Chapter 19Chapter 19

Mental PracticeMental Practice

Concept: Mental practice can be effective for learning and relearning motor skills and for preparing to perform motor skills

Mental PracticeMental Practice

Definition:Definition: The cognitive rehearsal of a physical The cognitive rehearsal of a physical skill in the absence of overt physical skill in the absence of overt physical movementsmovements

–It can take the form of thinking about the cognitive It can take the form of thinking about the cognitive or procedural aspects of a motor skill, or or procedural aspects of a motor skill, or

–Engaging in visual or kinesthetic imagery of the Engaging in visual or kinesthetic imagery of the performance of a skill or part of a skillperformance of a skill or part of a skill

Imagery can be internal or externalImagery can be internal or external

Mental practice is distinct from “meditation”Mental practice is distinct from “meditation”

Roles for Mental PracticeRoles for Mental Practice

Research has investigated two distinct Research has investigated two distinct roles for mental practiceroles for mental practice

1.1. A practice strategy to aid the acquisition A practice strategy to aid the acquisition of motor skillsof motor skills

2.2. A means of preparing to perform a well-A means of preparing to perform a well-learned skilllearned skill

Mental Practice Aids Motor Skill Mental Practice Aids Motor Skill AcquisitionAcquisition

To determine the influence of mental practice To determine the influence of mental practice on skill learning, researchers have typically on skill learning, researchers have typically compared three practice conditions:compared three practice conditions:

–Physical practice only (PP)Physical practice only (PP)–Mental practice only (MP)Mental practice only (MP)–No practice (NP)No practice (NP)

What do results consistently show?What do results consistently show?–PP > MP > NPPP > MP > NP

What do results show if a group is added that What do results show if a group is added that receives a combination of equal trials of receives a combination of equal trials of physical and mental practice?physical and mental practice?

–Similar to PP only Similar to PP only

Mental Practice Aids Motor Skill Mental Practice Aids Motor Skill Acquisition, Acquisition, cont’dcont’d

Some examples of learning situations that Some examples of learning situations that research has shown benefit from mental research has shown benefit from mental practice:practice:

–Rehabilitative settingsRehabilitative settings–Power trainingPower training–Part of a general preparation strategy that Part of a general preparation strategy that

aids learningaids learning

Singer 5 step general learning strategy Singer 5 step general learning strategy that involves elements of mental practice that involves elements of mental practice in 3 stepsin 3 steps– 1. Get ready physically, mentally, emotionally1. Get ready physically, mentally, emotionally– 2. Mentally imaging performing action, visually 2. Mentally imaging performing action, visually

and kinesthetically.and kinesthetically.– 3. concentrate intensely on only 1 relevant 3. concentrate intensely on only 1 relevant

cue cue – 4. execute action4. execute action– 5. evaluate performance outcome5. evaluate performance outcome

Error

Control 5 – StepStrategy

Control 5 – StepStrategy

Ball throw practice Lawn dart transfer

Results of study by Lidor, Tennant, and Singer

Types of Imagery Related to Motor Types of Imagery Related to Motor Skill Performance PreparationSkill Performance Preparation

5 types of imagery that athletes use 5 types of imagery that athletes use to improve performance:to improve performance:1.1. Motivational – specificMotivational – specific2.2. Motivational – general masteryMotivational – general mastery3.3. Motivational – general arousalMotivational – general arousal4.4. Cognitive – specificCognitive – specific5.5. Cognitive – generalCognitive – general

See Table 19.1 for specific descriptions of each

Mental Practice Aids Mental Practice Aids Peformance PreparationPeformance Preparation

Imagery is the most common mental Imagery is the most common mental practice strategy for skilled athletes practice strategy for skilled athletes preparing to perform a skill preparing to perform a skill ((Martin et al. Martin et al. 19991999))

–Between competitive eventsBetween competitive events–Immediately prior to a during a competitive Immediately prior to a during a competitive

eventevent–Rehabilitating an injuryRehabilitating an injury

Why is Mental Practice Why is Mental Practice Effective?Effective?

No comprehensive theories that explain why No comprehensive theories that explain why mental practice in the form of imagery is effective mental practice in the form of imagery is effective (Martin et al., 1999)(Martin et al., 1999)

Three generally accepted hypotheses:Three generally accepted hypotheses:1.1.Neuromuscular hypothesis:Neuromuscular hypothesis: EMG recordings in EMG recordings in

muscles showing involvementmuscles showing involvement

2.2.Brain activity hypothesis:Brain activity hypothesis: Brain activity during imagery Brain activity during imagery similar to activity during physical performance of a skillsimilar to activity during physical performance of a skill

3.3.Cognitive hypothesis:Cognitive hypothesis: Helps learner answer “what to Helps learner answer “what to do” questions that are common during the initial stage of do” questions that are common during the initial stage of motor skill learningmotor skill learning

Why is Mental Practice Why is Mental Practice Effective?Effective?

No comprehensive theories that explain why No comprehensive theories that explain why mental practice in the form of imagery is effective mental practice in the form of imagery is effective (Martin et al., 1999)(Martin et al., 1999)

Three generally accepted hypotheses:Three generally accepted hypotheses:1.1.Neuromuscular hypothesis:Neuromuscular hypothesis: EMG recordings in EMG recordings in

muscles showing involvementmuscles showing involvement

2.2.Brain activity hypothesis:Brain activity hypothesis: Brain activity during imagery Brain activity during imagery similar to activity during physical performance of a skillsimilar to activity during physical performance of a skill

3.3.Cognitive hypothesis:Cognitive hypothesis: Helps learner answer “what to Helps learner answer “what to do” questions that are common during the initial stage of do” questions that are common during the initial stage of motor skill learningmotor skill learning

Imagery AbilityImagery Ability

Some people have great difficult imaging a Some people have great difficult imaging a described actiondescribed action

Research indicates that the effectiveness of Research indicates that the effectiveness of imagery is based on people’s ability to visually or imagery is based on people’s ability to visually or kinesthetically image physical movement kinesthetically image physical movement

–Imagery ability is an individual differences variableImagery ability is an individual differences variable

Hall and colleagues developed an imagery ability Hall and colleagues developed an imagery ability questionnaire to assess a person’s imagery abilityquestionnaire to assess a person’s imagery ability

–See example questions in A Closer LookSee example questions in A Closer Look

Research shows that people with low imagery Research shows that people with low imagery ability can still benefit from mental practiceability can still benefit from mental practice

Movement Imagery Questionnaire Movement Imagery Questionnaire (MIQ)(MIQ)

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Very Easy Somewhat Neutral Somewhat Hard Very

Easy Easy Hard Hard