CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW - a reservoir of Indian...
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CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
“All who have meditated on the art of governing mankind have been
convinced that the fate of empires depends on the education of youth”
- Aristotle
2.1 INTRODUCTION
There is a famous saying “Engineers drive the world”. Engineering
education is the backbone of any society. It is the quality of engineering
education that decides the quality of human resources in a country. As stated
by Bordia (2001) for the general public in the developing country like India,
any engineering degree is a passport to lifelong well being of an individual
and his family members. Hence, there is fierce competition among
engineering institutions, students and parents of students to get quality
students and quality institution respectively. As mentioned in the previous
chapter, the research reported in this thesis was initiated on observing the
applicability of six sigma in the improvement of educational service. These
developments in the application of six sigma in EEI, induced the author of
this thesis to review the literature in three angles.
Firstly, the literature was reviewed to study the development of
engineering education in India, the employability of fresh engineering
graduates and the problems associated with engineers. Secondly, various
quality improvement models like TQM, Six Sigma, Lean, ISO 9001and
Accreditation have been studied for their suitability in the quality
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improvement process of EEI. Finally, the literature was reviewed to study the
implementation of six sigma concept in the EEI as the quality improvement
strategy for improving the employability of the engineering graduates. The
details of all this work have been presented in this chapter.
2.2 LITERATURE REVIEW METHODOLOGY
The papers containing Six Sigma, engineering education, TQM,
Lean, FMEA, QFD and so on, in their titles, chapter headings, abstract and
key words were collected from Science direct (address: www.Scirus.com) and
the databases maintained by emeraldinsight (address: www.emerald
insight.com), Springer (address: www.Springer.com) and Interscience
(address: www.interscience.wiley.com) publishers. A few papers from
inderscience (address: www.inderscience.com), ASQ(address: www.asq.org),
EBSCO and Taylor & Francis publishers were also downloaded. The total
number of such papers collected was 147. The preliminary review of these
papers indicated that the following issues are dominantly addressed in those
papers. AICTE, NBA and the affiliating University, Anna University Chennai
websites have been viewed for collecting materials.
2.2.1. Search Terms
The following search-strings have been used for collecting the
journal articles from the above mentioned databases. They are
Six sigma + academia
Six sigma + higher education
DMAIC + higher education
DFSS + higher education
Service quality measurement + higher education
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Quality tools + higher education
Quality techniques + higher education
Quality assurance + higher education
Quality management + higher education
Quality technology + higher education
TQM + education
Lean + education
Accreditation + higher education
NBA + engineering education
NAAC + higher education
MBNQA + higher education
AQIP + higher education
ABET + higher education
Theory of constraints + higher education
Force field analysis + higher education
QFD + higher education
FMEA + higher education
Statistical tools and techniques + higher education
Regression analysis + higher education
Multiple regressions + higher education
Logistic regression + higher education
Chi Squared Independence test + higher education
Employee satisfaction + higher education
Customer satisfaction + higher education
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ANOVA + higher education
DOE + higher education
2.2.2 Search Techniques
The following techniques have been adopted for searching for the
articles. The articles having search-strings in their titles, the chapter headings,
abstract, and / or key words have been collected. In emerald insight database,
the articles were collected based on the search-string availability through all
except full text. In this search only peer reviewed journal papers have been
considered for further study with some exclusion. Editorials, news reports,
book reviews, view points, conference papers, proceedings, master and
doctoral dissertations, text books and unpublished papers were excluded in
this search. Some papers are not included as their accessibility is restricted.
Generally, the period of search is from the year 2000 to the year 2012. But
some of the important and relevant papers have been included even prior to
the year 2000.
2.2.3 List of Journals
As Six Sigma is a general quality improvement concept with the
possibility of being applied to many fields, it is spread over many articles.
The following journals have published at least one article related to Six
Sigma, engineering education or any other quality improvement models.
Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education
Benchmarking: An International Journal
Business Process Management Journal
European Journal of Engineering Education
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International Journal of Emerging Sciences
International Journal of Engineering Education
International Journal of Engineering Practical Education
International Journal of Lean Six Sigma
International Journal of Productivity And Performance
Management
International Journal of Productivity And Quality
Management
International Journal of Quality & Reliability Management
International Journal of Six Sigma And Competitive
Advantage
Journal of Industrial Technology
Lancaster University Management School (LUMS) Working
Paper
Managing Service Quality
Quality and Reliability Engineering International
Quality Approaches in Higher Education
Quality Assurance in Education
Quality in Higher Education
The Indian Journal of Technical Education
The TQM Magazine / The TQM Journal
Total Quality Management / Total Quality Management and
Business Excellence
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2.2.4 Search Limitations
Even though extensive researches have been reported, the list is not
an exhaustive one. There are some limitations experienced in this literature
such as the inaccessibility of some journal articles restricting the search and
time besides the cost constraints which are also a limiting factor.
2.3 ENGINEERING EDUCATION IN INDIA
This section reviews the trend in the engineering education of
India, employability of engineering graduates, how the industries look upon
the outgoing engineering graduates and the problems associated with them.
In general, all the technical institutions in India can be categorized
into four types (Figure 2.1). They are
1. Central Government Technical Institutions
2. State Government Engineering Colleges
3. Government Aided Private Engineering Colleges
4. Self-Financed Private Engineering Colleges
The following are the central government funded institutions. The
list is given below
Indian Institutes of Technology, IITs =15
Indian Institutes of Information Technology, IIIT = 8
Indian Institute of Sciences, IISc, Bangalore = 1
Indian Institutes of Management, IIMs = 8
National Institutes of Technology, NITs = 20
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National Institutes of Technical Teachers' Training &
Research, NITTTR = 4
Universities = Central Universities, State Universities, Open
Universities, Deemed Universities, Private Universities
Autonomous Colleges, Institutes of National Importance
Board of Technical Education (Every Indian state is having
one Board)
Statutory Councils of India =19 (AICTE is one among them)
Research Councils of India =13
Figure 2.1 Technical Educational Systems in India
2.3.1 Quality Improvement in EEI
Quality has become a competitive weapon in both the
manufacturing and service sectors for the past few decades (Mahapatra and
Khan 2007). The quality of service has to be continually improved to survive
in the present highly competitive environment (Natarajan et al 2011a,b;
TechnicalEducational
Systems in India
Central GovernmentFunded Institutions
State GovernmentFunded Institutions
Government AidedPrivate Engineering
colleges
Self-financedInstitutions
DeemedUniversities
Private Non-autonomousEngineering
Colleges
Private AutonomousEngg Colleges
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Nakhai and Neves 2009) and therefore educational service quality has also
become vital. The past two decades have witnessed many researches stating
the importance of the Educational Service quality. A few of these vital works
are illustrated in the following paragraphs.
Owlia and Aspinwall (1998a) have suggested a revised framework
for service quality dimensions which consists of 19 quality characteristics
grouped into four attributes namely academic resources, competence, attitude
and content. This frame work could be used for measuring and improving
educational service quality. Mahapatra and Khan (2007) have demonstrated an
EduQUAL model for the measurement of the quality of education in engineering
institutions. Tan and Kek (2004) have provided SERVQUAL model and
Satisfaction Grid analysis to find an immediate action requirement for
improvement. Quality is very much essential today for the institutions,
programmes and teaching for the following reasons as mentioned by Mishra
(2007).
Competition
Customer satisfaction
Maintaining standards
Accountability
Improving employee morale and motivation
Credibility, Prestige and Status, and
Image and Visibility
It is necessary to identify the stakeholders in an Educational
Institution to determine their needs and satisfy them. Many authors have
identified stakeholders for an EEI. The stakeholders of the EEIs are the
students, parents of students, faculty and staff, alumni, recruiters, Government
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and society (Mahapatra and Khan 2007; Owlia and Aspinwall 1998a; Jenicke
et al 2008; Quinn2009). Some of the authors have expressed the difficulty in
defining customers for an EEI. Students are the most obvious customers
(Quinn 2009, Jenicke et al 2008), but a few authors differ that students should
be classified as raw material for education process (Helms and Key 1994).
2.3.2 Growth of Engineering Education in India
The growth of engineering education before independence in 1947
in India was very slow. Due to efforts and initiatives taken by the Indian
Government through successive Five Year Plans and particularly due to
policy changes in the eighties to allow the participation of Private and
Voluntary Organizations in the setting up of Technical Institutions on self-
financing basis, the growth of Technical Education has been phenomenal.
Table 2.1 shows the growth of engineering institutions in India since the
academic year 2006 – 07. There were 1511 engineering institutions in India in
2006 -07. It grew to 3495 engineering colleges in India in the academic year
2012-13. The trends in the growth of engineering institutions have been
shown in Figure 2.1.
Along with the increase in number of institutions, the student
intakes have also been increased tremendously as shown in Table 2.2. The
total students intake in India in the year 2006 -07 was 550986 and it grew to
1761976 in the academic year 2012 -13. Figure 2.2 shows the trends in the
growth of students intake in engineering institutions in India since 2006 -07 to
2012 -13.
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Table 2.1 Growth of Engineering Educational Institutions (EEI) in
India since 2006 - 07
YearNumber of Engineering
Institutions
2006-07 1511
2007-08 1668
2008-09 2388
2009-10 2972
2010-11 3222
2011-12 3393
2012-13 3495
0
2000
40001511 1668 2388 2972 3222 3393 3495
Growth of EngineeringInstitutions
Figure 2.2 Growth of Engineering Educational Institutions in India since
2006 -07
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Table 2.2 Growth of Students Intake in Engineering Educational
Institutions (EEI) in India since 2006
Year Students Intake
2006-07 550986
2007-08 653290
2008-09 841018
2009-10 1071896
2010-11 1314594
2011-12 1485894
2012-13 1761976
0
500000
1000000
1500000
2000000
Growth of Students Intake
Figure 2.3 Growth of students intake in engineering institutions in
India since 2006- 07
Source: All India Council for Technical Education (AICTE), New Delhi,
India - Approval Process Handbook (2013 -2014)
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2.3.3 Employability of Engineering Graduates
Employability means that the graduates should have the following
skills. They should have knowledge in mathematics, science and engineering
subjects besides application of modern tools, problem solving ability, system
design skill, experiment data analysis, written communication, verbal
communication, reading skills, communication in English, basic computer
skills, advanced computer skills, technical skills, customer service and
entrepreneurship skills. As per the report “ National Employability report –
Engineering graduates – Annual report 2011” conducted by Aspiring minds,
the employability of engineering graduates from Indian engineering
institutions is very alarming. Even though India is producing more than 17
lakh engineering graduates every year, only 17.45 % of them is employable in
IT service sector. Employability is as low as 2.68% in the IT product sector.The employability in BPO sector is 40.96%.
Further, it says that instead of increasing the quantity of
engineering institutions and engineering graduates, it is better to concentrate
on improving the quality of engineering graduates. Employment opportunities
are based on the world economy, country or regional economy, political and
governmental policies, technology development, industry requirement and
entrepreneurship skills present in the society but the employability of the
engineering graduates means the industry readiness of the graduates. As an
academician, every institution needs to improve the employability of the
engineering graduates in the immediate future but it is a long term goal.
Employment opportunities are not in the hands of engineering institutions
alone. Table 2.3 shows the employability of the engineering graduates in 2011
throughout India. This is only for Information Technology (IT) and
Information technology Enabled Services (ITES). Even though there is no
national level study on the employability in other engineering categories, it is
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well understood that only the top students have been selected for IT field.
Other students’ employability is still less than that of creamy students.
Table 2.3 Employability of Engineering graduates in IT and ITES in
India
Sector Employability %
IT Services 17.45%
IT Product 2.68%
KPO 9.22%
Hardware Networking 36.57%
BPO 40.69% Source: Aspiring Minds’ National Employability Report – Engineering Graduates, 2011
As per the report, the employability of the graduates coming out
from engineering colleges in Tamilnadu state is very low compared to other
states in India. It is as low as 10% in IT services, less than 2% in IT product,
less than 5% in KPO, less than 30% in hardware networking, and less than
35% in BPO. But in Tamilnadu alone more than 2 lakh engineering graduates
are coming out every year. Despite the fact that they have spent a huge
amount on tuition fees and other expenses, their employability is very low
compared to other states and so it is becoming a critical issue for engineering
colleges in Tamilnadu.
This research focuses on improving the employability of the
engineering graduates coming out from the self-financing private non-
autonomous engineering colleges affiliated to Anna University Chennai in
Tamilnadu by the application of quality improvement models especially six
sigma methodology in EEIs. Figure 2.4 depicts the arrangement of
engineering educational institutions in Tamilnadu, India.
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2.3.4 Arrangement of EEI in Tamilnadu
Figure 2.4 Engineering Educational Institutions in Tamilnadu
2.3.5 Measuring Quality in Engineering Education
Owlia and Aspinwall (1996,1998a) have proposed a final
framework consisting of 19 items grouped into four dimensions namely the
academic resources, competence, attitude and content for measuring the
service quality of the engineering education.
2.4 QUALITY ASSURANCE MODELS IN ENGINEERING
EDUCATION
Many quality improvement models like ISO 9001:2008, AICTE
NBA accreditation, TQM, Lean and Six Sigma have been reported in the
quality improvement of EEI. Quality tools like QFD, FMEA and Force field
analysis have also been used for improving education services. This section
presents the literature found in various journals. Table 2.5 presents various
authors dealing with different quality models.
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Table 2.4 List of Articles on Quality Models
Quality Models Authors
Lean + Six Sigma + HigherEducation Institutions (HEI)
Antony et al (2012),Antony ( 2008)
TQM+ Higher Education Quinn et al (2009), Sayeda et al (2010),Sakthivel et al (2005), Sakthivel (2007),Burli et al (2012), Hwarng and Teo (2001),Thakkaret al (2006), Ardi et al (2012)
QFD+ Higher Education Quinn et al (2009), Thakkar et al (2006),Hwarng and Teo ( 2001),Aytac and Deniz (2005)
ISO 9001:2008 + Higher Education Quinn et al (2009), Burli et al (2012)
Six Sigma + Higher education Quinn et al (2009),Prasad et al (2012),Antony (2008), Yu and Ueng ( 2011),Jenicke et al (2008), Sreenarayanan et al (2011),Ramasubramanian (2012), Chaudhuri et al(2011)
FMEA + Higher Education Kenchakkanavar and Joshi
Accreditation + Quality Assurance +Higher Education
Bordia ( 2001), Natarajan (2000),Patil and Codner (2007)
Accreditation + Quality Assurance +Engineering Education
Natarajan ( 2000)
Service Quality + Higher Education Quinn et al (2009), Chen et al (2006),Tan and Kek (2004)
Mahapatra and Khan (2007)
MBNQA Quinn et al (2009)
AQIP Quinn et al (2009)
Six Sigma + Service Quality Nakhai and Neves (2009),Hensley and Dobie(2005)
Virtual Learning Environment +Higher Education
Limniou and Smith (2010)
Quality Cost + Education Green (2007)
Literature Review + Six Sigma Goffnett (2004), Aboelmaged (2010),Thandapani et al (2012), Tjahjono et al (2010),Hendry and Nonthaleerak (2005), Brady andAllen (2006), Sahu et al (2013), Natarajan et al(2011a,b), Karthi et al (2012), Chakrabarty andTan (2007)
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Thandapani et al (2012) have discussed various quality models like
ISO9001:2000, MBNQA, Deming Prize, European Quality Award, ABET in
engineering educational scenario. Sreenarayanan et al (2011) have identified
the dependent and independent variables involved in teaching learning
process and proposed six sigma organisation structures for technical
institutions. Jenicke et al (2008) have reviewed the six sigma in academia,
found out the possibility of implementing six sigma in academia, identified
challenges like difficulty in defining customers, difficulty in measuring
educational service quality, stressed the importance of commitment from top
management and employees as the role model by taking six sigma course, and
proposed a framework for applying six sigma in academia for the successful
implementation of six sigma in education
Sakthivel et al (2005) have proposed 5C’s TQM model. 5C’s are
Commitment of top management, course delivery, campus facilities,
Courtesy, and customer feed back and improvement. Students’ satisfaction
survey was conducted through questionnaire consisting of 5 quality
dimensions with 60 operating items. Survey was also conducted at ISO
certified and Non ISO institutions. He reports that the study has been
conducted in self financing engineering college for measuring students’
satisfaction
Ardi et al ( 2012) have developed a survey model with 7 quality
dimensions like faculty’s commitment, department’s commitment, course
delivery, campus facilities, courtesy, and feedback and improvement and with
40 operating variables. He has reported the implementation of TQM model in
Indonesian State University Engineering College for measuring students’
satisfaction.
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Patil and Codner (2007) discussed accreditation and assessment,
and the development of a global accreditation. Burli et al (2012) have
developed a survey questionnaire and analysed using SPSS software for
implementing TQM and ISO in the Engineering Institutions in India. He has
developed European Foundation for Quality management excellence model -
EFQM. Limniou and Smith (2010) studied virtual learning environments
(VLE), Teachers and students’ perception using questionnaire method and
used t-test analysis independent group in an engineering school in UK.
Chen et al (2006) developed Importance-Satisfaction(I-S) model
for studying employee’s satisfaction and degrees of importance in deciding
the improvement strategy in higher education. Chaudhuri et al (2011) have
done an assessment of engineering college in West Bengal, India. They have
calculated six sigma metric and yield analysis using a survey questionnaire
with 8 enablers and 75 drivers.
Mahapatra and Khan (2007) proposed EduQUAL model for the
measurement of educational quality in technical educations based on 43 items
reduced to 28 items under 5 dimensions using SERVQUAL model. This
model is developed for customer evaluation of service quality in technical
institutions. Four network models based on Back propagation algorithm is
analysed. QFD is used to prioritise improvement policies. Antony et al (2012)
discussed the challenges and barriers in the use of lean Six Sigma in HEI,
listed critical success factors, appropriate tools and techniques of LSS and
concluded that LSS can be implemented in HEI for improving effectiveness.
Bordia (2001) discussed funding, management, quality assurance
and problems in the accreditation of engineering colleges in developed and
developing countries. He studied the effect of privatization, and
commercialization. Natarajan (2000) discussed various accreditation models
like NBA, ABET, MBNQA for quality assurance of technical institutions.
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Sayeda et al (2010) applied TQM, identified the critical dimensions of TQM
applicable to EEI, developed a questionnaire instrument using identified
critical dimensions, and proposed a conceptual model. Prasad et al (2012)
used six sigma DMAIC approach to perform case study, business case,
problem statement, goal statement, SIPOC chart, Pareto diagram, C&E
diagram, FMEA used, SS organisation structure, project charter used in EEI
in India.
Quality assurance in engineering education is carried out by many
process models. They are
AICTE approval process
University affiliation process
ISO 9001:2008 QMS certification process
AICTE – NBA accreditation process
2.4.1 AICTE Approval Process
In India it is mandatory to get AICTE approval before starting an
engineering institution. During this approval process, the management has to
provide sufficient land, building, and financial sources for running the
institution successfully. A Trust, Society or Government can start an
institution. No individual is allowed to start an institution in India without a
trust or society. During this approval process, it is ensured that the
Management has sufficient land, building and other infrastructure and
financial support to run a college smoothly and efficiently. College
management has to assure the appointment of Principal, required number of
qualified faculty, lab facilities, class rooms, necessary equipments and other
infrastructure facilities. This process of approval by AICTE assures the
minimum quality of engineering education in India.
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2.4.2 University Affiliation Process
In India it is mandatory to get University affiliation after getting
AICTE approval while starting a new college or introducing a new course in
the already existing college. In the affiliation process, a college management
has to satisfy the affiliating University norms, regulations, and procedures in
terms of faculty strength, qualification of faculty, quality and quantity of lab
equipments and machinery, sufficient class rooms, tutorial rooms, and other
infrastructure facilities in accordance with syllabus and curriculum framed by
the University. The process of affiliation with University and AICTE
approval both together assure the quality of engineering education in India.
2.4.3 ISO 9001:2008 QMS Certification Process
ISO 9001 certification have been applied in many manufacturing
industries and service sector industries as quality assurance model. Most of
the engineering colleges in India would like to get ISO 9001:2008
certification for quality improvement in engineering education. The general
public is also aware of it and believes that ISO 9001:2008 certification assures
the quality of the engineering education. A few papers have reported the
application of ISO 9001 QMS in education (Bayo-Moriones et al (2011),
Garratt (2007), Kostagiolas and Kitsiou (2008), Balaque(2009), Balague and
Saarti (2009) and Karthi et al (2012). ISO 9001 certification has been
producing valuable results in the quality improvement process (Karthi et al
2012). A few of them are listed below
Higher customer satisfaction and improved loyalty
Improved market share
Competitive advantage
Increased profitability
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Reduced number of rework, rejections
Acting as status symbol
Though it has got many advantages, some of the major drawbacks
are also reported in the literatures. They are
It involves a huge amount of documentation
It requires significant additional resources like cost and time
It is viewed just as a documentation system and it may not
improve the standards
Management is willing to satisfy the audit team rather than
improving the quality of product or process
It is acquired only for status improvement and not for
improving quality.
In spite of several advantages and limitations of ISO 9001:2008
QMS, it is being implemented as quality assurance model in industries and
educational sectors.
2.4.4 Key Ingredients for Successful Implementation of ISO 9001
QMS
The success of ISO 9001:2008 QMS in engineering education
depends on some key ingredients. They are
Top management commitment
Employees( Faculty) cooperation and involvement
Customers(students) cooperation, involvement and dedication
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Infrastructure facilities like computers, lab equipments and so
on.
Infrastructure for teaching learning facility
2.4.5 AICTE – NBA Accreditation Process
National Board of Accreditation (NBA) was established in the year
1994 by AICTE. NBA is the only accreditation body authorised by the
Government of India to undertake accreditation of technical education
programmes in India. This has networked with international accreditation
bodies for up-gradation of quality assurance procedures. NBA evaluates
institution, department and activities. It assesses the exam results, research
input and output and placement record. Many engineering colleges in India
prefer to get NBA accreditation for the following benefits.
Only accredited institutions can get financial grant from
AICTE for the research programmes, modernisation of
laboratories and conduct of short term courses.
The students intake can be increased beyond certain limit only
after getting accreditation and
Accreditation gives an international recognition to institutions.
2.4.6 Key Ingredients for Successful Implementation of NBA
Accreditation Process
The success of the quality assurance models like NBA process inengineering education depends on some of the key ingredients. They are
Top management commitment, support, dedication is required
The involvement of Principal, Heads of the Departments,
Dean, and Directors is required
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Employees( Faculty) cooperation and involvement
Customers(students) cooperation, involvement and dedication
Infrastructure facilities like computers, lab equipments and so
on.
Infrastructure for teaching learning facility
NBA certification authorities’ involvement and straight
forwardness is essential.
2.5 SIX SIGMA IN SERVICE SECTOR
Six sigma is being implemented successfully in many service sector
industries namely healthcare, financial services, banking sector and utility
services as reported by Antony et al (2007). Hensley and Dobie (2005) have
suggested that for the successful implementation of six sigma in service
setting requires assessing the readiness of such organisations by identifying
experience with quality programs.
2.5.1 Overview of Six Sigma
The symbol “ ” is a Greek alphabet called sigma used to designate
the distribution spread (variation) about the mean (average) of any process or
procedure or product.
Six sigma is a metric that indicates how well a process is
performing. It is a relentless, ruthless pursuit of the reduction of variation in
all critical processes to achieve continuous and breakthrough improvement
through elimination of waste, rework, scrap, non-value added effort, defects
and opportunities for defects. The higher the sigma value, the better the
process. It measures the capability of the process to perform defect-free-work.
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Six sigma can be implemented in three levels (Ramasamy 2005)
viz: Business level, operational level and process level. Business level
improvements are carried out by senior level management persons. It took a
few years to implement SS at business level. Process level improvements are
done by Black Belts and at the operational level; improvements are carried
out through senior people.
2.5.2 Many Facets of Six Sigma
Six sigma is defined in many terms and meanings. The following
are the many facets of six sigma reported in various literatures.
In simple statistical terms it is used to
Eliminate defects
Eliminate the opportunity for defects
Eliminate waste, rework, scrap, non value added effort and
Process capability improvement
In Complex terms (As six sigma is a new way of doing business as
breakthrough strategy)
Vision
Metric (Standard of Measurement)
Benchmark
Philosophy
Method
Tools for
Customer improvement
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Break through improvement
Continuous Improvement
People involvement
Goals
Value
Symbol
2.5.3 Benefits of Six Sigma Implementation
Many authors (Antony 2007) have reported a lot of benefits of
implementing six sigma in organisations. Service organisations like Banking,
Healthcare, Accounting and finance, Public utilities, shipping and
transportation, Airline Industry, Insurance companies, Railways and
education institutions can have the following benefits by adopting six sigma.
They are
Cost reduction
Defect reduction
Productivity improvement
Customer satisfaction improvement
Increase in market share
Cycle time reduction
Cultural change
Product development
Better service
Improved efficiency
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Improved profitability
Improved capability in the process
Bottom line improvement
2.5.4 Goals of Six Sigma in Educational Institutions
It is but natural for an educational institution to be willing to
improve the pass percentage of the students in University examinations
because the result percentage will have influence on the institutions’
reputation, students’ admission and employability of students. So, the goal of
six sigma in an educational system for achieving academic excellence can be
as follows
Reduce defects: reducing number of failures of students.
i.e.,100 % pass percentage in each semester in all subjects
(i.e., first attempt pass of all students in all subjects)
Reduce variation. i.e., Class average mark for every subject
should be more than say 75% (i.e., improvement in average
mark)
Reduce the students absenteeism for University examinations
to target zero
Reduce the application for revaluation by reducing the failures
Improve customer( i.e., Students) satisfaction by first attempt
pass and high average mark
Improve end users satisfaction ( i.e., employers for students
satisfaction)
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2.5.5 Focus of Six Sigma
The focus of six sigma has been depicted in Figure 2.5. The process
input variables ‘Xs’ are independent variables. These variables are controlled
by the process and converted into the process output variables Y, which is a
dependent variable. This POV are the Voices of process (VOP) that are used
to satisfy the customer needs and expectations.
Figure 2.5 Focus of Six Sigma
Y = f(X1, X2, X3, X4, X5…)
X1 = Number of theory classes attended by students
X2 = Number of tutorial classes attended by students
X3 = Internal Assessment Marks
X4 = Number of times Faculty handled this subject (Faculty
experience in particular subject handling)
X5 = Knowledge, ability, skill level of students.
2.5.6 Six Sigma Methodologies
This project has applied DMAIC (Define, Measure, Analyze,
Improve, and Control) approach for process improvement as a six sigma
methodology. DMAIC approach has been used for improving the existing
Y
(VOP)
Customer Needs &Expectations
(VOC)
Process InputVariables (PIV)
Process OutputVariables (POV)
Critical To Satisfaction(CTS)
Xs
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product / process performance improvement. DMAIC methodology is a
rigorous and proven problem solving approach that includes both a set of
appropriate tools and a sequence of applying those tools for the remarkable
improvement of process. It is a data driven approach for improving processes
in a logical and methodical way. Its five phases – define, measure, analyze,
improve, control are designed to take a team through a process improvement
project from inception to completion.
Table 2.5 Six Sigma DMAIC phases and its activities
PHASES ACTIVITIES
DEFINE Define the problem: Identity several projects, select suitable project, setgoal and targets, identify COPQ, setup team, develop process maps,develop SIPOC diagram, use graphic techniques.
MEASURE Measure what we care about, develop measurement tools, standards andcollect data
ANALYZE Find root causes: cause & effect diagram, critical thinking, use statisticaltools such as scatter plots, hypothesis testing, ANOVA, regressionanalysis
IMPROVE Seek optimal solutions: Brainstorming, Benchmarking, Gemba analysis,cause & effect diagram
CONTROL Sustain improvements: implement the new initiative and put appropriatecontrol in place using control plan to give signal to variation andstandardised work
2.5.7 Key Ingredients of Successful Implementation of Six Sigma
A number of authors (Antony and Banuelas, 2002, Eckes, 2000,
Breyfogle et al 2001, Pande et al 2000, Henderson and Evans, 2000) have
enumerated the key ingredients for the successful implementation of six
sigma. The identification of the key ingredients can help the management for
developing an appropriate plan of action for the successful implementation of
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six sigma in their organisation. They have identified the following as the
ingredients for the successful implementation of six sigma.
Top management involvement , commitment and support
Six sigma organisation structure to define roles and
responsibilities of key position
Six sigma training and development of entire organisation
Applying appropriate tools and techniques for quality
improvement
Selection for projects for improvement
Linking six sigma to customers
Accountability
Empowerment , reward and cooperation
2.5.8 Six Sigma Tools and Techniques for Process Performance
Improvement
Six sigma is a systematic methodology applying appropriate tools
and techniques for solving a specific problem. As is it evolved from TQM
concept, it has many tools and techniques as in TQM methodology. A
numerous tools and techniques are being applied while carrying out six sigma
projects as reported by Chakrovorty (2009) and Natarajan et al (2011). Such
tools and techniques indicated in these papers are listed in Table 2.6.
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Table 2.6 Tools and techniques employed in six sigma
Affinity diagramKoning and Mast (2006), Antony (2006),Antony (2008b), Antony and Desai (2009),Aboelmaged (2010), Cook et al (2005)
Analytical hierarchy process Kumar et al (2007)ANOVA Kumar et al (2008)Balanced scorecard Antony and Desai (2009)Bar chart Koning and Mast (2006)Benchmarking Cheng (2008), Koning and Mast (2006), Antony
(2006), Antony et al (2007),Antony and Desai (2009)
Box plot Koning and Mast (2006)Brainstorming Antony et al (2007), Antony (2006),
Antony and Desai (2009), Aboelmaged (2010)Capability analysis Cook et al (2005), Raisinghani et al (2005),
Maleyeff and Kaminsky (2002)Cause and effect diagram Snee (2004), Banuelas and Antony (2003),
Kumar et al (2006), Taner et al (2007),Kumi and Morrow (2006), Cook et al (2005) andBasu (2004), Kumar et al (2008), Schroeder et al(2008)
Cause and effect matrix Koning and Mast (2006),Kumi and Morrow (2006), Banuelas et al (2005)
Check list Koning and Mast (2006),Kumi and Morrow (2006)
Control charts Koning and Mast (2006), Coronado and Antony(2002), Antony (2006), Raisinghani et al (2005),Antony and Desai (2009), Aboelmaged (2010),Maleyeff and Kaminsky (2002)
Correlation studies Coronado and Antony (2002), Antony (2006)Cost benefit analysis Antony et al (2007), Antony (2006)CTQ tree, tree diagram and CTQflow down
Koning and Mast (2006)
Data collection, plan and form sheet Koning and Mast (2006)Descriptive statistics Koning and Mast (2006)Design of Experiments Raisinghani et al (2005)
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Table 2.6 (Continued)
DoE Koning and Mast (2006), Goh and Xie (2004),Coronado and Antony (2002),Antony et al (2007), Thomas and Barton (2006),Cheng (2008), Antony (2008b),Antony and Desai (2009)
Five whys Koning and Mast (2006)Flow charts Antony and Desai (2009)FMEA Koning and Mast (2006), Henderson and Evans
(2000), Coronado and Antony (2002),Goh and Xie (2004), Cheng (2008),Antony (2008), Antony and Desai (2009),Kumi and Morrow (2006), Cook et al (2005),Schroeder et al (2008), Raisinghani et al (2005)and Banuelas and Antony (2003)
Gantt chart, schedule Koning and Mast (2006), Kumi and Morrow(2006)
Gap analysis Banuelas et al (2005)Histogram Koning and Mast (2006),
Antony and Desai (2009), Aboelmaged (2010)House keeping 5S practice/JIT Cheng (2008), Antony and Desai (2009)Hypothesis testing Coronado and Antony (2002), Antony (2006),
Antony and Desai (2009)Inter-relationship diagraph Koning and Mast (2006), Goh and Xie (2004)Kaizen Antony and Desai (2009)Kano model Antony et al (2007), Koning and Mast (2006),
Antony (2006)Lean Koning and Mast (2006), Kumi and Morrow
(2006), Comm and Mathaisel, (2005a), Command Mathaisel, (2005b), Doman, M.S., (2011).
Line chart/graphs Koning and Mast (2006)Measurement system analysis,Process control, Quality controlcharts
Raisinghani et al (2005)
Monto Carlo simulation Koch et al (2004)Pareto analysis Snee (2004), McAdam and Evans (2004),
Miles (2006), Banuelas and Antony (2003),Ehie and Sheu (2005), Pandey (2007), Cook et al(2005) and Banuelas et al (2005),Coronado and Antony (2002), Koning and Mast(2006), Antony et al.(2007), Antony and Desai(2009), Aboelmaged (2010)
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Table 2.6 (Continued)
PDCA (plan, do, check, act) Schroeder et al (2008), Antony and Desai (2009)Pie chart Koning and Mast (2006)Poka-yoke Antony et al (2007), Koning and Mast (2006),
Goh and Xie (2004), Coronado and Antony(2002), Antony and Desai (2009)
Process capability analysis Koning and Mast (2006), Antony et al (2007),Chen and Cheng (2007), Antony (2006),Antony and Desai (2009)
Process management Cheng (2008)Process map Banuelas and Antony (2003)Process mapping, flow chart, SIPOCmodel
Antony et al (2007), Henderson and Evan(2000), Koning and Mast (2006),Coronado and Antony (2002), Antony (2006),Antony and Desai (2009), Aboelmaged (2010)
Project selection matrix Kumar et al (2007)Project team charter Antony (2006), Antony and Desai (2009)QFD Goh and Xie (2004), Kumar et al (2007),
Coronado and Antony (2002), Antony et al(2007), Cheng (2008), Koning and Mast (2006),Antony (2008b), Antony (2006), Antony andDesai (2009), Aboelmaged (2010)
Quality circles Kumar et al (2008)Quality costing/cost of poor quality Kumar et al (2007), Coronado and Antony
(2002), Antony (2006), Antony and Desai (2009)Regression analysis Coronado and Antony (2002), Antony (2006),
Raisinghani et al (2005), Antony and Desai(2009), Kumar et al (2006), Akdag (2007)
Reliability engineering Koning and Mast (2006), Kumi and Morrow(2006)
Robust design Goh and Xie (2004), Koning and Mast (2006),Kumi and Morrow (2006)
Root cause analysis Antony et al (2007), Antony (2006),Aboelmaged (2010)
Run chart Antony et al (2007), Kumar et al (2007),Coronado and Antony (2002), Antony and Desai(2009), Aboelmaged (2010), Banuelas andAntony (2003), Snee (2004) and Kumar et al(2006)
Sampling Koning and Mast (2006)Scatter diagram Antony and Desai (2009)Service FMECA Antony (2006)
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Table 2.6 (Continued)
SERVQUAL Antony (2006), Aboelmaged (2010)Seven QC tools Antony (2008a)SIPOC Henderson and Evans (2000), Antony (2006),
Antony and Desai (2009), Aboelmaged (2010)SPC Antony et al (2007), Pinto et al (2008), Antony
(2006), Antony (2008b), Koning and Mast(2006), Kumi and Morrow (2006), Goh and Xie(2004), Aboelmaged (2010)
Statistical analysis Banuelas and Antony (2003), Henderson andEvans (2000)
Statistical process control Schroeder et al (2008), Cook et al (2005)Taguchi methods Antony (2008b), Coronado and Antony (2002),
Antony and Desai (2009)Theory of constraints Ingle and Roe (2001)Tolerance design Koning and Mast (2006), Kumi and Morrow
(2006)T-test, Chi-square test, Scatter plot Henderson and Evans (2000)Value analysis / value engineering Cheng (2008)Value stream map Koning and Mast (2006)Zero defects Kumar et al (2007)
2.6 APPLICATION OF SIX SIGMA IN EDUCATIONAL
SERVICE
Many authors have reported the success of Six Sigma
implementation in educational service improvement (Karthi et al 2012;
Ozcelik, 2010; Prasad et al 2012; Ramasubramanian 2012; Sreenarayanan et
al 2011). Chaudhuri et al (2011) have applied the Six Sigma metrics for the
Engineering college rankings in West Bengal, India. Six Sigma’s DMAIC
(Define, Measure, Analyse, Improve and Control) methodology (Singh and
Khanduja 2012; Karthi et al 2011a; Senthilkumar et al 2012) has been applied
for enhancing teaching effectiveness (Yu and Ueng 2011). A framework for
the application of Six Sigma in educational environment has been proposed
by Jenicke et al (2008). Antony (2008) have suggested that Six Sigma should
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be included in college curriculum as they are required to solve real world
problems and cases.
Many authors have contributed to the application of six sigma in
educational services. Maleyeff and Kaminsky (2002) have dealt with the
introduction of six sigma concept in teaching the introductory statistics
education in management schools. They have introduced the process thinking
approach to data analysis in teaching statistics. Little (2003) has dealt with the
application of six sigma techniques for improving the quality of e-learning.
He has cited the case of implementing six sigma concept in TATA
Interactive Systems (TIS), which is one of the largest teams for the design of
e-learning solutions belong to TATA group, India. Mitra (2004) has pointed
out that the students in business and engineering must learn statistics and six
sigma concepts to satisfy the need of today’s business and industry
requirements. He has also suggested the curriculum for the design of six
sigma course.
Cook et al (2005) described that a course has been introduced at the
Department of Statistics at Virginia Tech in order to give initial exposure to
six sigma methods. Montgomery et al (2005) have reported that six sigma
education has been introduced in Arizona State University.
2.7 APPLICATION OF LEAN IN EDUCATION
Lean concepts have been applied in education as reported by
Comm and Mathaisel,(2005a), Comm and Mathaisel, (2005b), Doman, M.S.,
(2011). Koning and Mast (2006), Kumi and Morrow (2006).
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2.8 APPLICATION OF TQM IN EDUCATION
The principles of Total Quality Management (TQM) have been
successfully adopted and applied in the field of higher education by
developed countries such as Japan, USA and UK. In India, especially like
Indian Institute of Technology and leading technical institutions are practicing
TQM philosophy. TQM has become the most important concept because the
quality of the student makes the difference between success and failure of any
institution. TQM has been used successfully in variety of organizations,
including manufacturing and service organizations. TQM was first applied in
industries. Colleges and universities have later gradually started applying
TQM principles. Some researchers have documented the experience of ISO
9001:2000 certification and TQM implementation in some higher educational
institutions.
TQM is for achieving excellence and TQM is for continuous quest for
excellence. TQM can be defined as a holistic management philosophy aimed
at continuous improvement in all functions of an organization to deliver
goods and services in line with customers’ needs or requirements.
Management Leadership is a key factor in the success of TQM in higher
education institutions (Tari, 2006). When top management is committed to
quality, adequate resources will be allocated to quality improvement efforts.
The learning environment that includes lecture rooms, laboratories, and social
space can become a surrogate indicator of the institution’s capacity to offer
service in an organized and professional manner.
Sahney et al (2004) explores that the quality of education is becoming
important, particularly so in higher education, where the quality of process is
the quality of output in the form of enlightened students who move out of the
system. Kaushik and Khanduja (2006) and Sarda et al (2006) have explained
the role of six-sigma in technical institutions for the continual improvement of
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the student results. Sakthivel et al., (2005) have concluded from the
perceptions of students’ that the ISO 9001:2000 certified engineering
institutions are moving towards the path of TQM offering better quality of
service than the non-ISO certified institutions.
2.9 QUALITY TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES APPLIED IN
EDUCATION
Few authors have applied some of the six sigma quality tools like
QFD, FMEA, TOC, Forced field analysis, Kano model and Importance-
satisfaction model for improving quality in education. Some of them have
been discussed in the following section.
2.9.1 Application of QFD
Quality Function Deployment (QFD) is a management technique
for translating customer requirements into product characteristics by using
House of Quality (HOQ). This technique was applied for the development of
curriculum of tyre technology (Aytac and Deniz 2005 ). Further, QFD can be
used to improve University educational activity at all levels said by Aytac and
Deniz (2005). Thakkar et al (2006) have identified technical requirement and
students’ requirement and constructed QFD model and implemented TQM.
They have used force field analysis tool in self financing technical institutions
in India.
Hwarng and Teo (2001) developed QFD for higher education for
implementing TQM. In their work voices of customers translated into
operations requirement by three phased service –based QFD for course
delivery design, course registration and research grant application. Owlia and
Aspinwal 1998a have applied QFD for the improvement of quality in
engineering education
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2.9.2 Application of FMEA
Failure Modes and Effect Analysis (FMEA) is one of the primary
quality tools being widely used in manufacturing and service sectors
(Ebenezer et al 2011). The recent works in literature arena have been evident
in showing the usage of FMEA as tool in Six Sigma (Karthi et al 2011b;
Aboelmaged 2010). The tool is utilised in the Analyse and Improve phases of
Six Sigma (Karthi et al 2011b). The complications in the usage of FMEA
have led to the emergence of the simplified version of FMEA by name “Total
Failure Modes and Effect Analysis” (TFMEA) (Devadasan et al 2003;
Sivakumar et al 2008). The application of TFMEA has been so far reported
in Tea industry, Foundry Industry and Knowledge Sharing (Ebenezer et al
2011; Krishnaraj and Mohanasundram 2012a,b and Sudhahar et al 2008;
Sivakumar et al 2008). Even though these research papers have perceived the
success stories of TFMEA, the usage of TFMEA as tool of Six Sigma in
engineering colleges is eluding in the literature arena. In order to fill this gap,
a research work has been reported in this thesis.
The application of TFMEA in Six Sigma in Engineering
Educational Institutions (EEIs) has been dealt with in this research. The
reason for having chosen EEI as the application area is that the literature has
witnessed quality as the hallmark of excellence in EEIs (Natarajan 2000).
Regulatory mechanisms from different parts of the world have also defined
the necessary standards of quality in EEI. Despite the availability of several
quality assurance models like ISO 9001:2008 and AICTE-NBA accreditation
in an Indian EEI, the quality of engineering graduates are decreasing because
of the poor infrastructure, diluted admission policy, liberal examination
system (Thandapani et al , 2010; Prasad et al 2012). The various stakeholders
have a direct impact on assuring the quality of engineering graduates. The
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potential failure modes from the perception of TFMEA are discussed in this
paper. Even though TFMEA could be used very well as a replacement for
FMEA, the usage of TFMEA in the Define phase of Six Sigma is reported in
this research thesis.
2.9.3 Forced Field Analysis
Force field analysis is a management technique developed by Kurt
Lewin, a pioneer in the field of social sciences, for diagnosing situations. It
will be useful when looking at the variables involved in planning and
implementing a change program and will undoubtedly be of use in team
building projects, when attempting to overcome resistance to change. Lewin
assumes that in any situation there are both driving and restraining forces that
influence any change that may occur.
Driving Forces
Driving forces are those forces affecting a situation that are pushing
in a particular direction; they tend to initiate a change and keep it going. In
terms of improving productivity in a work group, pressure from a supervisor,
incentive earnings, and competition may be examples of driving forces.
Restraining Forces
Restraining forces are forces acting to restrain or decrease the driving
forces. Apathy, hostility, and poor maintenance of equipment may be
examples of restraining forces against increased production. Equilibrium is
reached when the sum of the driving forces equals the sum of the restraining
forces and represents the present level of productivity.
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2.9.4 Importance –Satisfaction Model
Since the evaluation of customers’ satisfaction is so critical, it is
necessary to understand how industries assess customers’ satisfaction. The
proper aim of the customer satisfaction survey is that the company or
organization can take further improvement actions in order to raise the level
of customers’ satisfaction based on the analytic results of the survey.
Importance –Satisfaction model has been used to find the requirement of
customers.The four areas indicated in Fig. 2.6 construct Importance–
Satisfaction (I–S) model (Yang 2003). It is simple and practical for
management to make decisions on improvement. The focus is to find the
quality attributes or quality elements that are located in Area II.
Area I. Excellent area
It shows all the quality attributed in this area is those having higher
importance degree and higher satisfaction level.
Area II. To be improved area
This is the area where quality attributes have the higher importance
degree, but lower satisfaction level. The customer has a perceived
dissatisfaction on these attributes, which will also reduce the evaluation of
CSI. So the firms need to take improvement actions to better the performance
of these items.
Area III. Careless area
The quality attributes located in this area are those that are less
important and satisfactory to customers. The firms do not need to pay much
attention to these attributes, since customers pay less concern to these items.
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Figure 2.6 Importance –Satisfaction Model ( Source: Yang 2003)
Area IV. Surplus area
The quality attributes in this area are less important but more
satisfactory to customers. It means that customers have less concern for these
attributes, but the performances the firms provide can exceed customers’
expectations
2.10 APPLICATION OF TFMEA FOR QUALITY
IMPROVEMENT
Devadasan et al (2003) have developed a simplified model of
FMEA namely Total Failure Modes and Effect Analysis (TFMEA). This
TFMEA model has been developed to overcome the complicated Risk
Priority Number (RPN) calculation. Instead of RPN, a rating factor is used
that has a Likert-type scale ranging from 0 to 10. The TFMEA table makes
use of certain terminologies namely ‘Failure Mode’, ‘Cause of Failure’,
‘Effects of Failure’, ‘Present Control’, ‘Rating’, ‘Concerned
Satisfaction
HighLow
High
Mean
Mean
Low
Area IExcellent Area
Area IITo be Improved AreaArea III
Careless Area
Area IVSurplus Area
Importance
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Department/Process/Product’, ‘Remarks’ and ‘Approval’. TFMEA has been
so far applied in tea industry, foundry industry and knowledge sharing
(Sivakumar et al 2008; Ebenezer et al 2011; Krishnaraj and Mohanasundram
2012a,b). In this research, TFMEA has been identified as a suitable model for
improving the quality of the service in engineering colleges as a Six Sigma
methodology tool. Considering the above conducted literature review, this
research has further applied TFMEA as a tool of Six Sigma methodology,
TFMEA model for engineering colleges and application of TFMEA as tool in
Six Sigma methodology for the research area of EEIs.
2.11 CONCLUSION
Among many quality improvement models and methodologies
studied, six sigma implementation in education service quality improvement
is found to be a good methodology. The literature review revealed that six
sigma methodology can very well be implemented in EEI. Moreover, TQM is
fundamental for six sigma quality. Total Quality Management is one of the
core engineering subjects for all branches of study in every engineering
educational institute in Tamilnadu, India. Every student is studying this core
paper in their 7th or 8th semester. Every fresh engineering faculty has studied
this subject in their UG course.
They also have studied statistics, probability, and probability
distributions in their undergraduate course. As many management of EEI in
India are keen in implementing ISO 9001:2008 QMS, AICTE –NBA
accreditation process, faculty in these institutions have adequate knowledge in
implementing these concepts. In some institutions they use TQM, six sigma
and lean tools for the quality improvement. In TQM subject , they study
about, seven basic quality tools, new seven management tools, Juran Trilogy,
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PDSA cycle, Continuous process improvement models, FMEA, QFD, quality
loss function concepts, ISO 9001 QMS, ISO 14000 EMS, six sigma, DOE and
so on. Many institutions are practising ISO 9001 QMS system, AICTE –NBA
accreditation process and so on. The above said factors make the
implementation of six sigma in engineering education very much suitable and
easy to adopt. Even though every one knows about quality, very little effort is
taken to implement what they have studied in their UG course. This research
is aiming at utilizing the knowledge they have gained in UG studies for the
betterment of quality in education.
No research has been reported so far on the application of six sigma
in engineering educational institutions as a break through quality
improvement methodology for the whole institution. Even though six sigma is
a project specific approach, it could be applied very well in engineering
educational institutions as a whole. The systematic literature review reveals
that very few authors have published articles mentioning six sigma
implementation in engineering colleges. Only in very few areas like library
system improvement, assessment of engineering colleges and evaluation of
teaching effectiveness, papers have been published. Based on the literature
review, the following projects have been identified for improvement of
quality in non-autonomous self financing private engineering colleges in
India. They are faculty recruitment, training and development, students’
attendance improvement, internal assessment mark improvement, academic
performance improvement in university examinations and employability
improvement.