetmembers. Most ministers are membersof the majority party in the House ofCommons.

A prime minister who loses thesupport of his or her own party resignsfrom office. The party then choosesanother prime minister. If the majorityparty should lose a vote on an impor-

tant issue, it is said to have “lost the confidence ofthe House” and must resign. Parliament is thendissolved, and new general elections are held todetermine what party will control the House of Commons.

Japanese Diet Japan has a parliament of twohouses, called the National Diet. The upper houseis the House of Councillors, and the lower house isthe House of Representatives. The Japanese consti-tution states that the National Diet shall be the“sole lawmaking organ of the state.” In addition,the Diet has authority over the nation's fiscal poli-cies. The House of Councillors has only a limitedpower to delay legislation. The House of Represen-tatives has members chosen from election districts.Each district, with a single exception, elects threeto five representatives. Each member of the lowerhouse is elected for four years.

The House of Representatives elects the primeminister and has the power to vote “no confidence”in the prime minister or chief executive and thecabinet just as in Great Britain. When consideringlegislation, the House of Representatives may

690 CHAPTER 25: POLITICAL SYSTEMS IN TODAY’S WORLD

The British System Prime Minister Tony Blair, not theBritish monarch, exercises the real power of government.Why do you think Great Britain continues to have amonarchy?

Rulers and Figureheads

The House of Commons is the British legis-lative body of elected representatives. The peopleelect members of the House of Commons, knownas Members of Parliament (MPs), for five-yearterms. Their terms may be shorter, however, ifParliament is dissolved for new elections before the end of the five-year period.

The House of Commons determines GreatBritain's legislative and financial policies. Whileany MP may introduce legislation, most bills areintroduced by the majority party. Members debatebills on the floor of the Commons and then sendthem to one of eight standing committees to workout final details. Committees must send their finalbill back to the House of Commons, and a majorityvote is then needed for passage.

The House of Lords has historically been anaristocratic body. Until recently, it included about1,200 members, most of whom had inheritedtitles. In 1999 a reform law removed the right of allexcept 92 hereditary peers to sit and vote in theHouse. The House of Lords is now dominated byabout 540 life peers, people who have been awardeda title for outstanding service or achievement.

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override a negative vote in the House of Council-lors by a two-thirds majority.

Members of the House of Councillors arechosen for six-year terms that cannot be dissolvedwith a no-confidence vote. As with the upperhouses of other governments, the House of Coun-cillors provides a calmer, more detached form ofdeliberation than the House of Representatives. Inthis way, it helps moderate any hasty actions takenby the lower house.

Committees carry on much of the work ofboth houses of the Diet. Cabinet ministers oftentestify before committees, where they face pene-trating questions from members of the oppositionparty. Committee proceedings tend to be very lively,and they are often televised.

When voting on legislation, members of themajority party are expected to vote with the gov-ernment. If they do not agree with the legislation,they simply abstain. Because the opposition partiesare rarely strong enough to do more than delaylegislation, most legislation is passed.

Function of the Cabinet In parliamentarygovernment, members of the cabinet preside overdepartments or ministries. These may includejustice, foreign affairs, finance, education, healthand welfare, agriculture, and labor. Japan’s systemalso includes other cabinet members known asministers of state. They include the deputy primeminister and heads of various agencies, such as theEconomic Planning Agency and the Science andTechnology Agency.

Dissolving the Government In Great Britainand other parliamentary systems, the prime minis-ter and the cabinet together are referred to as thegovernment, a word equivalent to the American useof the word administration. The government isresponsible to the elected representatives. If thegovernment should lose a vote on an importantissue, it must resign. The legislature is then dis-solved, and new general elections are held.

Sometimes the government dissolves Parlia-ment even while it still has a majority in the Houseof Commons. This dissolution may happen if agovernment senses that public support for it is so strong that it will elect more members of itsparty than it currently has. Then, at the primeminister’s request, Parliament is dissolved and a

general election is held to select members of theCommons.

Presidential GovernmentAnother way to organize democracy is by presidential government. The United

States has this type of government because itsConstitution separates the executive branch fromthe legislative and judicial branches. The office ofthe president was created to carry out the laws.Only a small number of democratic nations havea presidential government similar to that of theUnited States. France is one such nation, but thepresident of France has additional powers uniqueto that nation.

French Presidents France’s 1958 constitutionhelped transform the office of president into themost powerful position in the French government.Today the French president, who serves a seven-yearterm, is the only member of the government directlyelected by voters of the nation at large. As the onlynationally elected official, the French presidentoften claims to speak for the entire nation.

Much like chief executives in other democra-cies, the president of France is responsible fornegotiating treaties, appointing high officials, andacting as chair of the high councils of the armedforces. In addition, the French president has twospecial powers—the right to appeal directly to thepeople by means of a referendum, and dictatorialpowers in times of national emergency. In 1962French president Charles de Gaulle ordered a ref-erendum to approve a constitutional amendmentproviding for the direct election of the president,rather than by an electoral college.Voters approvedthe referendum with a 62 percent majority.

Working with the Assembly The presidentmaintains contact with the legislative branch of


Student Web Activity Visit the United StatesGovernment: Democracy in Action Web site atgov.glencoe.com and click on Chapter 25–Student Web Activities for an activity about consolidated democracies.

GOVERNMENT

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the French government through a premier, whomthe president appoints. (Premier is the French wordfor “first” and is the name given to the Frenchequivalent of a prime minister.) The premier, inturn, names ministers, who form the cabinet.Together they conduct the day-to-day affairs ofthe government. Theoretically, the premier and the cabinet are responsible to the deputies of theNational Assembly—the lower house of the FrenchParliament. Without the support of the majorityof the National Assembly’s deputies, the cabinetmust resign, and the president appoints a newpremier. In practice, however, the premier and the cabinet answer to the president rather than the National Assembly. In regular meetings withthe premier and the cabinet, the president makessure that they continue to support the president’sprogram.

Under the constitution, the president also hasthe authority to dissolve the National Assemblyand call for new elections. This power may be usedif the president loses the support of a majority ofthe Assembly. With this power, even the threat of

dissolving the Assembly may be enough to forcethe deputies to accept the president’s leadership.

Emerging Democracies The spread of democracy around the worldhas increased in recent decades. Since

the collapse of communism at the start of the1990s, many of the countries of eastern Europehave been working to establish democratic gov-ernments. A number of countries in Latin America,Asia, and Africa have also been moving towarddemocracy. Poland, South Africa, and Mexicoillustrate the types of challenges that confrontnations trying to make the transition to demo-cratic government.

Constitutional Government in Poland In1989 the people of Poland, East Germany, Czecho-slovakia, Hungary, Romania, and Bulgaria threwout the Communist governments that were im-posed on them at the end of World War II. Polandled the way in these revolutions when a trade union


Critical Thinking Many of the parliamentary systems around the world derived their model of government from the United Kingdom. In which form of government is the chief executive elected by the people?

Chief Executive Chosen by legislature and holds office at their consent.

Judiciary Judiciary usually

chosen by cabinet. In U.K. House of Lords provides highest appeals court.

Chief Executive

JudiciaryVoters Voters

Legislature Legislature

Senate andCongress

Presidential ParliamentaryPresidential: Parliamentary:

United Kingdom

Japan

Canada

India

United States

France

Argentina

Kenya

BALLOTBALLOT

Presidential vs. Parliamentary Governments

COMPARING GovernmentsCOMPARING Governments

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called Solidarity emerged from an undergroundresistance movement to sweep the first democraticelections since World War II. Solidarity was sup-ported by Pope John Paul II in its fight againstPoland’s Communist government. The pope, anative of Poland, quietly used his influence tostrengthen Solidarity’s opposition efforts. In 1990Lech Walesa, the leader of Solidarity, became the firstfreely elected president of Poland. He won nearly 74percent of the vote, and Solidarity won nearly all ofthe seats up for election in the parliament.

The collapse of communism, however, did notensure the development of democracy. Reformerswho took office in Poland in the early 1990s facedtwo major challenges. First, they needed a writtenconstitution that would place clear limits on gov-ernmental power. Second, they needed to strengthenlocal governments. Reformers believed that ef-fective local governments would give citizens achance to get directly involved in issues that imme-diately concerned them, such as education andtransportation.

In 1992 President Walesa signed a so-called“Little Constitution,” which was intended to be atemporary measure until a new constitution couldbe developed. It took several more years of bitterdebates to create a new constitution. New politicalparties, including some made up of formerCommunist officials, struggled to gain politicaladvantage. Finally, on April 2, 1997, the NationalAssembly adopted the new Constitution of theRepublic of Poland, and the voters approved it in May.

Chapter VII of the 1997 Polish constitution ad-dressed the need to strengthen local governments.The constitution states:

“Local governments perform public dutiesthat are not reserved by the Constitution orlegislation for the agencies of other publicauthorities. . . . Local governments are legal entities. . . . The autonomy of localgovernments is protected by the courts.”This clause meant that local governments

had become constitutionally responsible for suchmatters as education, municipal housing, wastecollection, and fire fighting.

Despite Poland’s progress toward politicaldemocracy, the nation remains in a precariousposition. A weakened economy in 2001 forced

Solidarity members in the Polish Parliament to cut spending to reduce government budgetdeficits. Voters responded to this action by votingSolidarity members out of Parliament. This shift in Poland’s politics benefited many formerlyCommunist political supporters. Their politicalparty, the Democratic Left Alliance (SLD), holds amajority of the seats in the lower house of Poland’sParliament. Despite this, Poland joined theEuropean Union in 2004.

Civil Rights in South Africa Starting in 1948South Africa followed a policy of apartheid, orstrict segregation of the races enforced by the gov-ernment. The South African populations of blacks(Africans), whites, coloreds (people of mixedEuropean and African descent), and Asians werestrictly separated. Blacks suffered the worst underthis legalized segregation. Apartheid laws definedwhom blacks could marry and where they couldtravel, eat, and go to school. Blacks could not voteor own property and could be jailed indefinitelywithout cause.

In response, black nationalist groups such as the African National Congress (ANC) pressedfor reforms, but the government repeatedlycrushed the resistance. By the 1960s, ANC leaderNelson Mandela had formed a military operation.In 1962 South African officials charged Mandelawith treason and jailed him for life. From hisprison cell, Mandela became a world-famoussymbol for freedom in South Africa. In the 1980sthe United States and the European EconomicCommunity ordered economic sanctions, or im-posing restrictions and withholding aid, againstthe South African government. This economicpressure helped bring a gradual end to apartheid.In 1990 President Frederik W. de Klerk releasedMandela from prison. During the next few yearsthe South African government repealed theremaining apartheid laws.

In April 1994 South Africa held its first non-racial national election. Nineteen parties offeredcandidates for the National Assembly. The elec-tion went smoothly, and foreign observersdeclared that it was free and fair. The AfricanNational Congress won about 63 percent of thevote along with 252 of the 400 seats in the NationalAssembly, which then chose Nelson Mandela aspresident without opposition.


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The ANC fostered national unity by allowingmembers of other parties, including the ZuluInkatha Party and the Afrikaner Nationalist Party,to hold some cabinet positions. Some minorityparties, however, grew critical of the ANC. TheNationalists withdrew from the government in1996, allowing the ANC to dominate electionsagain in 1999 with over 66 percent of the vote andover 250 seats in the National Assembly.

Removing the legal structure of apartheid has been an essential first step toward democracy in South Africa. Major challenges for the futureinclude building a democratic civic culture, en-suring equal civil rights throughout society, andraising the standard of living for disadvantagedSouth Africans while maintaining economic growth.

Political Parties in Mexico In 1917 Mexicoadopted a constitution that divided the nationalgovernment into three branches: executive, legisla-tive, and judicial. The president heads the executivebranch and is directly elected for one six-year term.The president exercises very strong control over thegovernment and is the dominant figure in Mexicanpolitics.

The 1917 constitution also provided for avariety of individual, social, and economic rightsfor citizens. One political scientist described the1917 constitution as the “most advanced labor codein the world at its time.” However, the president’s

Sect ion 1 Re v iewSect ion 1 Re v iewSect ion 1 AssessmentSect ion 1 Assessment

Comparative Government Choose one of thecountries with a parliamentary system of gov-ernment discussed in this section. Draw a dia-gram that compares the organization of theUnited States government with the parliamen-tary system of government that you choose.

Checking for Understanding1. Main Idea Use a graphic organizer like the one

below to compare the most powerful parts of theBritish and French governments.

2. Define consolidated democracies, parliamentarygovernment, life peers, presidential government,apartheid sanctions.

3. Identify House of Commons, House of Lords,National Diet, Solidarity.

4. What happens when the majority party in Britainloses a vote in Parliament?

5. Why is most of the legislation introduced in theJapanese Nation Diet ultimately passed?

Critical Thinking6. Understanding Cause and Effect What recent

events in Mexico have contributed to making thecountry more democratic?


British French

power and the control of the government by onepolitical party, the Institutional RevolutionaryParty (PRI), for more than 60 years led politicalobservers to describe the Mexican government asmore authoritarian than democratic.

For decades massive organizational resources,political patronage, and the support of the majormedia served to keep the PRI in power. In somecases the PRI was accused of manipulatingelections. In 1994, however, PRI candidate ErnestoZedillo Ponce de León won the presidency andintroduced nationwide electoral reforms that didmuch to end the PRI’s long tradition of ballot boxfraud. These reforms helped set the stage for otherparties to compete fairly in Mexico’s political process.

In July 2000 Mexico took a major step towardbecoming a multiparty democracy when VicenteFox, the candidate of the National Action Party, orPAN, defeated the PRI and became Mexico’s newpresident.

When the PAN victory was announced inMexico City, thousands of voters chanted: “Don’tfail us! Don’t fail us!” Fox has promised to insti-tute major new policies during his six-year term,but he faces many obstacles. Even though PANwon enough seats in the Mexican Congress to re-place the PRI as the dominant party, it did not getenough votes to gain an outright majority. Thus,Fox’s party will have to form coalitions with otherparties in the Congress to pass legislation.

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695

Background of the CaseBeys Afroyim from Poland became a natural-

ized American citizen in 1926. In 1950 Afroyimwent to Israel, and while there he voted in an elec-tion for the Israeli Parliament. In 1960 Afroyimwanted to renew his U.S. passport, but the U.S.State Department refused to grant him a new pass-port. The State Department informed Afroyim thatunder the terms of the Nationality Act of 1940, hehad lost his American citizenship. The law statedthat U.S. citizens shall “lose” their citizenship if theyvote “in a political election in a foreign state.” Afroy-im appealed and lost in both a federal district courtand an appeals court.

The Constitutional IssueAfroyim’s case raised the question of whether

the Nationality Act’s penalty for voting in foreign

elections, the loss of citizenship, was constitutional.The Court stated, “The fundamental issue beforethis Court . . . is whether Congress can . . . enact alaw stripping an American of his citizenship whichhe has never voluntarily renounced or given up.”Afroyim argued that neither the Fourteenth Amend-ment nor any other provision of the Constitution ex-pressly grants Congress the power to take away aperson’s citizenship once it has been acquired.Thus, the only way he could lose his citizenship wasto give it up voluntarily.

In 1958, in Perez v. Brownell, the SupremeCourt upheld the Nationality Act, ruling that Con-gress could revoke citizenship because it had im-plied power to regulate foreign affairs. Further,Justice Felix Frankfurter rejected the argument that the Fourteenth Amendment denied Congressthe power to revoke citizenship. Afroyim urged the Court to overturn its earlier decision and rule in his favor.

Questions to Consider1. What might be the consequences of allowing

the government to determine if a person cankeep his or her citizenship?

2. Could voting in a foreign election be consideredthe same as voluntarily giving up one’s citizen-ship?

3. Should Congress have the power to take away aperson’s citizenship if the person violates a lawagainst voting in a foreign election?

You Be the JudgeThe Court had to determine whether to overrule

the Perez decision. The choice depended on its in-terpretation of the so-called citizenship clause ofthe Fourteenth Amendment, which states: “All per-sons born or naturalized in the United States . . .are citizens of the United States. . . .” Did that implycitizenship could be temporary? Or did the amend-ment mean citizenship is permanent until a personvoluntarily gives it up? State your opinion.

Debating the CaseDebating the Case

Chief Justice Earl Warren once explained,“Citizenship is man’s basic

right for it is nothing less than the right to have rights. Remove this pricelesspossession and there remains a stateless person, disgraced and degraded inthe eyes of his countrymen.” Can Congress take away the citizenship of anAmerican who violates a law? Afroyim v. Rusk dealt with this issue.

Afroyim v.Rusk, 1967

CASES TO DEBATE

Polish andAmerican

flags

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While the number of democratic na-tions around the world is increasing,many authoritarian governmentsstill exist as well. Governments such

as those in the People’s Republic of China, Cuba,North Korea, Saudi Arabia, and Iran present astark contrast to democracies.

The People’s Republic of ChinaModern China is a study in contrasts. Arecent U.S. State Department report on

human rights called China an “authoritarian state”in which citizens lack most civil rights and in whichthe government commits “numerous human rightsabuses.” At the same time, China’s CommunistParty government is pursuing economic reformsthat are reducing the government’s tight grip onthe people.

Political History China was ruled by em-perors until the late 1800s. In 1911 an uprisingoverthrew the last emperor, and China became arepublic a year later. Rival factions divided thenew republic until 1929, when the NationalistParty, under the leadership of Chiang Kai-shek,defeated the Communists and gained partialcontrol of the nation. When Japan invadedChina in the 1930s, the Nationalists and Com-munists came together to resist the Japanese.After Japan’s defeat in World War II, a civil warbroke out in China between the two rival parties.

In 1949 Communist revolutionaries led byMao Zedong seized power. The Nationalistsfled to safety on the offshore island of Taiwan,where they remain today. Mao then led Chinafor the next 30 years. He established a totali-tarian government strictly controlled by theChinese Communist Party (CCP), in much thesame way that the Soviet Communist Partyonce controlled the Soviet Union.

Mao’s government turned China into asocialist state by taking control of all major

Authoritarian GovernmentsS e c t i o n 2S e c t i o n 2

Reader’s Guide

Key TermsMuslim, mullah, shah

Find Out■ How does China’s Communist Party control the

government?■ How is the role of religion different in Islamic

governments than in democratic ones?

Understanding ConceptsComparative Government What are the differ-ences and similarities among the governments ofChina, North Korea, and Saudi Arabia?

Jail for Teen HustlersHAVANA, CUBA, NOVEMBER 1, 1996

Every day the

streets of this city

fill with teenagers in

search of an income.

Called jineteros, these

young street hustlers

will sell nearly any-

thing—a cigar, a place

to stay, a night on

the town—to foreign

tourists. Alarmed at

their growing numbers, Havana police have begun

throwing jineteros in jail. Many of them express

resentment because of the meager job outlook

in Cuba’s poor economy. “I have to earn a living,”

complains Miguel Angel Iglesias, a 19-year-old

jinetero. “I used to like it in Cuba,” Iglesias explains.

“Now I have nothing. Before, there was hope. Now

it’s all gone.”

Iglesias hustles for money.


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The Power of ProtestWhat message about popular protest didthe Chinese govern-ment send its citi-zens in 1989?

Present Demonstrators carry a banner depictingthe Goddess of Democracy during a march througha Hong Kong street in 1997. The demonstratorswere honoring those killed in the massacre atTiananmen Square.

Past A student leader on a hunger strike borrows a phrase from the American Revolution as he addresses his comrades in TiananmenSquare.

▲

Appeals for Democracy

▲

industries, assigning jobs to workers, and creating five-year plans to guide economic decisions for the entire country.The government also took control of all farmlandand forced peasants to work together on collectivefarms supervised by the government.

Communist Party Government TodayChina has two parallel systems of government.There is a ceremonial national government, whichincludes a legislature, a cabinet of ministers, andeven a president and vice president. The nationalgovernment, however, is actually controlled by the CCP. China’s constitution calls the CCP the“core of the leadership of the whole Chinesepeople” and describes the nation as “led by theCommunist Party”.

The CCP’s top governing body is the NationalParty Congress, which is composed of about 3,000party members selected from different provinces.However, the National Party Congress meets foronly about two weeks each year and merely serves as

a rubber stamp for policies of the party’s leaders.The General Secretary of the CCP is the country’stop leader.

National policy is made by the party’s PoliticalBureau—the Politburo. The Politburo is composedof about 20 top party leaders, and its standing com-mittee is made up of the CCP’s top 7 leaders. Thiselite group makes the key political, economic, andmilitary decisions for China’s 1.3 billion people.

Civil Liberties Authoritarian governmentstolerate little criticism or open disagreement with their policies. In China a dramatic exam-ple of this intolerance occurred in 1989 whenChinese military forces massacred hundreds of unarmed, pro-democracy students who weredemonstrating in Beijing’s Tiananmen Square.The government continues today to suppresscriticism and oppress minorities.

Party leaders are especially wary of the growthof any popular organizations. The government has,for example, ruthlessly suppressed the Falun Gong,a spiritual movement that combines physical exer-cise with Buddhism and Taoism.


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Authoritarian governments also try to main-tain tight control over a country’s flow of ideasand information. Thus China has developed theworld’s most extensive system of censoring theInternet. By using filtering technology, the govern-ment regularly denies local users access to as manyas 19,000 political and religious Web sites it deemsthreatening. At the same time, the government doesallow Internet use for certain business, cultural, andeducational purposes that it believes will help thenation compete in today’s global economy.

Relations With the United States TheUnited States ended official diplomatic relationswith China in 1949 when the Communists gainedcontrol of the mainland. At the same time, the U.S.government maintained contact with the Nation-alist government in Taiwan. China’s foreign policy,however, began changing in 1960. A growing riftbetween China and the Soviet Union caused China’sleaders to view the U.S.S.R. as the principal threatto its national security. China subsequently grewmore willing to cooperate with the United States.

Meanwhile President Nixon was attempting toease Cold War tensions with the Soviet Union and

with China. In 1972 Nixon became the firstU.S. president to visit China. During thismeeting both nations agreed to begin ef-forts to improve their diplomatic relation-ship. After several years of slow progress, in1979 the United States recognized theCommunist government in Beijing as thelegitimate government of China. Tensionsremain, however. While China seeks accessto American technology and investments,the United States wants China to end itshuman rights abuses and to act as a stabi-lizing force in Asia.

Economic relations with China havechanged dramatically over the years. Byliberalizing its economy and focusing onhigh-technology exports, China saw itsexports grow to almost $400 billion in2003. The United States and China re-main at odds about the status of Taiwan,and poverty and unemployment are con-tinuing problems in rural China.

Communism in CubaIn January 1959, Fidel Castro led Cubans in a revolt that ousted dictator Fulgencio

Batista. Under Castro, Cuba became a Communistdictatorship largely sustained by the Soviet Union.Castro maintained strict control over the Cuban people.

Tensions between Cuba and the United Statesboiled over in two crises. In 1961 anti-Castro exiles,trained by the United States, invaded Cuba at theBay of Pigs. The failed invasion embarrassed theUnited States. One year later the United States dis-covered that Soviet missiles were being installed inCuba. Tense negotiations with the Soviet Unionbrought the crisis to an end, but U.S.-Cubanrelations were severely strained after this event thathad brought the world to the brink of nuclear war.

Economic Crisis The end of the Cold War in the early 1990s left Cuba isolated. The loss ofSoviet aid, combined with low prices for sugarexports, caused a deep economic crisis. The con-tinuing American trade embargo against Cuba,which had been in place since 1961, intensified thesituation. The United States hoped the embargowould spur Fidel Castro into moving toward amore democratic system in exchange for better


Opposition to Castro Since Fidel Castro aligned him-self with the Soviet bloc in the early 1960s, Cuba hasbeen perceived as a threat to the United States and tothe security of the region. What is this cartoonist say-ing about Castro’s government?

Castro’s Staying Power

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political and economic relations with the UnitedStates. So far, these efforts have failed to moveCastro toward instituting democratic reforms.

Cuba’s Future Castro has ruled Cuba for nearly50 years while grooming a new generation ofCommunist leaders. What will happen when Castrorelinquishes power is unknown. Experts predicteverything from civil war and more communism toa peaceful transition towards democracy.

North KoreaAfter World War II, the Korean peninsula wasdivided into North and South Korea. With

aid from the United States, South Korea became ademocracy with a strong, free-market economy.North Korea became a Communist nation supportedby the Soviet Union, until its collapse, and led bydictator Kim Il Sung. Since 1994 Kim’s son, Kim JongIl, has ruled the country with an iron fist.

Cult of Personality Today, North Korea’s to-talitarian government centers on unquestioningloyalty to Kim Jong Il. Kim’s government controlsall aspects of people’s lives. This includes wherepeople live and travel, what jobs they can have, andwhat schools children will attend.

North Koreans are almost totally cut off fromoutside sources of information. National propa-ganda glorifies Kim as the “Great Leader.” Kim,people are told, deserves “absolute devotion” be-cause he protects them against foreigners and willsomeday lead them to great prosperity.

A totalitarian regime like North Korea cancause great suffering. Currently, for example, about70 percent of the nation’s children are malnour-ished. In the last decade, more than 2 millionNorth Koreans starved to death because the econ-omy could not produce enough food, and muchof the nation’s money was spent on militaryweapons and luxury items for Kim.

Tension With the United States The firstconcern of totalitarian leaders is their own survivalin power. Although North Korea’s economy is weak,its military is strong. In the early 1990s, the countrybegan to develop chemical, biological, and nuclearweapons. Few experts believe Kim would use suchweapons directly against the United States, but Kim

could sell the weapons to terrorists. Also, the exis-tence of such weapons might lead other non-nuclearnations in the region to develop their own nuclearweapons. As a result the United States has sought tolimit North Korea’s development of nuclear weapons.

Islamic GovernmentsIslam is a religion spread by the prophetMuhammad, who lived from A.D. 570 to 632.

Muhammad claimed that he received the teachingsof God (Allah) in a vision. These teachings werewritten in the Quran. A Muslim, or follower ofIslam, is “one who submits” to Allah and theinstructions of the Quran. For many Muslims,Islam is not only a religion, it is also an identity anda loyalty that transcends all others.

Today there are over one billion Muslimsspread across the globe. Muslims form a majorityin the Arab countries of the Middle East. However,only one in four Muslims is an Arab. Muslims alsomake up the majority of the population in somenon-Arab countries like Iran, Pakistan, Turkey,and Indonesia. In a number of other countries Muslims hold considerable political influence.

Religion and Government In modern times,Islamic countries view the relationship betweenreligion and the state differently than do mostWestern democracies. Since the beginning of Islam,many teachers of the Islamic faith have believed thatpolitical rulers should use Islamic tenets in shapinggovernmental authority. As a noted scholar of Islam,Bernard Lewis, explains, “In the universal Islamicpolity as conceived by Muslims, there is . . . only God,who is the sole sovereign and the sole source of law.”Islamic leaders believe there is no need for a sepa-ration between religion and the state, since Allah is inherent in politics. The Quran provides theguidance needed on issues such as what the duties of citizens and rulers are, what rights citizens have,what makes a government legitimate, and how thegovernment should exercise power.

Since the American and French Revolutions,some Western nations have drawn a line ofseparation between religion and the authority ofthe state. The U.S. Constitution, for example,clearly states that “Congress shall make no law re-specting an establishment of religion.” Not allWestern nations, however, follow this principle.


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The Church of England, also known as the Angli-can Church, is the official church of Great Britain.The Evangelical Lutheran Church is the statechurch of Norway. Some democratic countrieseven have political parties with religious identities,such as Germany’s Christian Democratic Union.

Even when religion does play a role in Westerndemocracies, that role is mostly symbolic. For ex-ample, many U.S. coins are imprinted with thephrase “In God We Trust.” But religion is generallynot the basis of authority in democracies, nor is itcentral to their political programs.

Two Views of Islam Less than 30 years afterMuhammad’s death in A.D. 632, a debate developedwithin Islam over which institution—religion or thestate—should have ultimate authority. This debatecontinues to the present day.

Some Muslims, often called secularists, believethat religious doctrine and secular (nonreligious)law can and should be kept separate. Islam, theyargue, is strictly a religion; it should not dictate whathappens in government and politics. Other moder-ates call for practical compromises, with Islamicteachings playing a role but ultimately deferring togovernment authority on some key issues, such asdeclaring war. Moderate Muslims believe that Islamcan and should try to coexist with the modern world

and modern ideas about government. TheseMuslims desire friendly relations with Westernnations. Some want democratic institutions and thebenefits of capitalism in their own countries.

Muslim fundamentalists (also called tradition-alists or radicals) take a very different view. Theybelieve Islamic countries should base their legalsystems strictly on the shari’ah, or law of theQuran, rather than on any Western legal princi-ples. These fundamentalists also hope Muslimsacross the world can be united in one spiritual,cultural, and political community. Further, theywant to preserve or bring back cultural traditionssuch as requiring women to cover their faces in public and banning modern movies and music.They look to specially trained Islamic religiousleaders called mullahs, who interpret and upholdtraditional Islamic teachings. Some fundamental-ists preach that the obligation of every Muslim is torebel against any society or ruler that does not follow traditional Islamic principles.

Many fundamentalist Muslims see Western cul-ture and society as a threat to Islamic culture. Somefundamentalists encourage negative attitudes to-wards Western democracies, especially the UnitedStates. Their main goal is to drive from power mod-erate Islamic governments that have adopted foreigncustoms. In 1991, for example, fundamentalists


Mark, Dennis, andDavid Richard

Making a DifferenceMaking a Difference In 1988 Mark Richard saw adisabled woman crawling alonga roadside in Guatemala. He

made up his mind to bring thewoman a wheelchair. When he returned to the United States,Mark contacted the local chapterof the Spinal Cord Injury Associa-tion. Together they delivered 20wheelchairs to Guatemala. Twicea year after that Mark repeatedthe trip, distributing 2,000 wheel-chairs. His older brother Dennishelped until he died in 1994. InJuly 1995 David Richard, anotherbrother, began collecting wheel-chairs throughout southern Cali-fornia. He created a nonprofit

organization called Wheels forHumanity. In a California ware-house, volunteers restore bat-tered wheelchairs to bedistributed to disabled children inVietnam, Guatemala, Bosnia,Costa Rica, Nicaragua, and othercountries. In just 18 months theRichards improved 987 lives withthe gift of a wheelchair. “Onceyou put your hand on a usedwheelchair, you’re hooked,”David says.

The work of Wheels for Humanity continues. Varioussources estimate that more than 21 million people worldwideare in need of wheelchairs.

Wheels for Humanity logo

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murdered the moderate Egyptian President AnwarSadat in a failed attempt to take over the government.

Revolution in Iran So far the most successfuleffort by fundamentalist Muslims has been in Iran.In the 1960s and 1970s, Iran built a capitalisticeconomy based on oil revenues. At that time Iranwas ruled by a shah, or king, Mohammed RezaPahlavi, who strengthened economic ties to West-ern nations. Muslim religious leaders in Iran re-sented the shah’s apparent embrace of Westernvalues and sought a return to Muslim traditions.However, for many years the shah’s secret policeprevented any action and silenced all dissent.

Muslims who opposed the shah rallied aroundAyatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, a Muslim leader liv-ing in exile in France. In 1979, Muslim fundamen-talists in Iran organized massive demonstrationsand forced the shah to flee to the United States.Khomeini returned to Iran from France andformed a new government based on Islamic princi-ples. In this regime, conservative religious leadershad veto power over the actions of political leaders.

The new Iranian government demanded thatthe United States return the shah to Iran to standtrial. The United States refused, and relations be-tween the two countries grew more and morestrained. At the same time, anti-American senti-ment increased in Iran. In late 1979, Iranians tookAmerican diplomats hostage in the U.S. Embassy inIran and held them there for more than a year.

Saudi Arabia The struggle between funda-mental Islam and the modern world has causedpolitical tension in Saudi Arabia, a country thathas provided oil and important military bases tothe United States. The Al Saud family establishedthe country in 1932 and have ruled as absolutemonarchs ever since. The government is based ona fundamentalist interpretation of Islam with noseparation of religion and the state. Next to theroyal family, the most powerful political force inthe country has always been the mullahs whoimpose traditional Islamic social and politicalideas through government sponsored organiza-tions like the Committee for the Propagation ofVirtue and the Prevention of Vice.

The discovery of oil in the 1950s transformedSaudi Arabia from an isolated, desert nation to awealthy, urban nation with tens of thousands of foreign workers and a large middle class of professionals. A growing number of Saudis have also started making demands for an electedgovernment. As a result, the royal family has beensearching for ways to create a modern economy,culture, and government while placating hard-lineMuslim radicals. Since the September 2001 terror-ist attacks on the United States, many Americancritics have accused the Saudi government of indi-rectly supporting terrorism. These critics claim theSaudi government has funneled money to Islamicradicals as a way to appease fundamentalist criticswithin Saudi Arabia.

Sect ion 2 Re v iewSect ion 2 Re v iewSect ion 2 AssessmentSect ion 2 Assessment

Comparative Government Choose a countrydiscussed in this section. Research recentpolitical developments in this country. Imaginethat you are traveling to the country that youchose. Write a letter to a friend describing thecountry, its government, and the extent towhich the government affects people’s lives.


below to profile each of the countries covered inthis section, and indicate whether the country ismoving toward or away from democracy.

2. Define Muslim, mullah, shah.3. Identify Politburo, Falun Gong, Bay of Pigs.4. What events in 1979 returned Iran to Muslim

control?5. Why is China not a democratic nation?

Critical Thinking6. Recognizing Ideologies How does the North

Korean government promote its state leader tothe people?


Country Controlled by +/- DemocracyAuthoritarian States

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Nations such as the United States, Japan,and Saudi Arabia remain strong forcesable to shape today’s world. However,international organizations also play a

key role in world politics. There are two types ofsuch organizations. Nongovernmental organiza-tions (NGOs) are made up of individuals andgroups outside the scope of government. The In-ternational Red Cross is an example of an NGO.One of its major jobs is to monitor the treatmentof prisoners during war. NGOs are funded largelyby donations from private individuals and charita-ble foundations.

The second and most well-known type of inter-national organization is one composed of membersof national governments. This type is called an in-tergovernmental organization (IGO). The UnitedNations (UN) is the most significant example of anIGO with a global membership and mission. TheEuropean Union (EU) is another example of an in-tergovernmental organization. IGOs are createdthrough agreements, usually treaties, negotiated bythe member states. The powers of an IGO are es-tablished and limited by its members.

The United NationsIn 1945 the United States and othernations established the United Nations to

provide a forum to allow nations to settle theirdisputes peacefully. The Charter of the UN iden-tifies the organization’s three major goals. One isto preserve world peace and security. The secondis to encourage nations to deal fairly with oneanother. The third is to help nations cooperatein trying to solve their social and economicproblems. United Nations membership is opento all “peace-loving states.” Today, UN member-ship includes 191 nations from around the world.

Structure of the UN The main headquar-ters of the UN is located in New York City. TheUN is divided into a variety of units that help

International OrganizationsS e c t i o n 3S e c t i o n 3

Democracy StrugglesPORT-AU-PRINCE, HAITI, AUGUST 16, 2001

Five Haitian officers were

killed and 14 wounded

on July 28 when armed

men attacked a police

academy and three police

stations. The attackers were

dressed in army uniforms

and proclaimed their loyalty

to the defunct army, which

was disbanded after the

1994 defeat of Lt. General

Raul Cedras’s military dic-

tatorship. Haitian President Jean-Bertrand Aristide

urged former soldiers to resist any coup attempts,

stating that “It’s time not to militarize power, but to

democratize power.” Aristide is now challenged with

controlling those who oppose the nation’s progress

toward democracy in addition to resolving the 2000

senate election disputes and boosting the weak

economy.

President Aristide


Reader’s Guide

Key Termsnongovernmental organizations, intergovernmentalorganizations, supranational organizations

Find Out■ What is the basic structure of the United

Nations?■ What is the history of the European Union’s

development?

Understanding ConceptsPolitical Processes How does the UN SecurityCouncil operate and guide the decisions of theGeneral Assembly?

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fulfill the organization’s goals. The GeneralAssembly is at the heart of the UN. It discusses,debates, and recommends solutions for majorinternational problems presented to the UnitedNations. The Assembly also controls the UN bud-get by determining the members’ yearly contribu-tions and by setting expenditures for the manyUN agencies. Each member nation has only onevote but may send a delegation of five representa-tives to the General Assembly.

The Security Council is a kind of executiveboard for the General Assembly. It is composed of15 nations. The permanent members of the Secu-rity Council are the United States, Russia, thePeople’s Republic of China, France, and GreatBritain. The General Assembly elects the other 10members for two-year terms.

The Security Council has the authority to makepeacekeeping decisions for the United Nations.

The Council may call for breaking off relationswith a nation, ending trade with a nation, or usingmilitary force. Because of its rules of procedure,however, the Security Council often has difficultymaking such decisions. According to the UN Char-ter, in order to follow any course of action, nine ofthe Council’s fifteen members must vote in favorof it. Furthermore, these nine members mustinclude all five permanent members. Thus, if onepermanent member vetoes a measure, the SecurityCouncil is unable to act.

The Secretariat does the UN’s day-to-daybusiness with a staff of about 9,000 people whowork under the direction of the Secretary General.The Secretary General is appointed by the GeneralAssembly to a five-year term of office, with a two-term limit. This official is responsible for carryingout the instructions of the Security Council andcan be an important figure in world politics,


Critical Thinking

Source: The World Book Encyclopedia (Chicago: World Book Inc., 1995); www.UN.org

The United Nations charter calls for the arrangement of the UN into six principal units, each with a specific set of responsibilities. How might this type of council structure help the UN achieve its goals of preserving world peace?

Organization of the United NationsOrganization of the United NationsUnited Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA)

Military Staff CommitteeStanding CommitteesPeacekeeping Forces

United Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM)

UNICEF (United Nations Children’s Fund)

World Food Council (WFC)

UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization)

World Health Organization (WHO)

International Monetary Fund (IMF)

World Bank

United Nations Fund for Population Activities (UNFPA)

Selected Committees and Agencies of the UN

More than 8,900 people from 170 countries constitute the Secretariat staff, which is responsible for the day-to-day functions of the United Nations.

GENERALASSEMBLY

TRUSTEESHIPCOUNCIL

INTERNATIONALCOURT OFJUSTICE

ECONOMICAND

SOCIALCOUNCIL

SECURITYCOUNCIL

SECRETARIAT

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especially when the UN is involved in controversialpeacekeeping decisions.

The International Court of Justice, also calledthe World Court, is the judicial branch of the UN.Member nations may voluntarily submit disputesover international law to this court for settlement.The General Assembly and the Security Councilselect the fifteen judges that sit on the InternationalCourt of Justice. The Court holds its sessions in theHague, Netherlands.

Finally, the Economic and Social Council(ECOSOC) is responsible for helping the UNpromote social and economic progress around the world. It is concerned with such issues asimproving education, health, and human rights.The Council has a membership of 54 countrieselected by the General Assembly, with one-third of them being replaced by new members everythree years.

Specialized Agencies The United Nationsalso has units that carry out much of the orga-nization’s humanitarian activities under thesupervision of the Economic and Social Council.These specialized agencies include the WorldHealth Organization (WHO), the United NationsChildren’s Fund (UNICEF), the World Bank, andthe International Monetary Fund (IMF).

Peacekeeping Activities In addition topromoting alternatives to armed conflict, the UNhas a limited ability to use military force forpeacekeeping. The UN acts as a peacekeeper whenits member states have approved a mission, volun-teered troops, and agreed to pay for the mission.The UN has conducted 56 peacekeeping opera-tions since 1948, but the majority of those op-erations were conducted after the end of the ColdWar in the early 1990s. As of October 2003, theUN had 13 peacekeeping forces of different sizesat locations in Africa, Asia, Europe, and theMiddle East. These forces totaled over 42,000troops and police drawn from 91 countries in-cluding the United States, England, France, China,Russia, Ireland, Canada, and several Scandinaviancountries.

UN peacekeeping often involves inserting aninternational force of troops between combatantsas a way to calm an explosive situation or monitora negotiated cease-fire. Sometimes lightly armed

peacekeeping forces will undertake other missions,such as overseeing elections or providing humani-tarian aid to help starving people in a war-torncountry. Over 1,700 UN peacekeepers have beenkilled in such operations.

Although Americans tend not to think of it insuch terms, the Persian Gulf War of 1990 was a UNpeacekeeping operation. When Iraq invaded neigh-boring Kuwait in 1990 and then headed towardSaudi Arabia, the Saudis asked the United Statesfor protection. The UN Security Council voted tocondemn Iraq and authorized the U.S. to lead acoalition of seven nations to repel the invaders.The coalition forces quickly defeated Iraq. The UNthen ordered Iraq to destroy all of its weapons ofmass destruction, and it regularly sent inspectors to Iraq to look for such weapons. It also imposedeconomic sanctions on Iraq to force compliance.

The European UnionIntergovernmental organizations, includ-ing the United Nations, traditionally have

had little independent authority to make policiesthat would be binding on sovereign nations. ThusIGOs do not act independently of the nations that make up their membership. Instead, nearly all IGOs are devices used by member states topromote their own diplomatic objectives or toaccomplish non-political tasks. Such IGOs includethe International Civil Aviation Organization,which regulates civil aviation, and the Interna-tional Criminal Police Organization (Interpol),which tracks down international criminals.

The European Union is a regional IGO thathas evolved further than any other towards be-coming a supranational organization, or an orga-nization whose authority overrides or supercedesthe sovereignty of its individual members. The EUwas created in 1957 when six Western Europeannations saw an advantage in cooperating with each other politically and economically. The EUnow has 25 members. Four more nations—Bul-garia, Croatia, Romania, and Turkey—have ap-plied for membership to the EU. “The EuropeanUnion,” according to one scholar, “is one of thegreat political and economic success stories of thetwentieth century.” In this chapter we look at theEU’s political structure; in the next chapter weconsider its economic endeavors.


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Political Development Since its founding,the EU has developed into a quasi-governmentwith the authority to make and enforce some deci-sions that apply to all of its members even thoughthey remain sovereign nations. In other words,these nations yield some of their sovereignty to theEU. How did the EU develop into a continent-widepolitical institution with a powerful economy thatcompares to that of the United States?

The original motivation for European integra-tion was economic. In 1957 France, West Germany,Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourgagreed to move toward a common trading marketcalled the European Economic Community (EEC).In 1967 the EEC merged with two other organiza-tions to become the European Community (EC).The goal of the EC was to remove all economicrestrictions, permitting workers, capital, goods, andservices to move freely throughout the membernations. By the late 1980s, the admission of Britain,Ireland, Denmark, Greece, Portugal, and Spainincreased the EC’s population to 370 million. In1993 the EC was renamed the European Union andbecame the world’s largest unified market. Twoyears later Austria, Finland, and Sweden joined tobring the total EU membership to 15 nations.

When Eastern European nations began to breakfree of Communist governments in the 1990s, theirnew leaders recognized the value of belonging to aunified European market. Almost immediatelythey began negotiating to join the organization inorder to integrate their own emerging free marketeconomies with those of Western Europe.

As more countries joined the European Union,pressure increased on the member states to imple-ment greater political integration. Economic inte-gration is less effective alone than it is whencombined with political cooperation. A key steptoward such integration was the 1993 MaastrichtTreaty. Through this treaty the member nationsbegan to yield power to the European Union. Thisallowed the EU to start acting more as a politicalunit able to enforce common rules, not only fortrade but also for crime fighting, immigration, citi-zenship, and other common concerns. This treatyalso called for the eventual creation of a commonforeign and defense policy. Two additional treatiessince 1993 have further strengthened politicalintegration by giving the EU government moreauthority.

European Union Government The EU gov-ernment is complex because of its need to combinemany distinct cultures, languages, and politicaltraditions into a structure acceptable to all mem-ber nations. The Council of the European Uniondecides the key directions for EU policy. TheCouncil is a gathering of foreign ministers or statesecretaries chosen by each member nation. Thisgroup meets twice a year to discuss and vote onmajor issues. The larger EU countries have morevotes on certain matters than smaller countries.

The European Parliament (EP) is the legisla-tive branch of the EU, with 732 members divided


Transforming a Nation In the 1980s, theUnited States and international organizations,such as the UN, placed economic restrictions onSouth Africa to end apartheid. How might therestriction of U.S. corporate investment inSouth Africa affect the average citizen ofthat country?

Calling for Democracy

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Sect ion 3 AssessmentSect ion 3 Assessment

Political Processes Identify and find outabout the duties, responsibilities, andprograms of the specialized agencies of theUnited Nations. Create a poster thatillustrates the work of these agencies. Display completed posters in the classroom.

Critical Thinking6. Analyzing Information Should the five permanent

members of the UN Security Council be able tooverride any UN decision? Why or why not?


below to summarize the two internationalorganizations described in this section.

2. Define nongovernmental organizations, intergovern-mental organizations, supranational organizations.

3. Identify General Assembly, Security Council, Secre-tariat, Maastricht Treaty, European Parliament.

4. List some incidences where the UN has acted asa peacekeeper in a nonmilitary setting.

5. How has European Union expansion affected theEuropean Commission?

Organization Membership Goals

among countries on the basis of population.Germany, the most populous country, has 99seats, while Malta, the smallest member, has 5seats. EP members are elected to five-year termsby the voters in their own countries. The EP worksalongside the Council to form the annual budgetfor the European Union and supervise the opera-tions of smaller EU institutions.

The European Court of Justice is the EU’shighest judicial body and has one judge permember state. The court hears cases on a widerange of issues and often uses various EU treaties asa kind of constitution by which to judge cases. The

Court can declare laws of member nations invalidif they conflict with EU treaty obligations. For ex-ample, in one recent case, the Court held that GreatBritain violated EU treaties by granting certain taxexemptions to British citizens.As a result, the BritishParliament had to eliminate the exemptions.

The European Commission does much of thedaily work in the European Union. It drafts pro-posals for new European laws, presents them tothe European Parliament and the Council, andsees that decisions are implemented throughoutthe EU. The Commission was originally com-posed of 20 individuals selected from membercountries (2 each from the larger countries and 1 per smaller country). Once the EU expanded in2004, this number changed to 1 representative pernation, with the total never to exceed 27 commis-sion members. If the number of EU memberstates eventually exceeds 27, a rotation schedulewill be established by the Council of the EuropeanUnion. The commissioners serve five-year terms.One commissioner is selected by the Council to bethe President of the Commission. The presidentdirects the large EU bureaucracy and oversees theEU’s annual budget of more than $86 billion.

The EU bureaucracy has grown tremendouslysince 1970 and currently employs over 20,000 peo-ple. The “Eurocracy,” as it is called, issues over 600rules, regulations, and directives each year. ManyEuropeans complain the bureaucracy has growntoo large and is not responsive to the public.


Foreign Soil The United Nations sits on18 acres of land in New York City. Donated byJohn D. Rockefeller, Jr., the land is not part ofthe United States. The UN is internationalterritory and belongs to all members of theorganization. The UN has its own security andfirefighting forces and issues its own postagestamps. Mail a card from the UN, and you cansay you sent a foreign letter!

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In today’s interdependent world, citizens,national leaders, and officials in interna-tional organizations must increasingly dealwith global issues that affect a large part

of the world’s population and cannot be solved by the actions of any single nation. Importantglobal issues today include defeating terror-ism, limiting the spread of nuclear weapons,promoting human rights, and protecting theenvironment.

As the world becomes more and more in-terconnected, even the most powerful nations,including the United States, cannot escape theimpact of global issues. As one leading Americanpolitical scientist explains, “U.S. security andeconomic interests are inevitably tied to whathappens in the rest of the world. Whether we likeit or not.”

Global issues pose a challenge to a nation’sability to claim authority within its own bordersand to act independently of other nations. This is because responding effectively to issues of aglobal scale sometimes requires a country toaccept the decisions or rules of an internationalbody such as the United Nations or the WorldTrade Organization, even if such decisions orrules differ from that country’s own.

Some global issues are so large in scope that a group of nations must cooperate to solvethe problems. This often means that individ-ual nations must give up some measure ofnational authority. For example, to combatworldwide pollution, nations may agree toparticipate in a treaty that limits a nation’seconomic and industrial choices for the good of all treaty members. In other words, solvingglobal issues may require cooperation amongnations. A prime example of such coopera-tion came after the 2001 terrorist attacks on the United States, when President GeorgeW. Bush met with nearly 80 foreign lead-ers to ask for their cooperation in fightingterrorism.

Global IssuesS e c t i o n 4S e c t i o n 4

Day of TerrorNEW YORK CITY, SEPTEMBER 11, 2001

Terrorists today crashed two

commercial airliners into the

twin towers of the World Trade

Center. A third plane hit the

Pentagon outside Washington,

D.C., and a fourth went down

outside Pittsburgh.All 266 people

in the four jetliners were killed.

Within an hour of the first

attack, Americans watched in

horror on television as the south

tower of the World Trade Center

collapsed due to the heat of the

explosion. Shortly after that the

north tower fell. Many office workers in the twin towers

jumped out of windows to their deaths to escape the

flames. Hundreds of firefighters and rescue workers

searched the debris but found few survivors. The U.S.

military was put on the highest state of alert, and the

nation’s borders were immediately closed.

Reader’s Guide

Key Termsterrorism, state-sponsored terrorism, nuclearproliferation, human rights

Find Out■ What is state-sponsored terrorism?■ Why has the United States been reluctant to

sign the treaty creating the InternationalCriminal Court?

Understanding ConceptsGlobal Perspectives What steps have been taken to halt the global threat of nuclearproliferation?

Smoke billows where

twin towers stood

707-715 CH25S4-860053 12/2/04 9:18 AM Page 707

International TerrorismThe U.S. State Department reports that re-cent years have seen more than 300 attacks

of terrorism per year across all regions of theworld. Terrorism is the use of violence by non-governmental groups against civilians to achieve apolitical goal.

International terrorism has become one of thegreatest dangers of the new global era. This truthbecame very clear to Americans on September 11,2001. Terrorists launched their most devastating at-tack ever on the United States, hijacking commer-cial airliners and crashing them into the WorldTrade Center in New York City and the Pentagon inWashington, D.C. Another plane intended for asimilar attack crashed in Pennsylvania.

Since World War II, most terrorist attacks onAmericans have been carried out by Middle East-ern groups. One reason for such attacks stems fromthe history of American investment in the oil in-dustry. Such investment enriched the ruling fami-lies of some Middle Eastern kingdoms but left mostof the people poor. Some of these people becameangry at the United States for supporting thewealthy ruling families. American support of Israelalso angered many in the Middle East.

The global importance of the oil industry also increased cultural exchanges between MiddleEastern countries and the West. Many Muslim

fundamentalists resented this contact, fearing thatit weakened traditional Islamic values and beliefs.New movements arose calling for a strict interpre-tation of the Quran—the Muslim holy book—anda return to traditional Muslim religious laws.Eventually, some of the more militant fundamen-talists began using terrorism to achieve their goals.

In the 1970s, several Middle Eastern nationsrealized they could fight the United States by pro-viding terrorist groups with money, weapons, andtraining. When a government secretly supports ter-rorism, this is called state-sponsored terrorism.The governments of Libya, Syria, Iraq, and Iranhave all sponsored terrorism.

A New Terrorist Threat In 1979 the SovietUnion invaded Afghanistan. In response, Muslimsfrom across the Middle East headed to Afghanistanto join the struggle against the Soviets. Amongthem was a 22-year-old Muslim named Osama binLaden. Bin Laden came from one of Saudi Arabia’swealthiest families. He used his wealth to supportthe Afghan resistance. In 1988 he founded an orga-nization called al-Qaeda, or “the Base.” Al-Qaedarecruited Muslims and channeled money and armsto the Afghan resistance.

Bin Laden’s experience in Afghanistan con-vinced him that superpowers could be beaten. Healso believed that Western ideas had contaminatedMuslim society. He was outraged when Saudi

Bombing of the World Trade CenterRescue workers and firefighters desperatelysearch for survivors in the rubble of the 110-story towers. Hijackers took over passengerjets and flew them into the twin towers in aplanned and coordinated act of destruction.Do you think such incidents help terror-ists achieve their objectives? Why orwhy not?

Terrorist Attack


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Arabia allowed American troops on Saudi soil afterIraq invaded Kuwait in 1990.

Operating first from Sudan and then fromAfghanistan—then under the control of Muslimfundamentalists known as the Taliban—bin Ladendedicated himself and al-Qaeda to drivingWesterners, and especially Americans, out of theMiddle East. In 1998 he called on Muslims to killAmericans. Soon afterward, truck bombs explodedat the American embassies in Kenya and Tanzania.

In 1999 members of al-Qaeda were arrestedwhile trying to smuggle explosives into the UnitedStates in an attempt to bomb Seattle, Washington.Then, in October 2000, al-Qaeda terrorists crasheda boat loaded with explosives into the USS Cole, anAmerican warship docked in Yemen. Finally in2001 came the devastating attacks on New YorkCity and Washington, D.C., and the United Statesresponded by going to war.

War on Terrorism Begins Experts on Islampoint out that Islamic terrorists misrepresent theteachings of the Quran and that many of their state-ments actually contradict core Islamic principles.According to Bernard Lewis, an internationally rec-ognized authority on Islam, “The callous destruc-tion of thousands in the World Trade Center . . . hasno justification in Islamic doctrine or law and noprecedent in Islamic history.” When the UnitedStates began bombing targets in Afghanistan inOctober 2001, Bush emphasized that he had or-dered the military to attack al-Qaeda’s camps andthe Taliban’s military forces, and he reiterated thatIslam and the Afghan people were not the enemy.

President Bush also vowed that while the waron terrorism began by targeting al-Qaeda, it wouldnot end “until every terrorist group of global reachhas been found, stopped, and defeated.”In order forterrorism to be defeated on a global scale, however,many nations will have to work together towardsthat common goal.

Nuclear Weapons ThreatAnother problem that the world faces isnuclear proliferation, or the spread of

nuclear weapons. Five nations—the United States,Russia, Great Britain, France, and China—have had nuclear weapons for many years. Israel, SouthAfrica, Argentina, and Taiwan are also believed to

possess nuclear weapons. More recently, India andPakistan have acquired the capability to producenuclear weapons.

The United States, in cooperation with manyother developed nations, has taken several steps to limit the spread of nuclear weapons. In late1956, a joint agreement of 81 nations created theInternational Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). Thisorganization oversees the safe operation of nuclearpower plants and limits the export of plutoniumprocessing technologies needed to build nuclearweapons.

In 1968 the major nuclear powers created thenuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT), in whichthey promised not to provide nuclear weaponstechnology to other nations. They also vowed toensure the safe use of nuclear power and to en-courage general disarmament and destruction ofexisting nuclear weapons. Since the NPT’s creation,over 180 parties have joined this treaty. On occa-sion the United Nations has also imposed sanctionson nations seeking to build nuclear weapons.

A new challenge to limiting the spread of nu-clear weapons has arisen, making the success of theseinternational agreements more difficult. Scientistshave revealed that it is possible to build small nuclearweapons using readily available low-enricheduranium or spent nuclear fuel, the waste left over byreactors used to generate electric power. Previously itwas thought that only plutonium or highly enricheduranium could be used. As a result, the treaties andmonitoring programs put into place so far havefocused only on those two substances. The fact thatthese cheaper, more readily-obtainable substancescan be used to make weapons of mass destructionmeans that a wider range of nations may have accessto the materials needed to build nuclear weapons.This means that the chance of terrorists obtainingweapons of mass destruction has increased.

North Korea signed the nuclear Non-ProliferationTreaty in 1985 as a non-nuclear weapons state. In1992 both North and South Korea agreed to sign aDenuclearization Statement which stated that nei-ther country was allowed to test, manufacture, pro-duce, receive, possess, store, deploy, or use nuclearweapons and forbade the possession of nuclearreprocessing and uranium enrichment facilities.Also, plans were discussed for nuclear weaponsinspections in both countries. After these promisingbeginnings, however, North Korea showed little

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progress in following up on these agreements withSouth Korea or the international community.

The United States tried a new round of negoti-ations with North Korea in 1993 and 1994. NorthKorea agreed to freeze its existing nuclear facilitiesand allow international monitoring. In 2002, how-ever, the United States discovered that North Koreawas restarting some of its nuclear facilities. TheNorth Korean government claims that these facili-ties are being used for power generation and not forthe manufacturing of nuclear weapons. The UnitedStates disputes this claim and is keeping a closewatch on developments in North Korea.

The United States is also concerned about thenuclear development of Iran, which appears to bein the very late stages of developing the capacity tomanufacture nuclear weapons. Because NorthKorea and Iran have been accused of sponsoringterrorism, the United States and internationalorganizations are worried that nuclear weaponsproduced in these countries could be sold to inter-national terrorist groups.

Continued efforts by the international com-munity to tighten safeguards against the spread ofnuclear weapons will be costly. The United States,for example, has won agreement from Britain,Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, and Russiato match a U.S. pledge to spend $10 billion over thenext 10 years on non-proliferation efforts.

Human RightsProtecting human rights has become amajor concern for the international com-

munity. Several important treaties on human rightshave been signed by a majority of the world’snations, and various international courts have triedmilitary and political leaders for human rightsviolations. Such international efforts to safeguardhuman rights have the potential to limit or interferewith the sovereignty of individual nations.

Universal Declaration of Human RightsHuman rights are the basic freedoms and rightsthat all people, regardless of age, gender, national-ity, or ethnicity, should enjoy. In 1948 the UnitedNations adopted the Universal Declaration ofHuman Rights, which set forth in 30 articles acomprehensive statement of “inalienable rights ofall members of the human family.”

The Declaration’s early articles laid out a list ofpolitical and civil rights that all human beings shouldenjoy. Many of these rights are the same as thosefound in the U.S. Constitution. Several other rightsare also listed, including freedom of movement, theright to seek asylum, the right to marry, and the rightto own property. These articles list things a govern-ment should not do to limit people’s freedoms.

The Declaration’s later articles spell out eco-nomic, social, and cultural rights relating to aperson’s quality of life. These include the right towork, to receive equal pay for equal work, to formtrade unions, to enjoy rest and leisure, to have a stan-dard of living sufficient for health and well being,and to have an education. These so-called “positiverights” list things governments should do for people.

Protecting Human Rights The interna-tional community has developed numerousinstitutions and procedures for safeguardinghuman rights. The UN Commission on HumanRights monitors and reports on human rightsviolations. In addition, the UN Security Councilhas established several international criminaltribunals. These are temporary courts convenedunder UN authority to prosecute violators of in-ternational human rights laws. One such tribunal,created in 1993, has been trying Yugoslavian lead-ers, including the former president of the country,for atrocities committed in the Balkans during thebreakup of Yugoslavia. The United States has beenthe largest financial contributor to this tribunaland supports its activities.

The European Union (EU) has also made astatement about the importance of protectinghuman rights. EU members stand behind the Euro-pean Convention of Human Rights, which wassigned in 1950 and remains a binding agreement onall current and future member states of the Euro-pean Union. This treaty sets forth a long list of civilliberties that apply to all EU countries. The Euro-pean Court of Human Rights has the power to en-force the Convention and rule on charges of abuses.

In 2002 a permanent International CriminalCourt (ICC) was established as a result of theefforts of the UN and a group of nearly 50 coun-tries led by Canada and Germany. The ICC hasstrong powers to investigate and prosecute thoseaccused of major human rights violations and warcrimes. The United States participated in the treaty


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Your Rights Overseas

I f you visit another country, be aware that itslaws may be very different from ours. Thingsthat are no problem at home can cause you

trouble overseas. For example, attempting to use a credit card that has exceeded your limit can getyou arrested in some countries. Photographing police, military installations and personnel, andother subjects may also result in your detention.

If arrested, you have the right under interna-tional law to contact the U.S. consulate. Consularofficials cannot get you out of jail, but they can recommend attorneys and will try to see that youare treated humanely. Since most countries do not permit bail, you may have to spend months in solitary confinement awaiting trial.

Remember that whenyou leave the UnitedStates, although you are aUnited States citizen, theBill of Rights stays behind.The best way to protectyour freedom overseas is tolearn about a country’s laws and customs beforeyou visit.

Be Informed Visit the State Department’s Website on the Internet for travel advice about acountry you would like to visit.

A C T I V I T YA C T I V I T Yarticipating

I N G O V E R N M E N T articipating

I N G O V E R N M E N T

American studentstour France.

negotiations that created the ICC, but along withChina, Russia, and several other nations has re-fused to sign the treaty.

The U.S. position against the ICC has drawnsharp criticism from many European governments.American critics of the ICC respond that as a su-perpower, the United States is frequently involvedin controversial military actions across the globe.These critics claim that under the new ICC rulesAmerican military troops as well as U.S. leaderscould become targets of frivolous complaints ofwar crimes by enemies of the United States.

Protecting the EnvironmentBecause the environment is a basic part ofour daily lives, it is easy to take the air, water,

and land upon which all life depends for granted.Yetthe political issues and technical questions resultingfrom exploding population growth, increasingconsumption of natural resources, and the growingdischarge of pollution into the environment raisesmany difficult global issues. Policymakers andscientists alike recognize that dealing effectively with such issues requires transnational programsdependent upon international cooperation.

The United States occupies a unique place ininternational debates and negotiations regarding

the environment. As one group of scholars ex-plains,“The United States is at the same time one ofour world’s leading promoters of environmentalconcerns and because of our size and extensiveindustrial wealth one of its major polluters.”

Sustainable Development The core dilemmafor policymakers that cuts across all the specificenvironmental issues like air and water pollution is how to attain sustainable development; that is,how can the nations of the world, especially theless developed nations, continue their economicdevelopment while protecting the environmentand not exhausting the natural resources that fuelthe industrial economy. Political difficulties arisebecause a minority of the world’s populationliving in wealthy nations like the United States,Germany, and Japan created global pollution whilethey were developing their industrial economies.Less developed nations want to be free to followthe same course. To protect the environment,however, the developed nations want to put limitson future development activities.

The fact that the United States has a stable,profitable economic system provides it the luxury of finding ways to make its industrial operationsmore efficient and less damaging to the environment.Developing nations that are struggling to solidify

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Sect ion 4 AssessmentSect ion 4 Assessment

Global Perspectives Research the KyotoProtocol, and create a poster that illustratesthe basic goals of this treaty. Also highlightindustrialized nations that have or have notsigned the treaty, with a brief statement ofeach nation’s position on the issue. Displaythe completed posters in the classroom.


below to list two international treaties dealingwith the environment, along with U.S. objectionsto these treaties.

2. Define terrorism, state-sponsored terrorism,nuclear proliferation, human rights

3. Identify Non-Proliferation Treaty, internationalcriminal tribunal, sustainable development.

4. Identify four of the rights protected by the UN’sUniversal Declaration of Human Rights.

Critical Thinking5. Predicting Consequences What could result if

the major powers totally abolished their nuclearweapons?


Treaty U.S. position

their industrial base are often more concerned withcreating a reliable economic system than they arewith controlling industrial pollution. Establishedindustrial nations like the United States can pro-vide assistance to developing nations by teachingthe industrial innovations they have acquired dur-ing their industrial history.

International Agreements There have beenmany international conferences and treatiesdealing with the environment. In 1992 the UNConference on Environment and Development,known as the “Earth Summit,” produced theBiodiversity Treaty, which set forth procedures forconservation of ecosystems and natural habitats.The United States did not sign the treaty, however,because U.S. policymakers feared that, amongother things, the treaty placed too many limits onU.S. patents in biotechnology and would damagethe U.S. economy.

In 1992 the United Nations Framework Con-vention on Climate Change was adopted by manynations, including the United States. This agree-ment strove to reduce emissions of greenhousegases that are believed to contribute to globalwarming. Over the next few years, concern grewthat major industrial nations were not going tomeet the convention’s targets for reducing green-house emissions. In 1997 a new round of negotia-tions resulted in the Kyoto Protocol, whichsupplemented the 1992 convention and focused

on timetables for reducing greenhouse emissionsto target levels among participating nations.

The United States signed the Kyoto Protocolin 1998, but in 1999 the U.S. Senate voted 95-0against formal implementation of the agreement.American policymakers agreed that global warm-ing and greenhouse gas emissions were seriousproblems, but they argued that the Kyoto Protocolwould harm the U.S. economy. They also felt thatthe agreement did not do enough to hold devel-oping industrial nations accountable.

The European Union and many other nationswere furious. China, for example, called the UnitedStates irresponsible. President George W. Bush hasresponded by claiming that “[The U.S.] economyhas slowed down and the idea of placing caps on[carbon dioxide] does not make economic sense.”

The president and the Congress often must tryto balance the desire to safeguard the environmentwith their responsibilities to represent the needs ofthe American people and plan for the good of theU.S. economy. It is difficult, however, to argue thatthe needs of the U.S. economy outweigh the needsof the global ecosystem. Members of the govern-ment are in a unique position to guide the deci-sions of the United States as a critical member ofthe global community. At the same time, govern-ment officials must make decisions that please thevoting public. The challenge for all governmentleaders is how to balance the needs of their nationwith the needs of the worldwide society.

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Preparing a Bibliography

In Chapter 23 you learned how to write a report.To complete your report, you need to prepare abibliography that lists all the sources you used.

Learning the Skill

A bibliography should follow a definite format.Each entry must contain author, title, publisher in-formation, and publication date. Arrange entries al-phabetically by the author’s last name. The followingare accepted formats for bibliography entries.

BooksAuthor’s last name, first name. Full Title.

Place of publication: publisher, copyright date.

Hay, Peter. Ordinary Heroes: The Life andDeath of Chana Szenes, Israel’s National Heroine.New York: Paragon House, 1986.

ArticlesAuthor’s last name, first name. “Title of

Article.” Periodical in which article appears, Vol-ume number (issue date): page numbers.

Watson, Bruce. “The New Peace Corps in theNew Kazakhstan.” Smithsonian, Vol. 25 (August1994): pp. 26–35.

Other SourcesFor other kinds of sources, adapt the format

for book entries.

Practicing the Skill

Review the sample bibliography, then answerthe questions that follow.

Castañeda, Jorge G. The Mexican Shock: ItsMeaning for the United States. New York: TheNew Press, 1995.

Marquez, Viviane Brachet de. The Dynamicsof Domination: State, Class, and Social Reform inMexico, 1910–1990. Pittsburgh, Penn., Universityof Pittsburgh Press, 1994.

Cockburn, A., “The Fire This Time.” CondéNast Traveller, Vol. 30 (June 1995): pp. 104–113.

1. Are the bibliography entries in the correctorder? Why or why not?

2. What is incorrect in the second book listing?3. What is incorrect in the article listing?

713

Politics in Mexico

Application ActivityApplication Activity

The Glencoe SkillbuilderInteractive Workbook, Level 2provides instruction and practicein key social studies skills.

Compile a bibliography for the researchreport you completed in Chapter 23.Include at least five sources.

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• These governments are marked by free elections, competing politi-cal parties, protection of individual rights, and a market economy.

• In parliamentary governments, executive and legislative dutiesboth reside in the elected assembly, while in presidential govern-ments the executive branch is separate from the legislative andjudicial branches.

Democratic Governments

• The United Nations is a worldwide organization of 191 membernations that seeks to preserve world peace and security andencourages nations to cooperate to solve social and economicproblems.

• The European Union is a regional organization of 25 Europeannations that promotes political and economic cooperation.

International Organizations

• Under these governments, citizens lack most civil rights, humanrights abuses occur, and government criticism is restricted.

• Examples include the People’s Republic of China, which is pursuing economic reforms but continues to restrict civil liberties;the Communist dictatorship in Cuba; and nonsecular Islamic governments.

Authoritarian Governments

• Issues of concern to all countries today include terrorism, theproliferation of nuclear weapons, protecting human rights, andbalancing economic growth with environmental concerns.

Global Issues

Reviewing Key TermsInsert the correct terms from the following list intothe sentences below.

apartheid terrorismlife peers consolidated democracymullahs parliamentary governmentsanctions state-sponsored terrorismshah supranational organization

1. The European Union has evolved from aregional body into a _____.

2. Britain’s House of Lords is partially made upof _____, people who have been awarded atitle for outstanding service or achievement.

3. In a _____ both the executive and the legislativefunctions are found in the elected assembly.

4. In the late 1970s, Muslims in Iran revoltedagainst the _____, or king.

5. To force the end of apartheid, the UnitedStates ordered economic _____, or withholdingof aid, against South Africa.

6. The use of violence by nongovernmental groupsagainst civilians to achieve a political goal isknown as _____.

7. Until recently, the South African governmentsupported _____, or the strict segregation ofthe races.

8. Specially trained Islamic religious teacherscalled ____ interpret Islamic teaching.

9. A well-established government with fairelections, competing political parties, and someform of market economy is known as a _____.

10. Terrorism secretly supported by a governmentis known as _____.

Recalling Facts1. What are the three types of government

discussed in this chapter?2. Who holds almost all governmental authority in

Great Britain?3. What are the challenges facing South Africa’s

government today?4. What is the real role of China’s National Party

Congress?5. What are the three major goals of the UN?

Assessment and ActivitiesChapter 25Chapter 25

Self-Check Quiz Visit the United States Government:Democracy in Action Web site at gov.glencoe.com andclick on Chapter 25–Self-Check Quizzes to preparefor the chapter test.

GOVERNMENT

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UnderstandingConcepts

1. Comparative GovernmentCompare the powers of the president of France tothose of the president ofthe United States.

2. Global Perspectives What aresome reasons why some Is-lamic extremists began tar-geting Americans?

Critical Thinking1. Expressing Problems Clearly

Use a graphic organizer likethe one below to identifythe challenges that Polandfaced once its people hadoverthrown their communistleaders.

2. Recognizing Ideologies Howdoes the role of the Com-munist Party illustrate its importance in thegovernment of China?

Analyzing Primary SourcesThe United Nations was formed in June 1945 at theend of World War II in an effort to provide a worldforum for solving international political problems.Read the excerpt from the preamble to the UnitedNations Charter, signed on June 26, 1945, in SanFrancisco, and answer the questions that follow.

“WE THE PEOPLES OF THE UNITED NATIONS DETERMINED• to save succeeding generations from the scourge of war . . . • to reaffirm faith in fundamental human rights . . .• to promote social progress and better standards of life in

larger freedom . . .• to practice tolerance and live together in peace . . . • to unite our strength to maintain international peace

and security . . . • to ensure . . . that armed force shall not be used, save in

the common interest, and

Interpreting Political Cartoons Activity

• to [promote] the economic and social advancement of all peoples,

HAVE RESOLVED TO COMBINE OUR EFFORTS TOACCOMPLISH THESE AIMS”

1. What are some of the specific goals of theUN? How are these similar to and differentfrom U.S. goals for national security?

2. What are the benefits of having such a world-wide cooperative organization? What are thedrawbacks?

Participating in Local GovernmentTake a poll of adults you knowin your community. Find outtheir opinion about the work of the United Nations. Also find out what they think about UnitedStates involvement in that organization.

Chapter 25Chapter 25

1. How is the United Nations portrayed in this cartoon?2. How are various countries portrayed in this cartoon?3. According to the cartoonist, does the UN seem equipped to

effectively handle the world’s crises? Explain your answer.


ChallengesOverthrewcommunist

leaders

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