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Chapter 2
So What Is the Problem?
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SAD/CHAPTER 22
Learning Objectives
Develop an understanding of the concepts of problem recognition and problem definition
Be able to identify and explain the differences between problems and symptoms
Learn to apply two common symptom organization tools: the Ishikawa diagram and the PIECES framework
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SAD/CHAPTER 23
Learning Objectives
Understand the concept of bounded rationality and its effects on natural problem solving ability
Review and explain a system classification approach that can assist in understanding the elements and actions of IS
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SAD/CHAPTER 24
Learning Objectives
Develop a thorough understanding of the process of functional decomposition and its importance to SAD activities
Learn the detailed phases of the SDLC and the typical activities and deliverables associated with each
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SAD/CHAPTER 25
Problems versus Symptoms
Problem– A difference between things as desired and things
as perceived (Cause & Weinberg, 1990)– One person’s problem can be another person’s
opportunity
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SAD/CHAPTER 26
Problems versus Symptoms
Symptom– An outward or physical manifestation of a problem
that becomes noticeable as some variance from the norm
– A symptom is evidence of a problem, not necessarily the problem itself
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SAD/CHAPTER 27
Figure 2-1. One Man’s Problem – Another Man’s Opportunity
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SAD/CHAPTER 28
Problem Recognition and Definition
You cannot solve the problem if you do not know what the real problem is.– Scientists
Observe a phenomenon Formulate a hypothesis Conduct an experiment
– Systems Analysts Recognize a variance Investigate Propose a solution
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SAD/CHAPTER 29
Figure 2-2. Analysts and Scientists Use a Similar Approach
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SAD/CHAPTER 210
Problem Recognition and Definition
Cause and Effect– One common method to define a problem is to
explore the cause and effect trail created by its symptoms.
– If one can discover a common source for the symptoms, then one can assume that he or she has determined the nature of the problem.
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SAD/CHAPTER 211
Problem Recognition and Definition
PIECES Framework– Performance– Information– Economic– Control– Efficiency– Service
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SAD/CHAPTER 212
PIECES Framework
The need to improve Performance– Improve throughput: the amount of work performed
over some period of time.– Improve response time: the average delay between
a transaction and a response to that transaction.– Throughput and response time should be evaluated
separately and collectively.
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SAD/CHAPTER 213
PIECES Framework
The need to improve Information and data– Too little or too much information– Lack of needed or relevant information– Lack of relevant information– Information that is not in a useful form– Information that is not accurate or timely– Information that is difficult to produce
– Illegal information
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SAD/CHAPTER 214
PIECES Framework
The need to reduce Economic or cost impacts– Costs are unknown– Cost are untraceable to source– Costs are excessive– New markets can be explored to generate profit– Marketing can be improved– Opportunities to increase orders exist
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SAD/CHAPTER 215
PIECES Framework
The need to improve Control and security– Input data is not adequately edited– Crimes are committed against data– Fraud or embezzlement– Ethics are breached based on data or information– Redundantly stored data is inconsistent in different files– Privacy of data is being violated– Processing or decision making errors are occurring
– System is deviating from planned performance
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SAD/CHAPTER 216
PIECES Framework
The need to improve Efficiency– People or machines waste time– Machines or processes waste materials and
supplies– Effort required for tasks is excessive– Materials required for tasks are excessive
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SAD/CHAPTER 217
PIECES Framework
The need to improve Service– The system produces inaccurate results,
inconsistent, or unreliable results.– The system is not easy to learn or to use.– The system is too complex or awkward.
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SAD/CHAPTER 218
PIECES Framework
The need to improve Service– The system is inflexible to situations and exceptions
or new requirements.– The system does not interface well to other
systems.– The system is not coordinated (“left hand does not
know what right hand is doing”).
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SAD/CHAPTER 219
Problem Statement
Once defined, the root problem must be communicated to a wide variety of parties: the users, the managers, the development team, and technical people.
Problem statement is the common accepted method for such communication
Also referred to as a Statement of Scope and Objectives
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SAD/CHAPTER 220
Bounded Rationality
Proposed by Herbert A. Simon
Cognitive limitations of human beings make it impractical to consider all possible alternatives to a practical problem
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SAD/CHAPTER 221
Bounded Rationality
Systems analysts are not likely to gather all relevant information available regarding a particular problem.
It suggests the need for guidance and structure in the identification of a problem and the selection of a satisfactory alternative (e.g. SDLC).
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SAD/CHAPTER 222
Figure 2-4. Theoretical Problem Space and Bounded Rationality
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SAD/CHAPTER 223
The Concept of Systems
A system is a set of interrelated elements, with an identifiable boundary, that function together to achieve a common goal.
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SAD/CHAPTER 224
The Concept of Systems
The concept of interrelatedness– The elements of a system are interdependent.– Those elements work together to achieve the goals
of objectives of the system.
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SAD/CHAPTER 225
The Concept of Systems
The concept of a boundary– A system a definable within the context of all other
systems and that its limits can be established by virtue of it having a definable boundary.
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SAD/CHAPTER 226
The Concept of Systems
The common goal– The goal or purpose of a system is its reason for
being .– If a system has no reason to exist because it has
outlived its usefulness or it no longer can provide the necessary functionality, then the purpose is no longer important and the system is no longer necessary.
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SAD/CHAPTER 227
System Classification
Open Systems Closed systems Figure 2-5
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SAD/CHAPTER 228
Figure 2-5. Comparison of Characteristics for Open and Closed Systems
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SAD/CHAPTER 229
Figure 2-6. A Typical Terrarium – A Closed System
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SAD/CHAPTER 230
Closed Systems
Also referred to as stable or mechanistic system
Highly structured and routine in operation
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SAD/CHAPTER 231
Open System
Also referred to as adaptive or organic systems Less structured and routine in operation Adapt to changes in internal and external
conditions
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SAD/CHAPTER 232
The Subsystem
The process of breaking a system into its component elements is called functional decomposition.
It allows us to study a single part of a system (subsystem).
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SAD/CHAPTER 233
Figure 2-7. The Concept of Functional Decomposition
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SAD/CHAPTER 234
SDLC
Preliminary investigation phase Analysis phase Logical design phase Physical design phase Implementation phase Maintenance phase
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SAD/CHAPTER 235
Figure 2-8. The Systems Development Life Cycle
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SAD/CHAPTER 236
Preliminary Investigation Phase
Purposes– Formulate the initial problem statement in a precise and
understandable manner– Investigate technical, economic, and operational feasibilities
Deliverable– Preliminary feasibility study (baseline project plan)
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SAD/CHAPTER 237
Analysis Phase
Purposes– Logical modeling– Assemble formal requirements for the system
Deliverables– DFD and ERD– Formal requirement definition
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SAD/CHAPTER 238
Logical Design Phase
Purposes– Redesigning the existing to reflect the proposed
solution– Incorporate new features for the system
Deliverables– Final performance specification– Detailed logical models
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SAD/CHAPTER 239
Physical Design Phase
Purposes– Convert the logical models into a physical model
Deliverables– Physical specification– A formal feasibility analysis
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SAD/CHAPTER 240
Implementation Phase
Purposes– End user training– System conversion
Deliverables– System documentation– Training program and schedule
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SAD/CHAPTER 241
Maintenance Phase
Purposes– Error correction and system enhancement
Deliverables– Fully functioning system
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SAD/CHAPTER 242
Figure 2-9. Distribution of Types of Maintenance Agreements
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SAD/CHAPTER 243
Life Cycle Phase Key Activities Primary Deliverables
Preliminary Investigation
- problem definition - estimate project scope - estimate project feasibility - estimate resource
commitment - go/no decision
- preliminary feasibility report - general problem statement
Analysis
- create logical models of current system
- refine problem statement via detailed symptom analysis
- DFD of current system - ERD for current system - formal problem statement - formal requirements
definition Logical Design
- revise current system logical models to reflect proposed system changes
- validate logical model of
- DFD of proposed system - ERD for proposed system - final performance
specifications
Physical Design
- determine hardware - determine software
specifications - conduct feasibility analysis
- detailed hardware - detailed software
specifications - final feasibility report
Implementation
- acquire hardware and software
- determine location - install the new system - create test data and conduct
- final performance test metrics
- fully trained end user - fully installed system - fully converted data files
Maintenance
- conduct post-implementation review
- perform requested and necessary changes to new system
- fully functioning system
Table 2-2. Activities and Deliverables During SDLC
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SAD/CHAPTER 244
Systems Development Principles
Get the Users Involved Systems Analysis is Problem Solving ISs Are Capital Assets Good Ideas Can Become Bad Ideas Document Now Use the Divide-Conquer Approach
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SAD/CHAPTER 245
Summary
The fundamental activity of the modern systems analyst is that of problem identification and solution development.
The concept of bounded rationality can help the analyst in identifying a problem and proposing a solution.
Systems development principles should be followed by systems analysts.
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Chapter 2
End of Chapter