54

Chapter - 2

MACAULIFFE AND HIS CONCERN WITH SIKHISM

OR THE SIKHS

Max Arthur Macauliffe has been one of the most famous and

known names in the annals of Sikh religion and its history for trying

to project Sikh religion in its right perspective. Macauliffe reached

Punjab in 1864 A.D. as a young civil servant of the most coveted

Indian Civil Service. He had a brilliant career in British Administration

yet he decided to leave his job in favour of study of Sikh religion and

above all in the translation of Adi Granth.

Being based in Punjab it was impossible for him to remain

ignorant of Sikh religion and it's ethos. His interest in Sikhism was

sparked by attending a Diwali celebration in Amritsar shortly after

arriving in Punjab. In his paper "The Holy Writings of the Sikhs"

which he read before the Aryan Section of the Congress of Orientalists

in Paris in 1897 and published in Asiatic Quarterly Review of 1898, he

writes:

"Several years ago I attended the Great Diwali

fair at Amritsar, and it appeared to me to be

worth describing in the Calcutta Review".

He further says :

"In doing so, it became necessary for me to

understand something of the Sikh religion. I

accordingly read at the time several hymns of

the Sikh religion".

55

Referring to his concern he says :

"I accordingly read at the time several hymns

of the Sikh Guru. Having once begun them, I

was tempted by the sublimity of their style

and the high standard of ethics which they

inculcated to continue".1

It may be noticed that his article "The Diwali at Amritsar:

Religion of the Sikhs" had appeared in Calcutta Review in 1880. But

his first article "The Fair at Sakhi Sarwar" was published in 1875 in

Calcutta Review. So, it seems that Macauliffe visited Amritsar between

1875 and 1880 A.D. If it was curiosity that led him towards Sikh

religion, then it was his contact with Professor Gurmukh Singh of

Oriental College of Lahore that fired the zeal and his interest further.

Macauliffe was very close to Bhai Kahn Singh Nabha who has

mentioned about this inspiration in his Mahankosh.2

The period when Macauliffe developed his interest is very crucial

in the history of Sikh religion because it was in the last three decades

of 19th century, that many activities were to take place which

subsequently shaped the future of Sikh religion, its concepts, rituals,

and its progress. It is crucial to study the period and persons who

came into contact with Macauliffe because his interest in Sikhism

evolved along with his increasing closeness to certain individuals

1. M.A. Macauliffe, 'The Holy Writings of the Sikhs' in Darshan Singh (ed.), Western Image ofthe Sikh Religion, National Book Organization, New Delhi, 1999, p. 316.

2. GkJh ekBQ f;zx BkGk, r[oPpdosBkeo, ;[doPB gq?;, nzfwqs;o, 1930, gzBk 2809^2810

56

which are as follows (i) Bhai Gurmukh Singh, (ii) Bhai Kahn Sigh of

Nabha, (iii) Bhai Takht Singh of Ferozpur, (iv) Sir Attar Singh of

Bhadaur. Along with the above mentioned individuals it was his

association with Singh Sabha in general and Tat Khalsa in particular

that his involvement in Sikh studies became more pronounced.

The last quarter of the 19th century in Punjab was marked by a

period of intense dynamism, of ideological and religious conflict

amidst an increasing polemical atmosphere, as each group within a

given religious community, Hindu, Sikh or Muslim sought to project

its own concepts and in the process struggled with their own

community and beyond. The religious competitiveness between the

two communities, Hindus and Sikhs in Punjab, concerned more with

their sense of identity then the question of power and dominance.3

Factionalism and belligerence were common in Punjab public

life during this time. Between 1870 and 1900 a number of

organizations emerged to the province. Out of these the main was the

Singh Sabha which was first established in 1873 at Amritsar by some

prominent Sikhs which included Thakur Singh Sandhanwalia, Baba

Sir Khem Singh Bedi and Kanwar Bikram Singh of Kapurthala. The

Amritsar Singh Sabha undertook to (i) restore Sikhism to its pristine

purity; (ii) edit and publish historical and religious books; (iii)

3. Sangat Singh, 'Political Development of Sikhs-Search for Identity (1849-1919) in GandaSingh (ed.), The Punjab Past and Present, Vol. XVI-II, Department of Punjab HistoricalStudies, Punjabi University, Patiala, Oct. 1982, p. 269.

57

propagate current knowledge using Punjabi as the medium and to

start magazines and newspapers in Punjabi; (iv) reform and bring

back apostates in Sikh fold; (v) interest the highly placed Englishmen

in and insure their association with the educational programme of the

SIkhs. The Singh Sabha gained quick support of the literate section of

the community and many Sikh scholars and leaders volunteered to

join its ranks.4 After the Singh Sabha of Amritsar, another Singh

Sabha was formed in 1879 at Lahore with Bhai Gurmukh Singh, a

Professor at the Oriental College, Lahore, as its secretary.

Professor Gurmukh Singh got job as second teacher in the Hindi

Department of Oriental College of Lahore in 1877 after he had

completed his education in Lahore itself. Later on he became Assistant

Professor. He had studied under the aegis of Kanwar Bikram Singh of

Kapurthala. As Kanwar Singh was one of the pioneers in establishing

Guru Singh Sabha of Amritsar in 1873, it was natural for Professor

Gurmukh Singh to follow suit.5

In 1880, Macauliffe saw Diwali at Amritsar and he came in

contact with Professor Gurmukh Singh over here.6 In order to

understand ceremonies and the importance of the Golden Temple, he

undertook a study of Sikhism and especially of the hymns of the

Gurus. At this time Macauliffe gets acquainted with Sardar Dyal Singh

4. Harbans Singh, 'Origins of the Singh Sabha' in Harbans Singh and N. Gerald Barrier (ed.),Essays in Honour of Dr. Ganda Singh, Punjabi University, Patiala, 1996, p. 280.

5. Karnail Singh Somal, GkJh fdZs f;zx frnkBh, Giani Ditt Singh Memorial InternationalSociety (Regd.), Sector 15-A, Chandigarh, 2003, p. 26.

6. Rattan Singh Jaggi, Sikh Panth Vishvakosh, Vol. 2, p. 13883.

58

Majithia at Amritsar. It is mentioned in his article "Rise of Amritsar

and the Alteration of the Sikh Religions", published in Calcutta Review

in 1881.7 According to Madan Gopal, Dyal Singh's father Lehna Singh

Majithia as also his grandfather Desa Singh Majithia were in charge of

the Darbar Sahib, Amritsar since Ranjit times.8 Dyal Singh Majithia

(1848-1898) was a rich Punjabi Sardar who was educated and was a

liberal minded person and had earned a lot of money through his

enterprising financial business. In one of footnotes, Macauliffe

mentions about Kahn Singh Nabha's views which makes it quite clear

as how he is being caught up on the process of vitality and study of

Sikh religion. Macauliffe was based at Ferozpur which itself was very

important for being a place close to Amritsar and Lahore as well as

being a gateway between Majha and Malwa region. Malwa region here

means Cis-Satluj states of Patiala and Nabha. This central location

facilitates Macauliffe's relations with different Singh Sabhas especially

that of Lahore, Amritsar, Ferozepur initially and later with Bhasaur

very near to Patiala and Nabha. Another article of Macauliffe "The

Sikh Religion under Banda Bahadur" was published in 1881 in the

Calcutta Review. From the above mentioned three articles in a short

span of time of one and a half years, the deep interest of the writer

with Sikhism became known to Sikhs. He now entered into detailed

religious discussions with the Sikh gyanies and intelligentsia.

7. M.A. Macauliffe, Rise of Amritsar and the Alterations of the Sikh Religion', op.cit, p. 251.8. Madan Gopal (ed.), Brahmo Samaj And Dyal Singh Majithia, Uppal Publishing House, New

Delhi, 1998, p. 5.

59

Macauliffe was an administrator and as such could not remain

away from political events. When he wrote about Amritsar he did not

overlooked political and financial condition of the city. For this he

blamed :

"an otiose and apathetic ruler and grasping

officials who were by no means a terrestrial

parasite."9

Who was this bad ruler of Amritsar in 1881? He was Thakur

Singh Sandhanwala (1837-87) who was Extra Assistant Commissioner

of Amritsar who happened to turn out as sympathetic to the claims of

Dalip Singh over Punjab. Macauliffe as the British administrator was

quite active in taking note of Sardar Thakur Singh who had been

disloyal to the Britishers. Macauliffe was unable to tolerate this and

wrote in footnote seven that:

The pitiable condition of this ruler's territories

and his clearly proved and deeply rooted

disloyalty to the British Government must

soon bring into political prominence the

question has long such an administration as

his will be allowed to crush the energies of the

fine people and defertilize the lovely country

over which he holds independents way.10

Thakur Singh Sandhanwalia was the first President of Amritsar

Singh Sabha in 1873 and was a distinguished scholar of Persian and

Punjabi. But, because of his independent views in favour of dethroned

9. M.A. Macauliffe, Rise of Amritsar and the Alterations of the Sikh Religion', op.cit, p. 251.10. Ibid., p. 263.

60

Maharaja Dalip Singh that he was deprived of his position as Extra

Assistant Commissioner of Amritsar. In 1883 his estate was placed

under a Court of Wards.

The loyalty to British crown at this stage was most visible as

also Macauliffe's dislike for Sandhanwalia Sardar even though the

Sandhanwalia chief was founder of Singh Sabha and was quite vocal

and well wisher of Sikh way of life.

In the mean time Singh Sabhas began to spring at many places

like Rawalpindi, Ferozpur, Julundar, Ludhiana, Patiala, Nabha,

Faridkot and Kapurthala. A co-ordinating Khalsa Diwan was formed

at Amritsar in 1883 A.D. with Baba Khem Singh Bedi as president

and Bhai Gurmukh Singh as Chief secretary. It was in this year i.e.

1883, that Professor Gurmukh Singh met Bhai Kahn Singh Nabha at

Lahore. Bhai Khan Singh stayed at Dehra Sahib and did Katha in the

Gurudwara and Bhai Gurmukh Singh used to go there to understand

meanings of difficult words which he needed to teach his students.11

Bhai Kahn Singh and his father Bhai Narayan Singh were much

respected Savants of Sikhism not only by the royal houses of Nabha

and Patiala but were also known in the whole Punjab as such for their

piousness and spiritual living.

Macauliffe had heard a great deal about Bhai Kahn Singh

Nabha from different sources and especially from Professor Gurmukh

Singh. Now Macauliffe become a divisional Judge 1884 and in 1885

11 Devinder Singh Vidyarthi, GkJh ekBQ f;zx BkGk^ihtB s/ ouBk, Punjabi University, Patiala,1987, p. 63.

61

he was sent to Rawalpindi. In 1885 A.D. a Darbar was held between

Viceroy of India Lord Dufferin (1884-88) and Sultan of Afghanistan

Abdur Rehman at Rawalpindi. Maharaja Hira Singh of Nabha went to

attend this Durbar and and Bhai Kahn Singh had accompanied him.12

It was here that Macauliffe asked Maharaja Hira Singh to spare Bhai

Kahn Singh for himself so that he could be helped in understanding

Gurmukhi scripts, mysteries of Gurbani and Sikh history. Bhai Kahn

Singh was permitted to stay at Rawalpindi for six months. This

friendship between the two lasted throughout their life. Khan Singh’s

knowledge of English language and western research and history

writing was improved by Macauliffe and in turn Macauliffe learned

about Sikh Gurbani, Gurus and Sikh religion by this esteemed

scholar. Further Macauliffe was accompanied by Bhai Khan Singh

Nabha when he went to England to get his The Sikh Religion published

in six volumes in 1907. Though Macauliffe faced innumerable

difficulties and many old friends left him in his adverse circumstances

yet Bhai Kahn Singh stood rock solid with his friend. This friendship

was fully acknowledged by Macauliffe who bequeathed the royalty

from his magnum opus to Bhai Kahn Singh in his will.

Macauliffe used to spend considerable time at Nabha as well as

at Shimla, Shrinagar, Mussourie, Nainital, Dehradoon and Solan in

his friend’s company to get assistance in or for his articles and

translation work.

12 Devinder Singh Vidyarthi, op. cit., pp. 27-28

62

It must be stressed that there was unity among different Singh

Sabhas to work for the betterment of Sikhs upto 1884. In 1882, a

strong representation was made by Khalsa Diwan Amritsar to

introduce Punjabi in the Gurmukhi characters in the primary village

schools. Previously in 1877, Punjabi was started to be taught in

Oriental College at Lahore by the efforts of G.W. Leitner and Lepel

Griffin. To counteract the argument of the opponents that there was

no mentionable literature in Punjabi, it was Sir Attar Singh Bhadaur

(1833-1896) who produced a formidable list of books and manuscripts

in Punjabi from his personal collection which clinched the issue.

Sardar Attar Singh was the same person who had translated

Rahitnamas of Prahlad Singh and Bhai Nand Lal for the benefit of the

British Government. In 1874 he had supplied abstracts of certain

texts like Jap Sahib, Akal Ustat, Bachitra Natak, Zafarnamah and the

Hakayat section in Persian and Punjabi from the Dasam Granth to the

Government at their request and also to Ernest Trumpp through

them. The united efforts of Punjabi intelligensia and British

bureaucracy under Dr. Leitner led to opening of an Oriental College, a

Univeristy Library, museum, a school of arts, science institution and

medical college as well as a literary13 society called Anjuman –i-

Punjab.

13 Khuswant Singh, A History of the Sikhs, Vol. II, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 1983,p. 141.

63

But by 1884, differences between members of Khalsa Diwan

Amritsar cropped up which subsequently divided different Singh

Sabhas under it on the basis of their alignment. The issue was

special privileges enjoyed by Baba Khem Singh Bedi as a descendant

of Guru Nanak. He was supported by Mahants, Pujaris and Raja

Bikram of Faridkot. But the Lahore Singh Sabha under the leadership

of Prof. Gurumukh Singh constituted the radical wing and

represented the wave of the future. He neither let unchallenged Baba

Khem Sing Bedi’s claim to be the Guru of the Sikhs, or his claim to

have a seat with cushions in Darbar Sahib, Amritsar, nor did he had

any sentiments for Sardar Thakur Singh Sandhanwalia’s dream for

restoration of Dalip Singh or Sikh Raj. He had a clear perception that,

in the present circumstances, seeking co-operation of the government

was in the best interests of the Sikh community.14 This same view

was held by Macauliffe also as we know from his early writings. A

schism in the Diwan was now inevitable and in 1886 A.D a separate

Khalsa Diwan was formed at Lahore with Sardar Attar Singh of

Bhadaur as president and Bhai Gurmukh Singh as secretary.

Between 1880 and 1900, a growing band of intellectuals and

publicists attempted with marked success to redefine the Sikh faith

and to strengthen the self identity of Sikh ideas and institutions.

Macauliffe focused his time and limited linguistic abilities on the

14 Sangat Singh, The Sikhs in History, Uncommon Books, New Delhi, 2001, p. 140.

64

study of Sikhism from 1880’s onwards. Unlike other western scholars

of the day he exhibited humility and caution in claiming authority

either in Sikh history, or in Sikh scriptures. Being aware of his

shortcomings, he established deep continuing contacts with leading

Sikh scholars15 like Bhai Kahn Singh, Professor Gurmukh Singh, Bhai

Ditt Singh in addition to intelligentsia and aristocracy of his times. He

studied a number of Indian and related languages in order to master

the linguistic complexities of the Guru Granth Sahib, among these he

mentions Sanskrit, Prakrit, Arabic, Persian, Turki, Marathi, Gujrati

and Punjabi in its various dialects.16

Although he extensively sought the help of Sikh clergy, he was

aware of the fact that there were not many people who understood

Shri Guru Granth Sahib. At the annual session of the Lahore Singh

Sabha in 1886 he said that :

"The Shri Guru Granth Sahib was matchless

as a Book of holy teachings, but to his regret,

there were not even 50 Sikhs in the whole of

Punjab who could interpret it."17

By 1890’s Macauliffe was widely known for his pro-Sikh views.

Even though in his initial writings he made liberal use of the writings

of his predecessors like Malcolm, Elephinstone, Wilson, Coleman,

Cunningham, Dr. Honigberger, Sir William Muir and even Trumpp yet

15 Harbans Lal. 'Max Arthur Macauliffe: The Western Gateway to Study of Sikhism'. in Studiesin Sikhism and Comparative Religion, Vol. XIV, Number-1, Guru Nanak Foundation, NewDelhi, Jan-June 1995, p. 44.

16 Harbans Singh (ed.), Encyclopedia of Sikhism, Vol. II, Punjabi University, Patiala, 2001, p. 1.17 Harbans Lal, 'Max Arthur Macauliffe', op.cit, p. 45.

65

he used his own knowledge in coming to conclusions. He had read

Rhys David, Monier William (a scholar of Sanskrit), John Staurt Mill,

Thucydides, Dante, Gibbon Socrates, Max Muller, Michael Scott,

Schilagintweit along with Dabiston–i-Mazahib, Siyar–ul-Muttakharin,

Sakhis, Bachitter Natak, Rahitnamas of Prahlad Rai and Nand Lal and

Panth Prakash of Ratan Singh Bhangu. The Indian works were read

by him in English which were translated by associations like Asiatic

Researches or individuals like Trumpp and Sir Attar Singh Bhadaur.

Macauliffe was very judicious in using different sources. He

took pains to read the sources of those writers that he himself was

consulting e.g. in his article, "The Rise of Amritsar", he read Captain

Troyer’s translation of Dabistan–i-Mazahib which was used by

Cunningham.18 He knew Sir Attar Singh Bhadaur from his translation

as well as personally. Sir Attar Singh was an elected member of

Anjuman –i- Punjab in 1869 and for his scholarly tastes and for his

work towards the cause of education, he was appointed a member of

the Senate of the Punjab University College, Lahore in 1870.

He was elected as a member of Asiatic Society of Bengal in 1869

and in 1880, he become vice-president of Anjuman-i-Punjab with Dr.

G.W. Leitner as its president. The British authorities often consulted

him on matters relating to Sikh affairs, faith and literature. A strong

loyalist and sympathiser, Attar Singh helped the British especially at

the time of the uprising of the Namdharis and maintained voluntary

18 M.A. Macauliffe, 'Rise of Amritsar and the Alteration of the Sikh Religion', op.cit. p. 254.

66

surveillance in keeping the Government informed about their

activities. He collected and translated Sau Sakhi an apocryphal text

used by Kukas as predictory of their own triumph and of Maharaja

Daleep Singh. For his loyal services he was admitted to knighthood in

1888. Macauliffe being translator of Sikh scriptures and being faithful

to British Government had good understanding with Sardar Attar

Singh Bhadaur. He also routinely attempted to clarify complex issues,

such as explaining the key junctures in the evolution of Sikhism by

drawing real or imagined parallels with western tradition.19 In the

words of Macauliffe,

"With all the earnestness of a Christian

teacher, Kabir inculcated a sincerity of

devotion as distinguished from lip service and

idle ceremonial."20

While comparing Sikh religion to be born out of Hindus,

Macauliffe says that it was like Islam being born out of Judaism. He

writes in his article, “Diwali at Amritsar” that :

"The manner in which Sikhism was

constructed out of contemporary Hindu and

Buddhistic beliefs supplemented by the

exaltation of the guru and the necessity of his

meditation may perhaps not inaptly be

compared to the process by which the

19 N.G. Barrier, 'Trumpp and Macauliffe: Western Students of Sikh History and Religion', in Dr.Fauja Singh (ed.), Historians and Historiography of the Sikhs, Oriental Publishers andDistributors, New Delhi, 1978, p. 174.

20. Macauliffe, 'Diwali at Amritsar', in Darshan Singh (ed.), Western Image of the Sikh Religion,National Book Organization, New Delhi, 1999, p. 23

67

prophet of Macca reared the fabric of Islam

out of Judaism, Christianity, and the

paganism of the Sabeans, crowning the

spiritual edifice by his own exaltation to the

dignity of God’s chosen prophet."

Macauliffe always had strong feelings for Sikh Religion and was

aware of corrosion of Sikh values as initiated by Guru Nanak upto

Guru Gobind Singh. In his very first writings on Sikhs he was aware

of this fact when he writes that original Sikh religion differs from

present religion as the religion of Vedas differed from that of the

Hindus of Manu.21

He always feared that Hindusim was going to finish Sikhism.

The use of boa-constrictor as a simile for Hinduism in his article, “The

Sikh Religion under Banda and its present Condition” very aptly

describes his attachment for Sikh religion which he nurtured till his

last breath. When, Macauliffe was posted at the city of Ferozepur as

Division Judge in 1892, he cultivated relationship with the local Sikhs

and in short time that he was there, he succeeded in gaining their

confidence.22

One of the eminent Sikhs of Ferozpur was Bhai Takht Singh

who was a student of Giani Ditt Singh and was a protagonist of female

education and social reforms. He spent whole of his life for the cause

of education of woman and founded Sikh Kanya Vidyala at Firozepur

21 Macauliffe, 'Diwali at Amritsar', op.cit, p. 4222 Harbans Lal, 'Max Arthur Macauliffe', op.cit. p. 45.

68

in 1892.23 Such was his zeal for Sikhism that he was called “Zinda

Shahid” (living Martyr) of Ferozpur.24 He was very active in converting

willing people into Sikhism and was closely related to Bhasour Singh

Sabha (1893) which was most radical and also to Lahore Khalsa

Diwan. The above mentioned developments about the emergence and

contribution of Sikh renaissance by the Singh Sabhas is further clear

from the efforts of the reformers to win over the concerns of the

Government of India. In an address presented by the Sikhs to the Earl

of Dufferin the Governor-General on the 16th November, 1888, occurs

the following passage :

“The translation made by Dr. Trumpp, who

was employed by the India Office for the

purpose is bristling with sentences altogether

wide of the meaning, so much so that one

regrets the useless labour and the large

amount of money spent in vain.25”

In February, 1890, The Echo reported that a “new English

translation of the sacred book of the Sikhs is now being written by Mr.

Macauliffe of the Bengal Civil Service. 26

By 1892, Macauliffe completely susbscribed to the view that

Trumpp's translation was anti-sikh and as such it had hurt the

23. Harjinder Singh Dilgeer, The Sikh Reference Book, The Sikh Educational Trust, Canada,1997, p. 628.

24 Harbans Singh, The Heritage of the Sikhs, Manohar Publishers and Distributors, New Delhi,1994, p. 214.

25 Macauliffe, 'Holy Writings of the Sikhs' op.cit.p. 316.26 See Nazer Singh, Guru Granth Over to the West, Commonwealth Publishers, New Delhi,

2005, p. 76.

69

sentiments of the Sikhs. On February 25, 1892, he told the Punjab

authorities that Trumpp’s translation might be of some help to “the

English students of the Sikh religion, but I am obliged to join the

Sikhs in their unanimors condemnation of the translation". He further

said that he desired to put his researches into the religion of the Sikhs

into some tangible form before his departure to Europe. More over, he

confessed that the translation of the whole Granth would not be

possible. Macauliffe further disclosed that he had already collected

material on the lives of the Bhagats from Alwar, Jaipur and Banaras

and in this work he had been helped by Gyani Tara Singh of Patiala.

Obviously, Macauliffe in Ferozpur was looking for an opportunity. It is

evident from the fact that in his February 25, 1892 letter he expected

his research to be of some use to the Patiala Chief who was getting the

Guru Granth translated into Punjabi.27 In anticipation of any

objection to himself as a translator of the Sikh sacred writings, he

wrote as follows in Feb 1892 to the Punjab Government :

"My own views on religious matter being

absolutely unsectarian, I would aim at

producing a book acceptable to the Sikhs

themselves. I hold no brief from any religious

denomination, and would describe the Sikh

religion as it is without the introduction of

any opinions or comments of my own."28

27 Nazer Singh, Guru Granth Over to the West, op.cit., p. 74.28 Macauliffe, 'Holy Writings of the Sikhs', p. 320.

70

At the same time, In Feb, 1892, he saught Government's

permission to go on leave partly to complete and publish his work on

the Sikhs. On March 14, the Punjab Government informed him that

his request could not be granted. In protest, he went on a furlough to

Europe. The Furlough was to end in May, 189329

Till this time Macauliffe was promised by the Khalsa Diwan of

Lahore to collect funds for him. Raja Bikram Singh of Faridkot

assured him of his salary for six months when he went to Faridkot to

meet the Raja. Other Sikh rulers also promised to provide him

financial help. Raja Hira Singh of Nabha, Maharaja Rajinder Singh of

Patiala, Raja Ranbir Singh of Jind, Tikka Ripudaman Singh of Nabha,

Sardar Ranjit Singh of Chachhrauli and the Gaekwar of Baroda were

among those who helped him financially, but this help as a whole was

not enough. During first six years of his work, he had incurred a debt

of Rs. 35,000. This included salaries of those gyanis that were

employed by him. The total cost of this project was going to be in the

vicinity of Rs. 200,000. Macauliffe fully realized that rendering of Sikh

scriptures into English and writing a history of Sikhism was a task

that could not be done with his responsibilities of a full time

Government administrator. Yet, he could not afford to abandon his

employment. He had already lost a large fortune in commercial

investments30 Macauliffe had actually suffered huge losses by the

failure of Joint stock companies.

29 Nazer Singh, Guru Granth Over to the West, op.cit.,p. 76.30 Harbans Lal, 'Max Arthur Macauliffe' op.cit. p. 45.

71

But before Macauliffe’s furlough could end in May, 1893, he

received a letter on 3rd May, 1893 from Singh Sabha of Ferozpur with

whom he was very closely related. In the letter, it was stated: “The

translation by Dr Trumpp is not reliable, and we regret to see that

Government’s spending many thousands on it produced no

satisfactory result.31” On May 4, 1893, he got another letter form

Professor Gurmukh Singh, as Secretary of Khalsa Diwan, Lahore in

which it was written that how Ferozpur Singh Sabha wanted

Macauliffe to act as the translator of Guru Granth Sahib. In his

article “The Holy writing of the Sikhs” which was read by Macauliffe

before the Aryan Section of the Congress of Orientalists in Paris, 1897,

and which was later published in April, July and October number of

the Asiatic Quarterly Review for 1898, he writes:

"The total result appears to be that Dr.

Trumpp’s translation is rather detrimental

than advantageous to the religion of the

Sikhs".

He further writes that :

"The Khalsa Diwan knowing this, and also

knowing that I had been studying the sacred

books of the Sikhs for a long time, sent me,

before my return to duty from my last

furlough, two written requests to complete my

translation of their sacred writings, and I was

31 Macauliffe, 'Holy writing of the Sikhs', op.cit. p. 316.

72

promised compensation for retirement from

the public service, and for the expenses

attending my reasearches and the publication

of my work."

Macauliffe had a personal meeting with the Secretary of the

Diwan i.e. Professor Gurmukh Singh who assured him that the

Diwan would work for him in the same manner as it had undertaken

the Khalsa College Project. The Foundation of this college in 1892 was

the result of very hard work and liberal contribution of elite and full

cooperation in this educational enterprise was provided by the British

Government. Macauliffe was made to belief that Government's ‘aid’

and sanction would be secured within one or two months.32 The

assurances thus, received made him resigned his prestigious post in

1893, at the age of 51 and in his own words "for several years I have

worked almost unremittingly at the task the Sikhs assigned me.” 33

Macauliffe after leaving his job, moved to Amritsar into a hired

bungalow at 2 Cantonment Road to avail of the material and talent

available at the centre of Sikh Studies. He remained there for three

years and like a true scholar, he submitted his each line to native

criticism. In the preface of The Sikh Religion, page ix that :

"Most translators, when they have completed

their renderings, proceed to publish without

subjecting their work to native criticism. On

32 National Archives of India, No. 183, June, 1898 in Proceedings Home- Public.33 Macauliffe ,'The Holy writing of the Sikhs', op.cit. p. 317

73

this account there are few, if any translations

of Oriental works made in Europe, even by

the most eminent scholars. Which are

accepted by the learned natives of the East. I

resolved that mine should be an exception

and accordingly submitted every line of my

work to the most searching criticism of

learned Sikhs. This was done either by rough

printed proofs or typed copies. I also

published invitations in Sikh newspapers to

all it might concern to visit me, inspect and if

necessary correct my translation. This

entailed a voluminous correspondence which

occupied a great amount of time, and

inconveniently protracted my residence in

India."34

Bhagat Lakshman Singh in his auto biography writes that it

was the practice with Macauliffe to send printed proofs of his

translation of the Sikh scriptures to select Sikhs residing in different

parts of the province with a request for their opinion and critical

suggestions. One such proof was received by him. Its criticism was

appreciated by Macauliffe who asked him to translate Japji Sahib

which was done by Bhagat Balmokand brother of Bhagat Lakshman

Singh with the assistance of a highly learned Udasi Sadhu of their

City (Rawalpindi). On the receipt of translation Macauliffe sent an

34 M.A. Macauliffe, The Sikh Religion, S. Chand and Co., New Delhi, 1963, Preface ix.

74

invitation for the Bhagat Lakshman Singh.35 Bhagat Lakshman was

amazed at the gathering of most learned Gyanis (Sikh divines) of the

time at Macaulifffe’s house; for instance Gyani Sardul Singh, Bhai

Hazara Singh (father of Sardar Aya Singh who was an Extra Assistant

Commissioner), both of Amritsar, Sant Hazara Singh of Gujrat,

Mahant Prem Singh of Sialkot, Gyani Badan Singh of Faridkot and

three or four more Sikh divines. To this council each and every line

was submitted and it was only after receiving their criticism that he

adopted it. It took Bhagat Lakshman Singh full one month to attend

these sittings. The amount of labour and expense may be judged from

the fact that all scriptural texts were similarly dealt with. He was paid

one month salary plus his railway fare from Rawalpindi and back.36

Bhagat Lakshman Singh knew that he must have incurred

similar expense on most of the learned men he sent for and consulted.

His sacrifice and consecration of a whole life to the service of Sikhs

and Sikhism filled Bhagat Lakshman Singh with great admiration of

Macauliffe.37

Macauliffe frequently visited and lived in Nabha, and spent

summers in Mussoorie and Dehradun. He also undertook to master

the linguistic skills needed to understand Sikh scriptures. As Nazer

Singh maintains that both in 1896 and 1897, Macauliffe, tried to seek

35 Ganda Singh (ed.), Bhagat Lakshman Singh- Autobiography, Calcutta, 1965, p. 122.36 Ibid., p. 122.37 Ibid., p. 123

75

Punjab Government's patronage for his work but it was in vain.

Between January 1897 and March 1898, he thrice wrote to the Chief

Secretary of Punjab Government for this purpose. Each time he

assured that he would not produce any thing not acceptable to the

Sikhs. He frankly admitted that no help would come his way unless

the Government took the lead in this direction. Macauliffe narrated

how the chiefs of Patiala and Nabha had turned their back to his

scheme. Gurumukh Singh had turned to be an opponent to him. In

December 1897, Macauliffe issued a circular letter to the Sikhs. He

informed that (1) he had incurred a debt of Rs. 35,000 on account of

his researches, (2) spent his considerable time in old age and (3) the

work was voluminous as he wanted to supplement his translation

with the life sketch of Guru Gobind Singh and the other Bhagats. In

his “Holy writings of the Sikhs he wrote that :

"It apparently only now remains for the

Indian Government to signify its approval of

my labor and I am in hope that such approval

will be eventually accorded in order that the

Sikhs may be induced to adhere to their

promises to me, and that my work may be

published. Such is the power of the Indian

Government that, without its sanction or

recommendation, even independent chiefs

with plenary powers of administration feel it

76

unsafe to undertake anything however

praiseworthy in itself; and of this I hold

tangible proof in my possession."38

Factually speaking, in March, 1898 the Chief of Nabha did not

permit Bhai Khan Singh to join him. Also, Sunder Singh Majithia and

the Amritsar Singh Sabha were denied the services of Sardar Sadhu

Singh, a forest officer of Chamba State to assist a Sikh committee to

examine the new translation.

Bhagat Lakshman Singh in his autobiography writes that

Macauliffe had grievances against the Amritsar Sikhs against whom

he wrote a satire and even sent it to Bhagat Lakshman Singh to get it

published in Bhagat's newspaper. Though he was refused yet Bhagat

Lakshman agreed that Macauliffe's treatment was "indeed very

shabby." The reason he got to know was that the Amrisar Sikhs

wanted to bring out a translation of Sikh scriptures and they were

jealous of Mr. Macauliffe.39

In 1898, Macauliffe read his paper "The Holy Writings of the

Sikh" in the Congress of the Orientlists held in Paris. In this paper he

wrote about his own personal interest, the need for Sikh translation,

his motives as well as about the problems that he was facing. He

wrote about the circumstances which persuaded him to undertake the

translation project by the Sikhs themselves. Next he enumerated

38 M.A. Macauliffe , 'Holy Writings of the Sikhs', op.cit, p. 32.39. Ganda Singh (ed.), Bhagat Lakshman Singh-Autobiography, op.cit, p. 124.

77

various benefits for such an undertaking such as the political

advantage, use of translation to English speaking natives, British and

the intelligentsia, the shortage of traditional well read and true

religious preaches and teachers. Next, he wrote about rapidly altering

and diverging of vernacular literature with general language of the

Granth Sahib and also that there was no trustworthy translation

which was making people revert to superstition because of ignorance

of knowledge of their scriptures. Macauliffe said that he wanted to

refute several statements made by European writers which were

disparaging to the Gurus. He wanted to spread the teachings of

Sikhism throughout the world and stressed on the usefulness of his

work to the historians and Philogists. He hoped that his translation

would be useful for the British administrators to understand their

subjects in a better way and indirectly he was going to fulfill the task

which Trumpp could not do. He highlighted his own indispensability

to the work of translation by stating there were very few people who

knew English language and language of the Granth. Even he could do

so because of the help provided by some of the most learned men of

his times.

In February, 1898, Macauliffe was invited by the custodians of

the Darbar Sahib or Golden Temple and an Akhand Path was

performed for his success. Later he addressed a gathering from the

Akal Takhat and a proposal was made by Colonel Jawala Singh,

78

Superintendent of the Golden Temple to appoint a committee of

learned Sikhs to examine and revive his translation. The Sikh Chiefs

were invited to corporate this proposal was seconded by Bhai Basant

Singh editor of the Khalsa Gazette, Lahore. 40

But all this failed to convince the Punjab authorities (1892-

1898) which put Macauliffe on the defensive. He was in need of money

which was promised to him but it was not forthcoming. On April,

1898, the Punjab Secretary informed Macauliffe about his

Government's negative reply in providing help. Thwarted but

undaunted, Macauliffe got the Khalsa Diwan of Lahore to present an

address to Lord Curzon (1899-1905) the Viceroy and Governor

General of India on 5th April, 1899, to denounce the work of Trump. A

request was made to the Viceroy to have a correct translation of their

sacred scriptures into English and that Macauliffe be commissioned to

prepare the translation which could remove the stigma levied by Dr.

Trumpp.41

Nothing much transpired in terms of financial help either by

Government or by Rulers of Nabha and Patiala of lakhs of rupees as

promised to him. Small grants kept him alive and covered incidentals

but there were inadequate.

40. M.A. Macauliffe, 'Holy Writings of the Sikhs', op.cit., p. 321.41. Madanjit Kaur, 'A Documentary Evidence of the Sikh Reaction at Trumpps Translation of the

Adi Granth in Punjab History Conference Proceedings, 1980, 14th Session March, 28-30,Punjab Historical Studies Dept., Punjabi University, Patiala, 1981, p. 223.

79

Unaware of growing discontent at his tactics, Macauliffe

showered the Government with more documents and requests. The

translation according to N.G. Barrier in the interim had grown into a

much larger compilation of religious writings as well as lives of Gurus

and other Sikhs.1

Macauliffe's approach was fraught with great difficulties. He had

to retain a number of Gianis' who communicated with Macauliffe in

various Punjabi dialects. From 1901 to 1903, his proofs were read by

Bhai Kahn Singh, Diwan Lila Ram, Bhai Dayal, Bhai Hazara Singh,

Bhai Sardul Singh, Bhai Ditt Singh, Bhagat Lakshman Singh and

others.2

The work on The Sikh Religion continued even after innumerable

difficulties through the first decade of twentieth century. In 1907,

Macauliffe left for England and he was accompanied by Bhai Kahn

Singh Nabha. He remained in England for two years to assist

Macauliffe in the correction of The Sikh Religion and also help him in

the printing work. Bhai Kahn Singh Nabha wrote in detail about these

two years i.e. 1907 till 1909 in his letters to his family members.

These letters were published by Bhai Kahn Singh Nabha's daughter-

in-law Rashpal Kaur who edited these under the title "GkJh ekBQ f;zx BkGk

d/ ngqekfPs ;|oBkw/@ in 1983. From Bhai Kahn Singh's writings it

1. N.G. Barrier, 'Trumpp and Macauliffe: Western Students of Sikh History and Religion', op.cit,p. 174.

2. Harbans Singh, Encyclopeadia of Sikhism, Vol. II, p. 4.

80

becomes very clear that Macauliffe worked very hard to get the

printing done. Macauliffe was so much engrossed in his work that he

did not write any letters to his friends.3

Macauliffe was not keeping well and by September 1907, he

wanted to return to India before the close of October because he could

not bear the extreme chill of London4. Here Macauliffe disclosed about

his lineage that how some thousand years ago, Macauliffe's one of the

ancestors was a great pirate of the sea. During those days pirate of the

sea were very famous and daring.5 By October 1907, Macauliffe had to

postpone his journey by sea as he had still important work to do in

London. By December, Macauliffe was in favour of first going to

Calcutta and then to meet the Maharaja of Nabha. He thought that it

would not be right to directly reach Nabha along with Bhai Kahn

Singh. In December 1907, Macauliffe left for India. From Bombay sea

port he went towards the South and then reached Calcutta from

where he came to Nabha.

In 1908, Macauliffe again left for London in July accompanied

by Bhai Kahn Singh Nabha. On 18th July, 1908, a great tragedy was

averted on the ship when Macauliffe went inside his cabin only to find

that it was on fire due to an electric wire. He shouted and called for

help. The ship's officers came immediately and extinguished the fire.

3 Rashpal Kaur (ed.), GkJh ekBQ f;zx BkGk d/ ngqekfPs ;caoBkw/, Vrijesh Prakashan, VrijeshBhawan, Nabha, 1983, p. 80.

4 Ibid., p. 95.5. Ibid., p. 99.

81

Had Macauliffe got late by five minutes his whole printing material

could have been burned. Macauliffe told Bhai Kahn Singh Nabha that

the work of his lifetime's hardwork and passion was saved only

because of grace of God.47 On reaching London on 31st July, 1908,

Macauliffe got busy with his work and spent all his time reading

proofs of his magnum opus.48 But old age was catching up. He could

not tolerate cold and always used to keep fire place burning and used

to shut all the windows. This was resented by Bhai Kahn Singh Nabha

who was used to fresh air and felt suffocated yet he compromised with

Macauliffe due to latter's old age.49

Macauliffe wanted to go to his home in Ireland but hard to

postpone his trip because of busy and hard work of printing. In 1909

he again reached India with his work.

Thus, after years of strenuous efforts and at the had cost of

great expenses, Macauliffe had succeeded in finishing the voluminous

manuscript by 1908 and made arrangements for its publication.50

The Sikh Religion was published for the first time by Oxford

University at Clarendon Press in 1909 in six volumes. Macauliffe's

hard work of two decades was ultimately ready but it did not brought

happiness to Macauliffe rather his experiences with Sikh leaders and

rulers had left him broken. They refused to acknowledge his work

47. Rashpal Kaur, op.cit., p. 135.48. Ibid., p. 140.49. Ibid., p. 153.50. N.G. Barrier, 'Trumpp and Macauliffe: Western Students of Sikh History and Religion, op.cit.,

p. 179.

82

because the Punjab Government had refused to support him. The

Punjab Government and the Government of India refused to sanction

the work and the latter's offer of a contribution of small sum of Rs.

5000/- was indignantly rejected as "paltry in the extreme". Sikhs were

abound in their praises but fearing the loss of Government patronage

the wealthy amongst them held back from financial donations.51

In 1911, The Sikh Educational Conference presided over by Sir

Sunder Singh in Rawalpindi even rejected to sponsor a resolution

commending his work. Macauliffe sat in the evening a dejected men

eating alone in his hotel room in Rawalpindi cantonment. He had been

rejected by the people whom he had given his lifeblood and he would

not dine in the hall with the Britishers who shunned his company for

having "turned a Sikh".52 Macauliffe went back to London but kept on

writing to his friends like Bhagat Lakshman Singh. In 1912, he wrote

a letter to Bhagat Lakshman Singh about the highhandedness of

British official's and betrayal of faith by Sikh clergy, aristocracy,

leaders and intelligentsia.

To quote Dr. Gopal Singh, Macauliffe's work was attacked as too

sectarian and parochial meant to tear the Hindus from the Sikhs.

Others criticised it as being too traditional and couched in an archaic

language. Others maintained that it had invented or circulated

51. W.H. Mcleod, Exploring Sikhism, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 2000, p. 262.52. Harbans Lal, 'Max Arthur Macauliffe in the Journal “Studies in Sikhism and Comparative

Religion, p. 26.

83

unauthorized stories in order to inculcate loyalist tendencies among

the Sikhs towards the British Government. Mr. Macauliffe was initially

much lauded and boosted by Government as well as the Sikhs, but he

died as a broken-hearted man, forsaken at the hands of both.53 On

15th March, 1913, Macauliffe breathed his last with Japji Sahib on his

lips. Macauliffe was considered a Sikh by British Christians and as

such was refused a place in a cemetery. His beliefs and his faith in the

texts of Sikhism was a common knowledge. Ultimately, his last rites

were performed with great difficulties.

As is usually the case of greatness realized after the death of a

Great Personality, the Sikh Educational Conference on 18th March,

1913 at Ambala, passed a resolution appreciating the great services

rendered by Max Arthur Macauliffe to the cause of Sikh Religion.

Bhagat Lakshman Singh had to convince the Conference's President,

Diwan Bahadur Leela Ram Singh of Hyderabad (Sind) to pass a

resolution to raise a memorial in Macauliffe's honour. This led to the

appointment of a committee members with Bhagat Lakshman Singh

as Secretary without any opposition of the Amritsar leaders. But when

Bhagat Lakshman Singh appealed for funds to raise a suitable

memorial in the shape of a library he got only a small sum of Rs.

3245/- which were raised after three months of hard work. Bhagat

53. Gopal Singh, A History of the Sikhs People (1469-1988), World Book Center, New Delhi,1988, p. 621.

84

Lakshman Singh gave the money which after accumulation of interest

amounted to five thousand rupees, to Khalsa College, Amritsar.54 With

this money a "Macauliffe Memorial Gold Medal" was instituted to be

awarded each year to the best student in Sikh theology and history at

the Khalsa College, Amritsar.

The remarks of The Times, London, March 1, 1913 are most apt

to sum up Macauliffe's work that "Macauliffe had the satisfaction

denied to most men, of knowing before his death that he was leaving

behind a monument more enduring then Brass".55

54. Ganda Singh (ed.), Bhagat Lakshman Singh Autobiography, op.cit., pp. 125-126.55. Anurag Singh, 'Remembering Max Arthur Macauliffe', Abstracts of Sikh Studies, Jan-March

2000, Vol. II, Issue 1, p. 87.