Chapter 18The Eighteenth Century: European States,

International Wars, and Social Change

Europe in 1763

Europe in 1763

1. In the Dutch Republic local and national affairs were dominated by the municipal oligarchies. When the burghers (artisans, merchants, and shopkeepers) sought democratic reforms to open up the municipal councils, they were crushed with the aid of Prussian troops. The old order was preserved.

2. In Brandenburg-Prussia the army and the bureaucracy became the backbone of the king and government. In both instances, the nobility (Junkers) were utilized. The close bond between the nobility and the army translated into the military's loyalty to the monarchy.

3. Austria was a sprawling empire of different nationalities, languages, religions, and cultures. These made centralization very difficult. The loss of Silesia to Prussia in the War of Austrian Succession forced Empress Maria Theresa (1740-1780) to prepare for the inevitable conflict in the future. One way to strengthen the power of the state was to overhaul the administration and the armed forces. Begun during the war, it resulted in a more bureaucratic and centralized government as well as a strengthened army. The later reforms of Joseph II (1780-1790) which reflected Enlightenment ideas, sought to further strengthen his state.

4. The eighteenth century in Spain was one of reform as a new ruling family, the French Bourbons, was initiated by Philip V (1700-1746), though the War of the Spanish Succession had to be fought to confirm the king. New ideas brought revitalization to Spanish institutions. With the loss of the Italian territories and the Netherlands by the Treaty of Utrecht in the seventeenth century, the new Spanish Bourbons had fewer administrative problems and less drain on precious economic resources than their predecessors.

5. In Russia, Peter the Great was succeeded by a series of incompetent leaders. This changed when the German princess Catherine (1762-1796) succeeded her murdered husband Peter III in 1762. She may have wished to emulate Joseph II of Austria but Catherine knew that the rule of Russia was dependant on the nobility. In reorganizing government, she divided the state into fifty provinces which were further broken down into districts ruled by noblemen. In 1785 the privileges of the nobility were confirmed by the Charter of the Nobility. Catherine also gained considerable territory as a consequence of her war with the Turks (1769-1774) and the partitions of Poland (see Acetate 57, Map 18.2).

Question:1. In what manner were governments altered in the eighteenth century to address the need for more centralized power?

Europe in 1763

1. In the Dutch Republic local and national affairs were dominated by the municipal oligarchies. When the burghers (artisans, merchants, and shopkeepers) sought democratic reforms to open up the municipal councils, they were crushed with the aid of Prussian troops. The old order was preserved.

2. In Brandenburg-Prussia the army and the bureaucracy became the backbone of the king and government. In both instances, the nobility (Junkers) were utilized. The close bond between the nobility and the army translated into the military's loyalty to the monarchy.

3. Austria was a sprawling empire of different nationalities, languages, religions, and cultures. These made centralization very difficult. The loss of Silesia to Prussia in the War of Austrian Succession forced Empress Maria Theresa (1740-1780) to prepare for the inevitable conflict in the future. One way to strengthen the power of the state was to overhaul the administration and the armed forces. Begun during the war, it resulted in a more bureaucratic and centralized government as well as a strengthened army. The later reforms of Joseph II (1780-1790) which reflected Enlightenment ideas, sought to further strengthen his state.

4. The eighteenth century in Spain was one of reform as a new ruling family, the French Bourbons, was initiated by Philip V (1700-1746), though the War of the Spanish Succession had to be fought to confirm the king. New ideas brought revitalization to Spanish institutions. With the loss of the Italian territories and the Netherlands by the Treaty of Utrecht in the seventeenth century, the new Spanish Bourbons had fewer administrative problems and less drain on precious economic resources than their predecessors.

5. In Russia, Peter the Great was succeeded by a series of incompetent leaders. This changed when the German princess Catherine (1762-1796) succeeded her murdered husband Peter III in 1762. She may have wished to emulate Joseph II of Austria but Catherine knew that the rule of Russia was dependant on the nobility. In reorganizing government, she divided the state into fifty provinces which were further broken down into districts ruled by noblemen. In 1785 the privileges of the nobility were confirmed by the Charter of the Nobility. Catherine also gained considerable territory as a consequence of her war with the Turks (1769-1774) and the partitions of Poland (see Acetate 57, Map 18.2).

Question:1. In what manner were governments altered in the eighteenth century to address the need for more centralized power?

The European States Enlightened Absolutism?

Natural Rights Declaration of Independence Montesquieu, The Spirit of the Laws Rousseau and Voltaire

The Atlantic Seaboard States France: Louis XV, 1715-1774

1743 decides to rule alone Louis XVI, 1774-1792

Great Britain: King and Parliament United Kingdom of Great Britain, 1707 Ministers chosen by the king to make Policy and guide

Parliament Hanoverians – George I, 1714-1727 and George II,

1727-1760 Robert Walpole, 1721-1742, prime minister

John Wilkes Decline of the Dutch Republic

Absolutism in Central and Eastern Europe Prussia: Army and Bureaucracy

Frederick William I, 1713-1740 General Directory Bureaucracy Junkers Army

Frederick the Great, 1740-1786 Law code Maintains serfdom Expansion into Silesia

The Partitions of Poland

The Partitions of Poland

1. In Poland not only was the king kept weak by the nobles but the army was quite small. Such weakness invited trouble.

2. The partition of Poland between 1772 and 1795 was a result of the concerns of Frederick II (1740-1786), the Great, who feared the consequences of the Russian military victory against the Turks (see Acetate 53, Map 15.4) in 1769 which had resulted in significant gains in the Balkans. An apprehensive Austria made it known that it opposed further Russian expansion because it would upset the balance of power in the region. Frederick concurred and convinced Russia to take Polish territory instead. At the same time, Austria and Prussia took slices out of Poland. For Poland the loss represented thirty percent of its lands and half its population.

3. After the first partition, Russia exercised influence over Poland. Taking advantage of another Russian-Turkish conflict in 1788, Poland established a brief independence. When the war ended in 1792, Russia and Prussia took two more bites out of Poland.

4. In 1794-1795 a rebellion broke out in Poland against Russian interference. After the insurrection was crushed, Austria, Prussia, and Russia finished carving up Poland and its disappeared as a state.

Questions:1. Why would Austria and Prussia be concerned about the growing expansion of Russia?2. Why was Poland unable to stop its dismemberment?3. Which state was the real winner in the carving up of Poland?

The Partitions of Poland

1. In Poland not only was the king kept weak by the nobles but the army was quite small. Such weakness invited trouble.

2. The partition of Poland between 1772 and 1795 was a result of the concerns of Frederick II (1740-1786), the Great, who feared the consequences of the Russian military victory against the Turks (see Acetate 53, Map 15.4) in 1769 which had resulted in significant gains in the Balkans. An apprehensive Austria made it known that it opposed further Russian expansion because it would upset the balance of power in the region. Frederick concurred and convinced Russia to take Polish territory instead. At the same time, Austria and Prussia took slices out of Poland. For Poland the loss represented thirty percent of its lands and half its population.

3. After the first partition, Russia exercised influence over Poland. Taking advantage of another Russian-Turkish conflict in 1788, Poland established a brief independence. When the war ended in 1792, Russia and Prussia took two more bites out of Poland.

4. In 1794-1795 a rebellion broke out in Poland against Russian interference. After the insurrection was crushed, Austria, Prussia, and Russia finished carving up Poland and its disappeared as a state.

Questions:1. Why would Austria and Prussia be concerned about the growing expansion of Russia?2. Why was Poland unable to stop its dismemberment?3. Which state was the real winner in the carving up of Poland?

Austrian Empire of the Habsburgs Empress Maria Theresa, 1740-1780

Loss of Silesia in War of the Austrian Succession, 1740-1748

Shares throne with Joseph II, 1765-1780 Joseph II, 1780-1790

Reforms Russia Under Catherine the Great, 1762-1796

Reform – Instruction, 1767 Strengthens landholders at expense of serfs Rebellion of Emelyan Pugachev, 1773-1775 Territorial expansion

Destruction of Poland

The Mediterranean World Spain

Bourbon rule and reform Portugal Italy dominated by Austria

Scandinavian States Sweden Denmark

Enlightened Absolutism Revisited Rarity and brevity Reality

The Seven Years’ War

The Seven Years' War

1. Paralleling the growth of absolutist states was the expansion of armies and the willingness to use them. Between 1740 and 1780, the army of France grew from 190,000 to 300,000 men; Prussia from 83,000 to 200,000; Austria from 108,000 to 282,000; and Russia from 130,000 to 290,000.

2. There were three areas of conflict in the Seven Years' War: Europe, North America, and India. In Europe, Prussia and Britain faced Austria, France, and Russia. Although Prussia had early successes, it was gradually worn down and was saved only when Russia withdrew from the conflict in 1762 due to the accession of Peter III (1762) who admired Frederick the Great of Prussia and refused to fight him. The removal of Russia in conjunction with the loss of the will to fight by Austria and France assured a stalemate that eventually forced peace in 1763. Though Prussia had to relinquish some of the territory it had gained in the war, Austria recognized Prussia's retention of Silesia.

3. The American phase of the war, called the French and Indian War, witnessed British victories on the Great Lakes and the fall of Quebec in 1759 and Montreal the following year. As the key to French holdings in North America, Quebec's capture sealed the fate of French Canada. A year earlier, Ft. Duquesne fell giving the British control of the upper Ohio River. By 1762 the British also held the French sugar islands in the West Indies (except Saint Dominigue) and had captured Havana, Cuba, from France's ally Spain.

4. The war in India resulted in the defeat of the French by the British in 1757 and 1761. Nevertheless, the peace permitted the French to retain footholds at Pondicherry and Chandernagore. The British victory had the effect of forcing the French to refocus their eastern interests on Southeast Asia.

5. The Treaty of Paris in 1763 placed Canada and the French lands east of the Mississippi River in British hands. France's ally Spain also had to cede Florida to the British but in return Britain recognized the cession of France's Louisiana territory west of the Mississippi River to the Spanish.

6. The recognition of Prussian occupation of Silesia by the Treaty of Paris marked the continued growth of Brandenburg-Prussia since its creation as a single state in 1688. First seized in 1740, Silesia added to Prussia population, industry, and natural resources. Further expansion of Prussia came in 1772 when it acquired West Prussia. At the same time, Prussia joined Austria and Russia in carving up Poland (see Acetate 57, Map 18.2).

Questions:1. How was the Seven Years’ War a continuation of the War of Austrian Succession?2. For the future, what were the implications of the territorial settlements of the Treaty of Paris?

The Seven Years' War

1. Paralleling the growth of absolutist states was the expansion of armies and the willingness to use them. Between 1740 and 1780, the army of France grew from 190,000 to 300,000 men; Prussia from 83,000 to 200,000; Austria from 108,000 to 282,000; and Russia from 130,000 to 290,000.

2. There were three areas of conflict in the Seven Years' War: Europe, North America, and India. In Europe, Prussia and Britain faced Austria, France, and Russia. Although Prussia had early successes, it was gradually worn down and was saved only when Russia withdrew from the conflict in 1762 due to the accession of Peter III (1762) who admired Frederick the Great of Prussia and refused to fight him. The removal of Russia in conjunction with the loss of the will to fight by Austria and France assured a stalemate that eventually forced peace in 1763. Though Prussia had to relinquish some of the territory it had gained in the war, Austria recognized Prussia's retention of Silesia.

3. The American phase of the war, called the French and Indian War, witnessed British victories on the Great Lakes and the fall of Quebec in 1759 and Montreal the following year. As the key to French holdings in North America, Quebec's capture sealed the fate of French Canada. A year earlier, Ft. Duquesne fell giving the British control of the upper Ohio River. By 1762 the British also held the French sugar islands in the West Indies (except Saint Dominigue) and had captured Havana, Cuba, from France's ally Spain.

4. The war in India resulted in the defeat of the French by the British in 1757 and 1761. Nevertheless, the peace permitted the French to retain footholds at Pondicherry and Chandernagore. The British victory had the effect of forcing the French to refocus their eastern interests on Southeast Asia.

5. The Treaty of Paris in 1763 placed Canada and the French lands east of the Mississippi River in British hands. France's ally Spain also had to cede Florida to the British but in return Britain recognized the cession of France's Louisiana territory west of the Mississippi River to the Spanish.

6. The recognition of Prussian occupation of Silesia by the Treaty of Paris marked the continued growth of Brandenburg-Prussia since its creation as a single state in 1688. First seized in 1740, Silesia added to Prussia population, industry, and natural resources. Further expansion of Prussia came in 1772 when it acquired West Prussia. At the same time, Prussia joined Austria and Russia in carving up Poland (see Acetate 57, Map 18.2).

Questions:1. How was the Seven Years’ War a continuation of the War of Austrian Succession?2. For the future, what were the implications of the territorial settlements of the Treaty of Paris?

Wars and Diplomacy War of the Austrian Succession, 1740-1748

Vulnerability of Maria Theresa Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, 1748

Seven Years’ War, 1756-1763 Diplomatic Revolution European War Indian War North American War

William Pitt the Elder British victory

European Armies and Warfare Professional armies Class division in the armies Size of armies Use of tactics to preserve armies

Economic Expansion and Social Change Growth of the European Population

Falling death rate Improvements in diet Lack of hygiene Outbreaks of disease

Family, Marriage, and Birthrate Patterns Treatment of Children

Impact of Rousseau’s, Emile Infanticide Foundling institutions

Nuclear family Late marriages Family economy

Agricultural Revolution Increased land under cultivation Increased livestock Jethro Tull (1674-1741) Potato and maize Enclosure

New Methods of Finance and Industry National Banks National debt Investment in colonial trading companies Textile and cottage industry Mechanized production

Flying shuttle Richard Arkwright (1732-1792), “water frame” Mechanized looms, 1780s

Global Economy: Mercantile Empires and Worldwide Trade Colonial Empire

Portuguese and Spanish decline British and French growth British and French rivalry in the East

Global Trade Slavery and sugar factories

Social Order of the Eighteenth Century Peasants

Domination by wealthy landowners Obligations Village as center of culture Diet

The Nobility Military service Country house The Grand Tour

Educational purpose Inhabitants of Towns and Cities

Urban oligarchy Emergent middle class

Petty bourgeoisie Laborers Poverty