Chapter 2The Middle Ages and the Renaissance, c.500-1500

Alister E. McGrathHistorical Theology:

An Introduction to the History of Christian Thought

On defining the “Middle Ages”

Specific to western EuropeEarlier renewalsExpansion of IslamBy the 11th century, three centers:◦ Byzantium (Constantinople)◦Western Europe (Rome, Paris)◦ The Caliphate (eastern and southern Mediterranean)

Split between the eastern and western church (1054)◦Medieval theology◦ Byzantine theology

Medieval theological landmarks in western Europe

The Carolingian renaissance◦Charlemagne, Holy Roman Emperor (742-814)◦Alcuin (735-804)

The rise of monastic and cathedral schools of theology◦The “Rule of Benedict”◦The cathedral of Chartres◦Women writers

Hildegard of Bingen (1098-1179) Catherine of Siena (1347-80) Julian of Norwich (c.1342-c.1415) Mechthild of Magdeburg (c.1210?-c.1282)

The religious orders and their “schools of theology”◦The Cistercians (founded 1097)◦The Franciscans (Francis of Assisi, c.1181-1226)◦The Dominicans (Dominic de Guzman, 1170-

1221)◦The Augustinians

The founding of the universities◦Collège de la Sorbonne, University of Paris

Peter Lombard’s Four Books of the Sentences ◦Quotations from Augustine

The rise of scholasticism◦ “cathedral of the mind” (Etienne Gilson)◦ rational justification and systematic presentation

of Christian beliefsThe Italian Renaissance (14th and 15th century)◦ Intellectual vacuum◦Visible reminders of antiquity◦Fall of Constantinople

The rise of humanism◦Ad fontes (back to the sources)

Medieval theological landmarks in Eastern Europe

The emergence of Byzantine theology◦Theology as the mind of the saints (Athanasius)

The iconoclastic controversy (752-842)◦Emperor Leo III (717-42)◦ John of Damascus

The hesychastic controversy◦Hesychasm ◦Gregory Palamas (c.1296-1359)

The fall of Constantinople (1453)

Key theologians John of Damascus (c.675-c.749)

◦ The Fountain of Wisdom Simeon the New Theologian (949-1022)

◦ Abbot of St. Mamas in Constantinople Anselm of Canterbury (c.1033-1109)

◦ Proslogion ◦ Cur Deus homo (“Why God became man”)

Thomas Aquinas (c.1225-74)◦ Summa contra Gentiles ◦ Summa Theologiae

Duns Scotus (c.1265-1308)◦ Voluntarism◦ Immaculate conception of Mary

William of Ockham (c.1285-1347)◦ Ockham’s razor

Erasmus of Rotterdam (c.1469-1536)◦ Enchiridion

Key theological developmentsThe consolidation of the patristic heritageThe exploration of the role of reason in

theology◦Anselm of Canterbury: faith seeking

understanding◦Rediscovery of Aristotle

The development of theological systemsThe development of sacramental theologyThe development of the theology of graceThe role of Mary in the scheme of salvation

Returning directly to the sources of Christian theology

The critique of the Vulgate translation of Scripture◦First printed Greek New Testament – Erasmus,

1516◦Translation errors in the Latin Vulgate

Marriage: a sacrament or a mystery Matthew 4:17: do penance or repent Mary: “full of grace” or “favored one”

Case study 2.1 Arguments for the existence of GodAnselm of Canterbury’s “ontological argument”◦ God as “that than which no greater thing can be thought”◦ If the idea of God exists in the human mind, the reality must

also exist◦ Gaunilo, “A Reply on Behalf of the Fool”

The “Five Ways” of Thomas Aquinas◦ God as the first cause of all change/motion◦ God as the original cause of all effects◦ God as the cause of contingent beings◦ God as the cause of human values and ideas about truth and

goodness◦ The teleological argument: God as the cause of natural

ordering and design

Case study 2.2 Understandings of the atonement

Christus Victor (“Christ the victor”)◦ Christ’s death as a random paid to the devil◦ Gregory the Great: the baited hook◦ The “harrowing of hell”

Anselm of Canterbury◦ The righteousness of God◦ The “God-man” (Jesus Christ)

Thomas Aquinas◦ Christ’s satisfaction on the cross > the offense committed by

humanityPeter Abelard◦ Christ’s incarnation and death as demonstrations of the love of

God

Case study 2.3 The theology of the sacraments

Augustine◦A sacrament is a sign which bears relation to the thing

signifiedHugh of St. Victor (d.1142)◦ Physical or material element◦A “kind of likeness”◦ Institution/authorization◦ Efficacy

Peter Lombard◦A “sign of the grace of God and a form of invisible grace”◦Baptism, confirmation, the eucharist, penance, extreme

unction, ordination, marriage

Case study 2.4 The interpretation of the Bible

Philo of Alexandria (c.30 BC-c.AD 45)Origen◦ the allegorical method

Antiochene school◦historical context

Quadriga (fourfold sense of Scripture)◦ Literal◦Allegorical◦Tropological (moral)◦Anagogical

Case study 2.5 Renaissance humanism and the Bible

The Latin VulgateHumanist contribution to the study of Scripture◦ The priority of Scripture over its commentators◦ The original languages (Hebrew and Greek) & tools

for study◦ Establishing the best text of Scripture◦ Experience mediated by the text◦A biblically literate laity◦ Translation errors in the Vulgate:

Matthew 4:17 “do penance” or “repent” Luke 1:28 “full of grace” or “one who has found favor”

Case study 2.6 Augustinianism and Pelagianism in late medieval theology

Nominalism via moderna ◦ Covenant between God and humanity◦ Justification and “doing your best”◦ Pelagianism? ◦ The king and the small lead coin

Schola Augustiniana moderna (modern Augustinian school)◦ Gregory of Rimini◦ Salvation initiated and completed by God◦ John Calvin (1509-64) and voluntarism

“apart from God’s good pleasure, Christ could not merit anything”